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Smuggling of Indian CitizensK. C. SahaPublished online: 17 Oct 2008.

To cite this article: K. C. Saha (2007) Smuggling of Indian Citizens, Journal of Immigrant & RefugeeStudies, 5:1, 55-69, DOI: 10.1300/J500v05n01_04

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Smuggling of Indian Citizens:Preliminary Findings

K. C. Saha

ABSTRACT. This study examines the smuggling of Indian citizens toother countries and aims at gaining an insight into the modus operandi ofthe smugglers. It is based on an empirical study of deportation cases ofIndian citizens from other countries.

About three-quarters of the deportees who accessed the services ofsmugglers belonged to the State of Punjab. Almost 80 per cent of the de-portees were young and in the age group of 18-30. About 28 per cent ofthe deportees succeeded in reaching their countries of destination withthe help of smugglers. Thus, the success rate of illegal migration with thehelp of smugglers is higher by more than quarter than without them.

Individual deportees had paid sums varying from US$ 2000 to US$10,000 to smugglers. No correlations have been observed between thecountries of destination and the amounts paid to smugglers.

The study has shown that smuggling of aliens is carried out by profes-sional organizations with links in the countries of source, transition, anddestination. The study concludes that so long as opportunities for legalmigration are limited there will always be a demand for smugglers. In or-der to prevent and control smuggling an international co-operationamong countries of source, transition, and destination would be impera-tive. It would also be desirable to widen the ambit of legal migrationfor low-skill jobs like in agriculture, construction works, and service

K. C. Saha is Senior Civil Servant.Address correspondence to: K. C. Saha, B-3/312, Paschim Vihar, New Delhi

110063, India (E-mail: kc_saha@nic.in).The author wishes to thank Professor Yitchak Haberfeld from the Department of

Labor Studies, Tel Aviv University, for his guidance all through the research project.The author also wishes to thank the office of the Foreign Regional Registration Office,Delhi for Providing the data of deportation cases.

Journal of Immigrant & Refugee Studies, Vol. 5(1) 2007Available online at http://jirst.haworthpress.com

© 2007 by The Haworth Press, Inc. All rights reserved.doi:10.1300/J500v05n01_04 55

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sectors for limited periods through country-specific bilateral agreements.doi:10.1300/J500v05n01_04 [Article copies available for a fee from The HaworthDocument Delivery Service: 1-800-HAWORTH. E-mail address: <docdelivery@haworthpress.com> Website: <http://www.HaworthPress.com> © 2007 by TheHaworth Press, Inc. All rights reserved.]

KEYWORDS. Smugglers, commercial venture, immigrant profile, smug-gling operation

Smuggling of migrants has become a subject of great internationalconcern. The anxiety in the source countries stems from the exploitationand victimization of its citizens by smugglers. The countries of destina-tion are concerned because of its adverse impact on their labor market,social integration, and national security. There is a sense of frustrationin these countries due to the fact that, despite all the measures taken,smuggling of migrants cannot be halted. This study examines the smug-gling of Indian citizens to other countries and it aims at a more inclusiveinsight into the modus operandi of the smugglers. The study is based on1,108 deportation records of Indian citizens from other countries. Thestudy will be of practical relevance if its findings are useful for adoptingsuitable measures in the countries of source, transition, and destination.

This paper has two parts. The first part considers the analytical frame-work of human smuggling. The second deals with the findings basedon an empirical study of deportation cases of Indian citizens from othercountries.

ANALYTICAL FRAMEWORK

Theories of labor migration provide us with a better understanding ofthe process of international migration. While economic theories explainthe causes of migration, others explain the reasons of its perpetuation(for a comprehensive review of migration theories, see Massey et al.1993). These theories apply to both legal as well as illegal migration.

There are three major factors that promote illegal migration: (1) thepush factors that encourage people to want to leave their home coun-tries; (2) the pull factors that lure them to a specific country; and (3) thenetworks that link supply with demand.

