air and noise pollution

1

―ATMOSPHERE

The atmosphere is an envelope of gases that surrounds the earth The air we breathe is the

part of atmosphere Scientists have divided the atmosphere into four main parts each with its own

characteristics They are

1 Troposphere

2 Stratosphere

3 Mesosphere

4 Thermosphere

1 Troposphere

The layer of atmosphere that touches the surface of earth is called ―Troposphere The

troposphere extends to a height of about 8 to 18 kilometers above the surface of earth

Most of the living organisms come under troposphere This layer contains most of the water

vapors in the atmosphere and this is only the layer in the atmosphere where weather changes occur

2 Stratosphere

Beyond the troposphere reaching at a height of about 50 kilometers above the surface of

earth is Stratosphere Most jet planes travels in the lower level of stratosphere The upper level of

stratosphere contains a layer of gases called OZONE

3 Mesosphere

After the layer of stratosphere there is another layer called Mesosphere which is extended

up to 85 kilometers above the surface of earth The mesosphere is the coldest layer of the

atmosphere Its temperature can be as low as ―-100 oC

4 Thermosphere

Thermosphere is the most outer layer of atmosphere Unlike the mesosphere thermosphere

has a very high temperature reaching up to ldquo2000 oCrdquo

Biosphere

The living environment known as biosphere consist of Land (Lithosphere) Water

(Hydrosphere) and Air (Atmosphere) is the basic layer to sustain Food and

―AIR POLLUTION

(1) ndash Air

Atmosphere is the column of air that surrounds the earth starting from the surface of earth

to the altitude of 18 Km called Troposphere Air is blanket of gases that contain

Nitrogen 7809 by volume Oxygen 2094 by volume and other gases like Carbon Argon

Neon Helium Methane etc These are in pure and perfect harmony

2

(2) ndash Pollution

Air polluted due to the presence of one or more than one contaminant present in the air in

sufficient quantity composition and characteristics which causes injury to life as well as damages

the materials and properties

Organic are Methane Benzene formaldehyde chlorinated hydrocarbons

AND

Inorganic are NOX SOX COX H2S HF NH3

(3) ndash Control

A Naturally self cleansing way of the environment

1 Dispersion

2 Gravitational settling

3 Natural Absorption process

4 Rain out

5 Adsorption

B Controlling Air Pollution source through engineering devices

1 Stationary Source and

2 Mobile Source

Stationary Source

a Absorption

1a) - Wet Scrubbers

2a) - Dry Scrubbers

b Combustion

c Fuel Gas Desulphurization

d Particulate Pollutants

Mobile Sources

a Fundamentals of different available engines

b Control

Dispersion

Dispersion of pollutants by winds reduces the concentrations of air pollutants by moving the

smog from one place to another This diluted the smoke but not remove it

To calculate it mathematically a model has been developed to estimate the concentration of

the particular pollutant for the specific location and time

3

Gravitational Settling

Gravitational Settling is the most important natural mechanism under which large particles

from the ambient air settle down on the buildings trees and other objects

This process helps in removing large amount of particles formed by uniting of the smaller

particles over the large particles till the united particles becomes large and heavy enough to settle

down under the gravity

Natural Absorption Process

The gaseous as well as particulates pollutants from the air get collected in rain or mist and

settle down with that moisture This phenomenon takes place below the cloud level when falling

rain drops absorb pollutants also known as wash out or scavenging

This does not remove particles less than 1 micro meter The gaseous pollutants are removed

in dissolved state with moisture either with or without chemical damages

Rainout

In this process precipitation in the clouds where sub micro particles in the atmosphere in the

clouds serve as a condensation nuclei around which drops of water may form and fallout as rain

drops This increases the rainfall and fog formation in the urban areas

Adsorption

This is the phenomenon in which gaseous or the liquids pollutants present in the ambient air

we kept attracted generally electro statically by a surface where they are concentrated and retained

