Literal and figurative language

Literal and figurative language is a distinction withinsome fields of language analysis, in particular stylistics,rhetoric, and semantics.

• Literal language uses words directly according totheir proper meanings (signified).

• Figurative (or non-literal) language uses words infigures of speech.

Literal usage gives words their proper meanings, in thesense of the meaning they have by themselves, outsideany figure of speech.[1] It maintains a consistent mean-ing regardless of the context,[2] with the intended mean-ing corresponding exactly to the meaning of the individualwords.[3] Figurative use of language is the use of wordsor phrases that implies a non-literal meaning which doesmake sense or that could [also] be true.[4]

Aristotle and later the Roman Quintilian were among theearly analysts of rhetoric who expounded on the differ-ences between literal and figurative language.[5]

In 1769, Frances Brooke's novel The History of EmilyMontague was used in the earliest Oxford English Dictio-nary citation for the figurative sense of literally; the sen-tence from the novel used was, “He is a fortunate man tobe introduced to such a party of fine women at his arrival;it is literally to feed among the lilies.”[6] This citation wasalso used in the OED’s 2011 revision.[7]

Within literary analysis, such terms are still used; butwithin the fields of cognition and linguistics, the basis foridentifying such a distinction is no longer used.[8]

1 Figurative language in literaryanalysis

Figurative language can take multiple forms such as sim-ile or metaphor.[4] Merriam-Webster’s Encyclopedia OfLiterature says that figurative language can be classifiedin five categories: resemblance or relationship, emphasisor understatement, figures of sound, verbal games, anderrors.[9]

A simile[10] is a comparison of two things, indicated bysome connective, usually “like”, “as”, “than”, or a verbsuch as “resembles” to show how they are similar.[11]

Example: “His cheeks were like roses, his noselike a cherry.../And the beard on his chin was

as white as the snow." (emph added)—ClementClark Moore[12]

A metaphor[13] is figure of speech in which two “essen-tially unlike things” are shown to have a type of resem-blance or create a new image.[14] The similarities betweenthe objects being compared may be implied rather thandirectly stated.[14]

Example: “Fog comes on little cat feet”—CarlSandburg[15]

An extended metaphor is metaphor that is continued overmultiple sentences.[16][17]

Example: “The sky steps out of her day-wear/Slips into her shot-silk evening dress./Anentourage of bats whirr and swing at her hem,...She’s tried on every item in her wardrobe.”Dilys Rose[18]

Onomatopoeia is a word designed to be an imitation of asound.[19]

Example: “Bark! Bark!” went the dog as hechased the car that vroomed past.

Personification[20] is the attribution of a personal natureor character to inanimate objects or abstract notions,[21]especially as a rhetorical figure.

Example: “Because I could not stop forDeath,/He kindly stopped for me;/The carriageheld but just ourselves/And Immortality.”—Emily Dickinson. Dickinson portrays death asa carriage driver.[21]

An oxymoron is a figure of speech in which a pairof opposite or contradictory terms is used together foremphasis.[22]

Examples: Organized chaos, Same difference,Bittersweet.

A paradox is a statement or proposition which is self-contradictory, unreasonable, or illogical.[23]

Example: This statement is a lie.

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2 5 REFERENCES

Hyperbole is a figure of speech which uses an extravagantor exaggerated statement to express strong feelings.[24]

Example: They had been walking so long thatJohn thought he might drink the entire lakewhen they came upon it.

Allusion is a reference to a famous character or event.

Example: A single step can take you throughthe looking glass if you're not careful.

An idiom is an expression that has a figurative meaningunrelated to the literal meaning of the phrase.

Example: You should keep your eye out forhim.To keep an eye out for someonemeans to watchout for them.

A pun is an expression intended for a humorous or rhetor-ical effect by exploiting different meanings of words.

Example: I wondered why the ball was gettingbigger. Then it hit me.“Then it hit me.” has two different meanings

2 Standard pragmatic model ofcomprehension

Prior to the 1980s, the “standard pragmatic” model ofcomprehension was widely believed. In that model, it wasthought the recipient would first attempt to comprehendthe meaning as if literal, but when an appropriate literalinference could not be made, the recipient would shiftto look for a figurative interpretation that would allowcomprehension.[25] Since then, research has cast doubt onthe model. In tests, figurative language was found to becomprehended at the same speed as literal language; andso premise that the recipient was first attempting to pro-cess a literal meaning and discarding it before attempt-ing to process a figurative meaning appears to be a falsepremise.[26]

3 Reddy and contemporary views

Beginning with the work of Michael Reddy in his 1979work “The Conduit Metaphor”, many linguists now rejectthat there is a valid way to distinguish between a “literal”and “figurative” mode of language.[27]

4 See also

• Biblical literalism

• Figures of speech

• Frances Brooke

• Imagery

• Linguistics

• Philosophy of language

• Rhetoric

• Semantics

• Semiotics

• Trope (literature)

5 References[1] Jaszczolt, Katarzyna M..; Turner, Ken (2003-03-01).

Meaning Through Language Contrast. Volume 2. JohnBenjamins Publishing. pp. 141–. ISBN 9781588112071.Retrieved 20 December 2012.

[2] Glucksberg, Sam (2001-07-26). Understanding Fig-urative Language:From Metaphor to Idioms: FromMetaphor to Idioms. Oxford University Press. ISBN9780195111095. Retrieved 20 December 2012.

[3] Harley, Trevor A. (2001). The Psychology of Language:From Data to Theory. Taylor & Francis. pp. 293–. ISBN978-0-863-77867-4. Retrieved 20 December 2012.