It has been observed that the worldwide demands for migration farexceed those which the legal avenues are open to. There are nationalbarriers designed to prevent illegal entry of migrants. In order to enter

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illegally migrants seek the assistance of smugglers. The smugglers ex-ploit the “weak points” in the national migration barriers.1

The desire to migrate illegally is likely to be stronger among theyoung. They are willing to take risks because the cost for them associ-ated with such ventures is smaller. Often they do not have families oftheir own and their wages in their own countries are the lowest. Conse-quently, more and more youth are likely to seek the services of smug-glers. Researchers agree that illegal migration and human smugglinghave recently become a mass phenomenon.2

Like other entrepreneurs, smugglers take to smuggling as a commer-cial venture with its associated risks and gains. Their goal is profit; thefate of the migrants generally does not play a role for the human smug-glers.3 However, failures are likely to lower the demand for their ser-vices and are as such undesirable.

It has been observed that trafficking/smuggling should be viewed asa consequence of the commodification of migration, from which orga-nizations are able to profit from people’s mobility where migration mer-chants play a central role.4

Smuggling organizations are profit maximizers. To achieve theirgoals, such enterprises implement appropriate rationalization measures,for example, the recruitment of migrants.5

In countries of the former USSR, advertisements were found for theimmediate supply of visas to Germany. The Indian press featured adswith the slogan, “Go west.”

In a study on the smuggling of aliens into northern Europe and theBaltic region, it has been observed that “eastern Europe and the territoryencompassing the former Soviet Union have been used by organized in-ternational criminal groups as transit zones for the smuggling of aliensfrom Africa and Asia to western and northern Europe. The conditionsthroughout the region, such as the porous borders and incapacities of thelaw enforcement authorities have been conducive to an increase intransnational crime, such as alien smuggling.”6

According to a report published by the United Nations General As-sembly in 1994, “Smuggling of illegal aliens is perceived by criminalorganizations as a low risk, high profit activity. In transporting illegalimmigrants through transit countries, the smuggling organizations relyupon criminal elements, which supply documents, safe houses and con-tacts to facilitate smuggling operations.”7

A study on the smuggling of aliens in Australia observed, “The smug-glers in Australia are in regular contact with their counterparts in thecountries of origin and the Australian smugglers have pre-arranged

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transport, accommodation, and documentation for the migrants once theyare in Australia.”8

It is important to consider whether migrants in the countries of originheed the fact that the smuggling racket is criminal. It has been observedthat state’s position on the smuggling business, as a criminal offence isnot shared by those who require their services.9

It is likely that some of the migrants are aware that the smuggling op-eration is technically a criminal offence but they may still avail the ser-vices of smugglers in the hope that they would catapult them to theirdestination. At the same time, however, they may be aware that punish-ment for illegal migration is usually light and includes detention for afew months and deportation to their homeland. This perception amongstmigrants is likely to perpetuate illegal migration.

Researchers have observed that the development of smuggling orga-nizations is not only propelled by profit-making opportunities, but isalso the result of an inherently dynamic process. Smuggling into the af-fluent societies of the West has been a success for many migrants,10 andhas consequently encouraged more immigrants to use it.

Structures of smuggling organizations are likely to vary in keepingwith the nature of their operations. Some are likely to be well-knit orga-nizations with links in the countries of source, transition, and destina-tion. Others are likely to be small individual groups, which may providemigrants to well-knit organizations.

Individual smuggling groups are called “Mom and Pop” smugglingorganizations.11

Strict border controls not only may result in increase in demand forthe services of smugglers but also enhance their professionalization.Researchers have observed that due to the upgrading of border controlsin Europe and in the United States, self-managed clandestine smugglinghas almost disappeared and the ongoing process of professionalizationof smugglers has been strengthened.12

Researchers agree that there is an inverse relationship between legaland illegal migration. It has been observed that if there are fewer oppor-tunities for legal migration into a specific country, one can expect moremigration through illegal channels.13

Violations of human rights are inevitably associated with the danger-ous modes of travel often adopted by smugglers to bring migrants totheir destinations. According to the International Organization for Mi-gration, at least 1,500 persons died since 1993 while attempting to enterthe European Union illegally (IOM 2000). For example, as many as 272youths, including 170 from India and 71 from Sri Lanka perished when

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sent illegally to some European countries with attractive job prospects.The boat they were traveling in capsized off the Malta coast on theChristmas night of 1996.14

The situation of smuggled migrants in the host countries is very vul-nerable. Such migrants live a clandestine life and are harrowed by so-cial, legal, and political everyday problems and are dogged relentlesslywith the apprehension of detention. They develop “shifting identities”based on the situation they are faced with. Existing ethnic networks helpthem in their ways around by providing contacts for employment as aflexible labor reserve in low-pay, low-skill jobs very often under haz-ardous working conditions. Illegal migrants who obtain jobs throughsmugglers find themselves in highly vulnerable, and exploiting situa-tions (for a Review, see Conference Report Heckman et al. 2000).15