Natural surface such as soil rocks leaves and blades of grass buildings and other objects

can absorb and retain pollutants The particles may come in contact with such surfaces either by

gravitational settling or by internal impaction

Absorption

Control devices work on the principle that they absorb and transfer the pollutant smoke

from gas to the liquid state

It is a mass transfer process in which gas is dissolved in the liquid This conversion may or

may not accompanied by a reaction with water

This is purely a diffusion process where pollutants move from higher concentration to the

lower concentration

4

Scrubbers

It is one of the most common pollution control device used by the industries It is operated

on a very simple principle that the polluted gas is brought into contact with the absorbent so that the

pollutants can be removed

There are two types of Scrubbers Wet Scrubbers and Dry Scrubbers Mechanism of both

the scrubbers is almost same The only difference is in case of Dry Scrubbers End Product is in

solid form while in case of Wet Scrubbers it is found in liquid form

Combustion

When the contaminant in the gas is oxidize able to an inert gas than combustion for

contaminant control is used

There are two methods are used commercially as

1) Direct Flume Combustion

2) Catalytic Combustion

Direct flume combustion

This method used when

1) The gas stream must have an energy concentration greater than 37 MJm3 At this

concentration the gas flume will be self supporting after ignition below this point the

supplementary fuel is required

2) None of the by-products of combustion be toxic

In some cases the combustion byproducts may be more toxic than the original pollutant gas For

example the combustion of trichloroethylene will produce Phosgene which was used as a war gas

in World War I

Direct flume applied to Varnish cooking meat smoke house and paint bake oven emission

Catalytic Combustion

Some catalytic materials enable oxidation to be carried out in gases that have an energy less

than 37 MJm3

Active catalyst is a platinum or Palladium compound

Supporting lattice is usually a Ceramic

These are expensive liable to poisoning by sulfur and lead compounds in trace amounts

Catalytic combustion has successfully applied to printing press varnish cooking and asphalt

oxidation emission

5

Fuel Gas Desulphurization (FGD)

The technology that employs absorbent usually lime or limestone to remove SO2 from the

gases produced by burning fossil fuels Flue gas desulphurization is the current technology for

major SO2 emitters like power plants

Lime is used to remove SO2 from coal fired power station gases (called FGD) the product is

Gypsum

CaO(s) + SO2 (g) + 2H2O (1) + frac12 O2 (g) CaSO4 2H2(s)

This system may used with the scrubbers or in the towers through two broad ways

Regenerative (Reusable)

Non regenerative (Not reusable)

In terms of the number and size of system installed the non-regenerative system dominates

Cyclone

For particle size greater than above 10 um the collector of choice is the cyclone

This is inertial collector with no moving parts

The particulate gas is accelerated through a spiral (round) Motion which imparts a

centrifugal force to the particles Due to which the particles by force come out of the gas and

impact on the cylinder wall of the cyclone Then they slide to the bottom of the cone where they

are removed through an air tight valving system

The efficiency of collection of various particle sizes can be determined through an

expression given below

[(9 μ B2

H)] frac12

d05=

[ρp Qg Ө] frac12

As the diameter of the cyclone is reduced the efficiency of collection increased pressure

drop also increases which ultimately increases the power requirement for moving the gas through

the collector

With the increase in the efficiency tangential velocity remains constant and the efficiency

increases with increase in the power consumption by using multiple cyclones in parallel

Filter

When the high efficiency controls of particles smaller than 5um are desired than we use

filters

There are two types of filters in use 1 ndash deep bed filters 2 ndash the bag house

6

The deep bed filters resembles like a furnace filter having packing of fibers used to block

the particles of the gas stream used in air conditioners

For the dirty industrial gas we have the bag house filters made of cloth fabric Their

diameter range from 01 to 035 m and their length vary bw 2 ndash 6 m

ldquoAIR POLLUTANTSrdquo

Due to natural and man-made pollution the air is never found clean in the atmosphere