[4] Montgomery, Mar; Durant, Alan; Fabb, Nigel; Tom Fur-niss; Sara Mills (2007). Ways of Reading: AdvancedReading Skills for Students of English Literature. Taylor& Francis. pp. 117–. ISBN 9780415346337. Retrieved23 December 2012.

[5] http://books.google.com/books?id=SUEtEa9nUWQC&pg=PA129&dq=%22figurative+language%22+literary+analysis&hl=en&sa=X&ei=jUXXUOTLF6yA2QXkrYG4Dw&ved=0CDoQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=figurative&f=false.Missing or empty |title= (help)

[6] http://languagelog.ldc.upenn.edu/nll/?p=5914

[7] http://languagelog.ldc.upenn.edu/nll/?p=5914

[8] Barber, Alex; Stainton, Robert J (2009-11-20). ConciseEncyclopedia of Philosophy of Language and Linguistics.Elsevier. pp. 230–. ISBN 9780080965000. Retrieved 23December 2012.

[9] Merriam-Webster, inc. (1995). Merriam-Webster’s Ency-clopedia Of Literature. Merriam-Webster. p. 415. ISBN9780877790426. Retrieved 23 April 2013.

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[10] Origin: 1350–1400; Middle English < Latin: image, like-ness, comparison, noun use of neuter of similis similar.“Simile”. simile, n. Oxford English Dictionary.

[11] Kennedy, X. J., and Dana Gioia. An Introduction To Po-etry. 13th ed. Longman Pub Group, 2007. Pg 594.

[12] Terban, Marvin; joi, Giulio Maestro, (1993). It Figures!:Fun Figures of Speech. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. pp.12–. ISBN 9780395665916. Retrieved 23 December2012.

[13] Origin: 1525–35; < Latin metaphora < Greek metaphoráa transfer, akin to metaphérein to transfer. See meta-, -phore“Metaphor”. metaphor, n. Oxford English Dictio-nary.

[14] Miller, Carol Rawlings (2001-03-01). Irresistible Shake-speare: 6 Sensational Scenes from Favorite Plays andDozens of Fun Ideas That Introduce Students to the Won-derful Works of Shakespeare. Scholastic Inc. pp. 25–.ISBN 9780439098441. Retrieved 23 December 2012.

[15] Fandel, Jennifer (2005-07-30). Metaphors, Similes, AndOther Word Pictures. The Creative Company. pp. 30–.ISBN 9781583413401. Retrieved 3 April 2013.

[16] metaphor “Extended Metaphor”. extended metaphor.Dictionary.com.

[17] Oliver, Mary (1994). PoetryHandbook. HoughtonMifflinHarcourt. pp. 103–. ISBN 9780156724005. Retrieved 6March 2013.

[18] Liddell, Gordon F.; Gifford, Anne (2001-07-26). NewScottish poetry. Heinemann. pp. 131–. ISBN9780435150983. Retrieved 3 April 2013.

[19] Origin: 1570–80; < Late Latin < Greek onomatopoiíamaking of words = onomato- (combining form of ónomaname) + poi- (stem of poieîn to make; see poet) + -ia-ia“Onomatopoeia”. onomatopoeia, n. Oxford EnglishDictionary.

[20] Origin: 1745–55; personi(fy) + -fication“Personification”.personification, n. Oxford English Dictionary.

[21] Moustaki, Nikki (2001-04-01). The Complete Idiot’sGuide to Writing Poetry. Penguin. pp. 146–. ISBN9781440695636. Retrieved 23 December 2012.

[22] Origin: < post-classical Latin oxymoronfigure of speechin which a pair of opposed or markedly contradictoryterms are placed in conjunction for emphasis (5th cent.;also oxymorum) < ancient Greek ὀξυ-oxy- comb. form1+μωρόςdull, stupid, foolish (see moron n.2).“Oxymoron”.oxymoron. Oxford English Dictionary.

[23] Origin: < Middle French, French paradoxe(1495 as noun;1372–4 in plural paradoxesas the title of a work by Cicero;paradoxon(noun) philosophical paradox in post-classicalLatin also a figure of speech < ancient Greek παράδοξον,especially in plural παράδοξαStoical paradoxes, use asnoun of neuter singular of παράδοξος(adjective) contraryto received opinion or expectation < παρα-para- prefix1+δόξαopinion (see doxology n.), after ancient Greek παρὰδόξανcontrary to expectation“Paradox”. paradox, n. Ox-ford English Dictionary.

[24] Origin: < Greek ὑπερβολήexcess (compare hyper-bola n.), exaggeration; the latter sense is first foundin Isocrates and Aristotle. Compare French hyper-bole(earlier yperbole).“Hyperbole”. hyperbol e, n. Ox-ford English Dictionary.

[25] Katz, Albert N. (1998). Figurative Language andThought. Oxford University Press. pp. 166–. ISBN9780195109634. Retrieved 20 December 2012.

[26] Eysenck, Michael William; Keane, Mark T. (2005).Cognitive Psychology: A Student’s Handbook. Taylor &Francis. pp. 369–. ISBN 9781841693590. Retrieved 20December 2012.

[27] Ortony, Andrew (1993-11-26). Metaphor and Thought.Cambridge University Press. pp. 204–. ISBN9780521405614. Retrieved 20 December 2012.

6 External links• The Word We Love To Hate. Literally. from SlateMagazine

• Figures of Speech from Silva Rhetoricae

4 7 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

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