It has been observed in operations involving smuggling from EasternEurope to Germany, that the migrants seek assistance of smuggling op-erators of several nationalities in order to complete a long-distancesmuggling chain. Further, it has been observed that smuggling opera-tions are organized according to principles of expertise, such as ofprocuring counterfeit documents, accompanying migrants, arrangingtransport, and providing accommodation during stops punctuating thejourney. Locals on both sides of the border constituting lowest levelwithin the hierarchy carry out the transport across the borders. In themiddle and upper levels ethnically homogeneous groups dominate theorganizations.16

It has been reported that the number of people smuggled into theEuropean Union has been estimated on the basis of the assumption thatout of every three illegal immigrants, one is caught and two reach theirdestinations.17

When it comes to Chinese migrants, it has been observed that the ma-jority of smuggled Chinese most probably come by air or across landborders, often using faked documents for entry. It has been further ob-served that not all Chinese smugglers are well organized and the Chi-nese who migrate illegally always do so with the help of professionalsmugglers. It has also been observed that the Chinese smuggling orga-nizations circumvent enforcement agencies by constantly altering anddiverting smuggling routes or using new types of false documents. Ithas been further observed that the Chinese migrants have to pay largesums to the smugglers. For example, the migrants in the “GoldenVenture” boat had paid $30,000 each to be smuggled into the UnitedStates.18

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Data and Variables

The 1108 deportation records of Indian citizens from other countries tothe Indira Gandhi International airport in New Delhi, the major interna-tional airport in India constitute the primary database of this study. Theserecords were the cases of the period between January 2001 and April2001, and from January 2002 to September 2002 (a 13-month period).The records were obtained from the Foreign Regional Registration Of-fice, Delhi (FRRO) after a considerable effort. It was not easy to convincethe authorities of the relevance of the study. The break-up of the numberof cases of deportation on an annual basis at this airport is as follows:

Though I could not access the data of deportation cases of the other in-ternational airports in India, it is estimated that the sample of 1108 depor-tation cases constitute about 40%19 of total such cases in India in a year.

Based on deportation cases, however, no comment can be made onthe entire population of Indian illegal immigrants. Out of 1108 depor-tees, 158 reported that they had sought the services of smugglers formigrating illegally to other countries. The immigration officials hadcollected the data on interrogating the deportees upon their arrival in theformats officially prescribed. The circumstances in which data had beencollected lend credence to its authenticity, as deportees are to disclosesuch facts to the immigration authorities in the hope of avoiding pros-ecution. However, some of the deportees might not have disclosed allfacts to avoid complications. Being administrative, these data havetheir limitations, as the primary focus of such data in India is to keep arecord of deportees so that these records can be utilized later for veri-fication in case of any violation of emigration rules and matters relat-ing to national security. These data furnish information pertaining to thedemographic characteristics of deportees; place of contact with smug-glers; profiles of smugglers; amounts paid to them; routes taken; ar-rangements made in the transit countries; types of transport used forsmuggling migrants; fraudulent documentation and the exploitation ofmigrants by smugglers.

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Year 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 Average number ofdeportees per year

No. ofdeportees

1177 1328 1140 1348 1321 1262

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A second source of data in this study was six in-depth telephonic in-terviews conducted with randomly sampled deportees from Punjab.

A deportee for the purpose of this study is any person who has vio-lated the terms of his or her admission to a country of destinationand has been deported from there. Persons who were refused admissionand deported have also been included in this category because if theyhad succeeded in getting in, there was every likelihood that they wouldhave violated the terms of admission.

Smuggling has been defined under Article 3(a) of the Protocol againstthe Smuggling of Migrants by Land, Sea and Air, supplementing the UNConvention against Transnational Organized Crime as the “smugglingof a migrant is the procurement, in order to obtain, directly or indirectly,of a financial or other material benefit, of the illegal entry of a personinto a State Party of which the person is not a national or a permanentresident.”20

State in the study means the State to which a deportee belongs. Indiais a federation of 28 states. Each state is divided into smaller administra-tive units called districts. District in the study means the district towhich the deportee belongs. Identification of the state and the district ofthe deportees is important for checking whether the phenomenon ofsmuggling of migrants is concentrated in a particular region.