Gases such as CO SO2 and H2O are continuously releases into the atmosphere through natural

activate (Volcanic activity Vegetation decay and Forest fires) Tiny particles of solids and liquids

are distributed throughout the air by winds volcanic explosion and other similar natural

disturbances In addition to these natural pollutants there are man-made pollutants also which

hardly exist beyond 21000 feet above ground level

Air pollutants may be Natural and Man-made pollutants these are also classified in to two

categories as Primary Pollutants and Secondary Pollutants

PRIMARY AIR POLLUTANTS

Those pollutants that are emitted directly from the source and are found in the atmosphere

in the form in which they were emitted are called Primary Pollutants Primary air pollutants are

formed else where and discharged as such into the air

SECONDARY POLLUTANTS

Secondary air Pollutants are formed in the air were primary air pollutants react with each

other Sulfur dioxide (SO2) is a primary air pollutant that forms when fossil fuel is burned In the air

it may react with oxygen gas to form secondary pollutant sulfur trioxide 2SO2 + O2 2SO3

This is turn may react with water vapor in the air to form another secondary air pollutant

ie sulfuric acid (H2SO4) SO3 + H2O H2SO4

This is one of the substances that can make rain acidic There are so many sources of air

pollutants but they are classified in to two groups

i)- Natural

ii)- Man-made or Anthropogenic

I) - Natural Source

Natural factor include metrological and sometimes geographical conditions restrict the

normal dilution of contaminant There are many naturally occurring air borne materials such as

7

from flower gas from decaying matter micro organisms particulates from nature forest fires dust

storms and volcanic eruptions The natural factors usually beyond manlsquos sphere of control

II) - Man-made Source Anthropogenic Sources

The man made factors are also referred as an Anthropogenic Sources They include

industrial processing Vehicular usage Power generation nuclear explosions and other man made

polluted use radio active isotopes

IMPORTANT PRIMARY AIR POLLUTANTS ARE

Sulfur Oxides (SOX) particularly Sulfur dioxide (SO2)

Carbon Mono Oxide (CO)

Nitrogen Oxides (NOX)

Lead

Hydrocarbons both Aliphatic and Aromatic

Allergic Agents like Pollens and Spores

Radio Active substances

Hydrogen Sulfide

Hydrogen Fluoride

Methyl and ethyl meraptans

IMPORTANT SECONDARY AIR POLLUTANTS ARE

Sulfuric Acid (H2SO4)

Ozone (O3)

Formaldehydes

Peroxy Acyl Nitrate (PAN)

SOURCES OF SOME IMPORTANT AIR POLLUTANTS AND THEIR EFFECTS

Pollutant Carbon Mono Oxide (CO)

Major Source Incomplete combustion of fuel automobile exhaust jet engine emission mines

and tobacco smoking

Effects Toxicity (poisonous) caused blood poisoning

Pollutant Sulfur dioxide (SO2)

Major Source Combustion of coal Combustion of Petroleum products Oil Refinery Power

House (Coal) Sulfuric Acid Plants and Domestic burning fuels

Effects Increasing the breathing rate Suffocation asthma Irritation of eyes

Pollutant Nitrogen Oxide (NOX)

8

Major Source Automobile exhaust Gas fire furnace Fertilizer Industry

Effects Respiratory Irritation Headache Corrosion of Teeth

Pollutant Carbon dioxide (CO2)

Major Source Combustion of Fuel Jet engine emission

Effects Toxic in large quantities

Pollutant Hydrocarbons (HC)

Major Source Organic Chemical Industry Petroleum Refinery

Effects Cancer

Pollutant Ammonia (NH3)

Major Source All chemical Industries

Effects Aspiratory System Eyes Irritation

Pollutant Formaldehyde (NCHO)

Major Source Combustion of Fuel Photo Chemical Reaction

Effects Irritation of eyes Skin Aspiratory

Pollutant Hydrogen Sulphide (H2S)