FINDINGS OF THE STUDY

The findings of the study are summarized in three sections. The firstsection estimates the number of deportees who had availed services ofsmugglers; the origins and profiles of such deportees; involvement oftheir families in the process of smuggling; and an estimate of deporteeswho had succeeded in reaching their destinations with the help of smug-glers.

The second section discusses the profiles of the smugglers and theirmodus operandi.

The third section examines the periods of illegal stay in the countriesof destination, types of jobs undertaken, the statuses of employers, andthe approximate earnings of the migrants concerned.

Section I: The Immigrants

It is observed that 158 out of 1,108 deportees, that is, 14.2 per cent ofthem had availed the services of smugglers, although it is likely that

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some of the deportees might not have actually confessed to having uti-lized the services of smugglers. It appears that the majority of migrantswho wish to migrate illegally first try the possibility of migrating ontheir own. Those who choose to avail the services of smugglers arelikely to consider whether the amount to be paid to the smugglers islikely to add significantly to their chances of successful illegal migra-tion. Individuals are likely to approach such smugglers as had been suc-cessful in the past.

About three-quarters of the deportees who reached out for smugglersbelonged to the State of Punjab and about thirteen per cent more be-longed to the neighboring State of Haryana, which was a part of theState of Punjab until 1966. It appears that the smugglers are compara-tively more active in these two states. The State of Punjab has a strongmigration culture. Some go to the extent of saying, “It is wanderlust, it’sin our blood. Punjabis have always traveled far and wide.”21 The sce-nario today continues to be the same. “Today emigration is Punjab’sfastest growing business. The buzz is there for all to see. Newspapersare full with migration ads, billboards display it eagerly and migration isthe content of many conversations.”22 The smugglers take full advan-tage of the strong urge of Punjabis to migrate. Since most of the depor-tees came from Punjab and went to Europe, I have readily concentratedon them, while I refer to the entire database.

It is noticed that while the deportees were from almost all the districtsof the State of Punjab, the number of cases of smuggling was particu-larly high in the districts of Jullandar, Kapurthala, Amritsar, Hos-hiarpur, Ludhiana Patiala, Gurdaspur, and Moga. These eight districtsout of seventeen in Punjab constituted 62.8 per cent of the cases. It ap-pears that though the phenomenon of smuggling is prevalent in the en-tire state of Punjab, the problem is acute in certain districts of the state.

An examination of the deportees’ addresses indicates that almost60 per cent of deportees came from rural areas. In addition, out of sixdeportees who were interviewed four were from agricultural families ofrural Punjab with a relatively low level of education. The state of Punjabis the main provider of agricultural products to the Indian markets, andmany Punjabi farmers are well to do. Probabilities are that the smug-glers target young people from rich agricultural families in rural areas.

The fact that all the deportees were males tends to suggest thatwomen do not like to avail services of smugglers because of the associ-ated risks.

The majority of the deportees belonged to the age group of 18-25(51.2 per cent) and 26-30 (27.8 per cent). Thus, almost 80 per cent of the

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deportees were young. This finding corroborates the assumption thatyoung people are more likely to take the risks of migrating illegally withthe help of smugglers.

In about one-third of the cases, there was the involvement of the de-portees’ families in the process of smuggling. Such involvement was inthe form of contacting the smugglers, mobilization of money for thejourney, and payment for the services of smugglers.

About 28 per cent of the deportees succeeded in reaching their coun-tries of destination with the help of smugglers. Thus, the success rate ofillegal migration with the help of smuggler is higher by more thanquarter than without them. This finding is not compatible with the as-sumption made in estimating the number of people smuggled into theEuropean Union that the success rate of illegal migrants is two-thirds.

Section II: The Smugglers

About 60 per cent of the smuggled deportees did not know the namesof their smugglers. Furthermore, less than 5 per cent of them knew theaddresses of smugglers. Even the addresses provided, if any, were inac-curate. In two cases only, the phone numbers of smugglers were avail-able. In two other cases, only the names of the hotels in Delhi where thedeportees met the smugglers were furnished. In three other cases, thenames of the shopping complexes where the deportees met the smug-glers were available. It appears that the smugglers keep shifting fromplace to place and never operate from one stable address. Quite oftenthey operate from hotels. Smugglers do not disclose their identities tothe immigrants in their bid to escape legal action in the event of a com-plaint, complication, or mishap. It is also likely that some of the smug-glers intimidate their clients.

In almost 10 per cent of the cases, more than one deportee had dis-closed the name of the same smuggler. This tends to indicate that theservices of some of the smugglers are more in demand than those of theothers. This would appear to result from the fact that such smugglers at-tract more clients because of the success records or the reasonableprices for their services.

Approximately 12 per cent of the deportees contacted the smugglersin Punjab. About 6 per cent more of the deportees contacted the smug-glers in Delhi. About 8 per cent of the deportees contacted smugglersoutside India, mainly in Russia, Poland, Ukraine, Serbia, and Thailand.Smugglers abroad who are of Indian origin are likely to identify poten-tial clients easily. Four of the deportees indicated that the smugglers

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were of Indian origin but citizens of other countries. It appears that for-eign citizens of Indian origin who have links in India are also involvedin human smuggling.

As many as 17.7 per cent of the deportees had paid sums up to US$2000 and 20.2 per cent of the deportees had paid between US$ 2000and 4000. Others, 11.3 per cent of the deportees, had paid betweenUS$ 4000 and 6000. About 7.5 per cent of the deportees had paidbetween US$ 6000 and 8000 and two deportees had paid betweenUS$ 8000 and10,000.

No correlations have been observed between the countries of destina-tion and the amounts paid to smugglers.

Twelve per cent of the deportees had paid the full fee at the com-mencement of the journey. Some deportees had indicated that they hadpaid only a part of the fee in advance. They had insisted on paying therest only on reaching their destinations. It appears that the smugglerssometimes adopt accommodating modes of payment to attract moremigrants.

In one-third of the cases, smugglers had preferred the route ofDelhi-Moscow-Ukraine for destinations in Europe. The other popularroute was via Bangkok to different countries in South East Asia, Japan,Hong Kong, South Korea, Australia, and New Zealand. For some mi-grants the route via a country in Africa to the destinations in Europe waschosen. Some migrants were taken to countries in Eastern Europe suchas Czech Republic, Poland, and Hungary, for their eventual smugglinginto the countries in Western Europe. Different routes used by smug-glers are indicative of unpredictability of their operations and of the useof international smuggling networks in many countries.

The foreign representatives of the smuggler received one-quarter ofthe deportees. Some deportees indicated that the smugglers escortedthem up to transit countries and thereafter handed them over to their for-eign representatives. It appears that to instill confidence among their cli-ents, often the representatives of smugglers accompany immigrants tothe countries of transit. This further confirms the fact that the smugglersin India, like their counterparts in other countries, operate through inter-national networks where each link in the chain provides a specific ser-vice and has to be paid for. This is in accordance with the observationmade regarding smuggling into Germany from the East European coun-tries that smuggling organizations operate in keeping with the divisionof labor principle.

Some deportees were kept in hiding in dark places for a few days. It islikely that smugglers do not want their clients to know their identities

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and how they operate so that nobody is able to file a substantiated com-plaint against them. There were instances where the deportees were de-tained for long periods of up to more than a month. The fact that thedeportees were kept in hiding confirms the clandestine character ofsmuggling operations. The smugglers probably gather several groups ofimmigrants before they send them to certain countries.

Some deportees indicated that they were grouped together with mi-grants from other countries. The size of the groups formed by combin-ing migrants from different countries varied from small ones of 5-15 tolarger ones of 25-50 migrants. It appears that certain transit countriesact as the hubs in the smuggling network where migrants from differentcountries are grouped there together. The varying sizes of the groups in-dicate that the smugglers adopt bafflingly varying strategies for cross-ing borders. It is likely that gathering a minimum number of immigrantsin the group is necessary before transit operations commence. Smallergroups may also suggest that certain periods in the smuggling cycle arelean periods with a limited number of potential migrants. The largergroups are more indicative of the scale of smuggling operations.

More than one-third of the deportees tried to enter illegally throughremote border crossing points. In some cases, the smugglers tried tosmuggle migrants using fake visas or passports. This confirms the find-ings of other studies indicating that smugglers often resort to fraudulentdocuments for their purposes. Twelve per cent of the deportees reportedthat they had lost their passports along the process. We should bear inmind, however, that migrants who enter illegally on forged passportsoften destroy such passports deliberately to eliminate documentaryevidence of their illegal entry.

Twelve per cent of deportees reported that they were transported ingoods carriers. It appears that goods carriers are a common mode oftransport used by smugglers because not all trucks are checked, and it iseasier to conceal the immigrants there for long periods. However, therewere cases of immigrants dying of asphyxiation. Such instances of deathshave been reported in the media in many countries. The use of privatecars, oil tankers, or even sending migrants by foot through forest routesclearly indicates that smugglers are likely to utilize multiple modes oftransportation in their attempts to steer the migrants successfully to theirdestinations. It also appears that there are drivers of goods carriers whodo not hesitate to transport illegal migrants despite the possibility of de-tection at the borders.

Some deportees said that the foreign agents had arranged fake visasfor them. Others indicated that the foreign agents vanished with their

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passports and money. There are also some cases in which the deporteeswere abandoned in the forest. In a small number of cases, the foreignagent handed the disgruntled deportees over to the police when themoney was reclaimed. One deportee said that he was put in the circularmetro train in Moscow by his foreign agent with the instruction thatthe train would arrive in Germany at two in the morning where heshould get down and be taken care of. The immigrant traveled around inMoscow for several hours and finally got down at 2 a.m. only to findhimself at the station where he had boarded the train.

Section III: The Illegal Stay

From the limited data available, it is noticed that the duration of ille-gal stay of smuggled immigrants varied from a few months to more thaneight years. It appears that illegal migrants could stay illegally for longperiods without being detected. The largest number of the cases of longillegal overstay was noticed in United Kingdom.

From the limited data available, we can learn that deportees couldfind employment as casual laborers in restaurants, in shops, in agricul-ture, and in construction works. There is a demand for illegal migrantsin the West mostly for low-pay and low-skill jobs. Two migrants wereengaged in selling goods and thus were not dependent on others for theiremployment.

The majority of their employers were natives of the host countries butthere were also those who worked for people of Indian origin. Thus, itcan be concluded that some of the migrants do get help from existingethnic networks.

The illegal migrants are able to earn about US$1000 a month. Theyare thus able to recover the money paid to the smugglers in about 6 to 8months. Further, they are able to save about US$ 4000 in a year to sendhome–an amount of money of considerable significance in India.

CONCLUSION

The study has shown that human smuggling is a complex multina-tional phenomenon. Smuggling of aliens is carried out by professionalorganizations with links in the countries of source, transit, and destina-tion. As opportunities of legal migration are limited there would bealways a demand for the services for smugglers, despite many cases in

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which potential illegal immigrants are cheated by them, exploited, andeven left to die along the smuggling route.

In order to prevent and control smuggling, an international co-opera-tion among countries of source, transition, and destination would be-imperative. It would also be desirable to widen the ambit of legalmigration for low-skill jobs like in agriculture, construction works, andservice sectors for limited periods through country-specific bilateralagreements.

IMPLICATIONS AND FUTURE RESEARCH

The implications of human smuggling are multidimensional. First, itleads to the victimization of innocent migrants. Second, the smugglersnot only earn millions of dollars at the cost of the migrants but they mayalso force such migrants to be carriers of arms, drugs, and other contra-band goods across borders. Further, besides economic and social conse-quences, the security concerns for the countries of destination cannot beundermined.

Taking into account all these implications, it is felt that there is a seri-ous need for research in the source countries to understand as to whymigrants resort to smugglers and illegal migration. It is important tofind out whether they are aware of the consequences. Further, researchon the effectiveness of domestic laws of source countries to curb the ac-tivities of smugglers may be useful.

NOTES

1. Pennix, Rinus. (2002) Human Smuggling and Trafficking in Migrants: Types,Origins and Dynamics in a Comparative and Interdiscipliniary Perspective. ResearchProposal. Institute of Migration and Ethnic Studies. See http://www2.fmg.uva.nl/imes/project.htm#cluster1

2. Salt, J. (2000) Migrant Trafficking and Human Smuggling in Europe. A Reviewof the Evidence with Case Studies from Hungary, Poland and Ukraine, IOM.

3. Muller-Schenieder, T. (2000) Explaining Human Smuggling. A SociologicalApproach. Paper submitted to the Transatlantic Workshop on Human Smuggling,Tutzing, March 8-9, 2000.

4. Kyle, D./Liang, Z. (1998) Migration Merchants: Organized Migrant Traffickingfrom China to Ecuador, Davis.

5. Pennix, Rinus. (2002) Human Smuggling and Trafficking in Migrants: Types,Origins and Dynamics in a Comparative and Interdisciplinary Perspective.

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6. Ulrich, Christopher J. (1995) Alien Smuggling & Uncontrolled Migration inNorthern Europe and the Baltic Region, HEUNI Paper No. 7. See http://www.heuni.fi

7. UN/GA, 1994: 4, as quoted by Ulrich, Christopher J., Alien Smuggling & Un-controlled Migration in Northern Europe and the Baltic Region.

8. Lagan, B. (1999) The People Smugglers, The Sydney Morning Herald, 22 May,1999, p. 35 as quoted by David Fiona, in Human Smuggling and Trafficking. An Over-view of the Response at Federal Level, Australian Institute of Criminology, Researchand Public Policy Series No. 24. See http://www.aic.gov.au

9. Chin, Ko-Lin (2000) Smuggled Chinese. Clandestine Immigration to the UnitedStates, Philadelphia: Temple University Press.

10. Pennix, Rinus. (2002) Human Smuggling and Trafficking in Migrants: Types,Origins and Dynamics in a Comparative and Interdisciplinary Perspective.

11. Kyle, D./Liang, Z. (1998) Migration Merchants: Organized Migrant Traffickingfrom China to Ecuador, Davis.

12. Pastore, F./Romani, p./Sciortineo, (2000) L’Italie nel sistema internazionale deltraffico di persone. Risutnze investigative, ipotesi interpretative, strtegie di riposta,Working Paper nE 5, Roma: Commissione per le Politiche di Integrazione degliImmigrati, Departmento per gli Affari Sociali. As quoted by Pennix, Rinus. (2002) inHuman Smuggling and Trafficking in Migrants: Types, Origins and Dynamics in aComparative and Interdiscipliniary Perspective. (op cit)

13. Muller-Schenieder, T. (2000) Explaining Human Smuggling. A SociologicalApproach. Paper submitted to the Transatlantic Workshop on Human Smuggling,Tutzing, March 8-9, 2000; Muller-Schenieder, T. (2000) Zuwanderung in westlicheGesellschaften. Analyse and Steuerungsoptionen, Opladen. As quoted by Pennix,Rinus (2002) in Human Smuggling and Trafficking in Migrants: Types, Origins andDynamics in a Comparative and Interdiscipliniary Perspective.

14. Boat tragedy probe team to visit Pakistan, The Indian Express, New Delhi, 22November, 2000.

15. Heckmann Friedrich/Tanja Wunderlich/Susan F. Martin/Kelly McGrath, Tran-satlantic Workshop on Human Smuggling, Conference Report. 2000. Due to limitedinformation about the issue of human smuggling, I heavily based my descriptions oninternational conferences held on this issue. See http://www.uni-bamberg.de/projekte/humsmug/cre_e.htm

16. Ibid.17. Ibid.18. Ibid.19. The data of deportation cases of all the international airports in India in a year

were obtained from the Ministry of Home Affairs, the nodal Ministry of all the Officesof the Foreign Regional Registration Offices in India. These figures for the years 2000,2001, and 2002 were 2214, 3008, and 3808 respectively. Thus, the average number ofdeportation cases in a year from the all the international airports in India is about 3000.

20. Gallagher Anne, Trafficking, smuggling and human rights: Tricks and treaties,Forced Migration Review, Refugee Studies Center, Oxford, No.12, January 2002, 27.The parent instrument of this Protocol is the UN Convention Against Transnational Or-ganized Crime, adopted by the General Assembly in November 2000.

21. Grewal Manraj, Go West Why Migration is Punjab’s No.1 Industry, The IndianExpress, New Delhi, 17 August, 2000.

22. Ibid.

68 JOURNAL OF IMMIGRANT & REFUGEE STUDIES

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REFERENCES

Borjas George J. Friends or Strangers: The Impact of Immigration on the U.S. Econ-omy, 1989.

Essays on Legal and Illegal Immigration, Edited by Pozo Susan, Western MichiganUniversity, 1996.

Theories of Migration, Edited by Cohen Robin, Edward Elgur Publishing Company,UK, 1996.

Received: February 10, 2006Revised: June 19, 2006

Accepted: July 27, 2006

doi:10.1300/J500v05n01_04

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