Major Source Petroleum Industry Coal Ovens Oil refinery Sewage Treatment Plant

Effects Headache Eyes pain Irritation Aspiratory

―ACID RAIN Acid Rain or more precisely acid precipitation is the word used to describe Rain-fall that

has pH level less than ―56rdquo But in broader sense ldquoAcid Rain is a term used to describe several

ways that acids fall out from the atmosphererdquo

A more term is acid deposition has two parts Wet and Dry

Wet deposition refers to Acidic Rain Fog and Snow and

Dry deposition refers to acidic gases and particles

About half of the acidity in the atmosphere falls back to the earth by means of Dry Deposition

CHEMISTRY OF ACID RAIN

Major contributing gases for acid rain are Oxides of Sulfur (SOX) Oxides of Nitrogen

(NOX) Oxides of Carbon (COX) and Chlorine (Cl2) dissolve in the air and causes acid rain

The following reactions show the acid formation due to these gases as

Oxides of Sulfur reacts with water in air and forms Sulfuric Acid (H2SO4)

SO2 + 2H2O H2SO4

9

Oxides of Nitrogen reacts with water in air and forms Nitric Acid (HNO3)

NO2 + H2O HNO3

Oxides of Carbon reacts with water in air and forms Carbonic Acid (HCO3)

CO2 + H2O HCO3

Chlorine reacts with water in air and forms Hydrochloric Acid (HCl)

2Cl2 + 2H2O 4HCl + O2

CAUSES OF ACID RAINS

Acid rain is caused by smoke and gases that are given off by factories and cars that run on

fossil fuels When these fuels are burned to produce energy the sulfur that is present in the fuel

combines with oxygen and becomes sulfur dioxide some of the nitrogen in the air becomes

nitrogen oxide These pollutants go into the atmosphere and become acid

Sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide are produced especially when coal is burnt for fuel and

for more electricity more coal is burnt Burning coal produces electricity Now-a-days people

probably couldnt live without electricity so coal will continue to be burnt but electricity and

energy are constantly being overused Think of it this way every time you turn on a light switch or

the television set without really needing to youre indirectly contributing to the acid rain problem

Of course Automobiles produce nitrogen oxides (which cause acid rain) so every time you

dont carpool when you can you are helping to cause acid rain So now that we know what causes

acid rain heres a look at how acid rain can hurt you and the world around you

EFFECTS OF ACID RAIN

Acid Rain can cause some serious problems Among these are

The acidification of Lakes and Streams

Forest Damages

Decay of Buildings and Paints over them

Reduction in Visibility

An increase in Public Health Problems

EFFECTS ON HUMAN HEALTH

High level of Oxides of Sulfur in the air cause various types Lungs disorders which

affect some peoplelsquos ability to Breathe and increase both the ―disease and mortality

rates in sensitive population such as young children and the elderly

10

Acids dissolve the ―Leadrdquo and ―Copperrdquo in water supply pipes so if these dissolved

metals enters in our drinking water it becomes contaminated

Toxic (poisonous) metals such as ―Mercury and ―Cadmium which have been

leached from the soil by acids can accumulate in lakes streams and reservoirs that are

used for human consumptions Consumption of Mercury can affect the Nervous system

functioning

HOW ACID RAIN CAN BE PREVENTED

1 The best approach rain is to reduce the amount of NOX and SOX being released in the

atmosphere

2 By fitting a catalytic converter to car can reduce the emission of NOX by up to 90

3 If a fuel with low Sulfur content (oil) is burnt can reduce the formation of SOX

4 SO2 created during any combustion can be absorbed if an appropriate chemical (like

limestone) is present as a fuel burn Now once the fuel is burnt SO2 can be removed from

the exhaust gases

5 Most of the systems spray a mixture of ―Limestone amp Waterrdquo onto the gases reacts with

SO2 to form Gypsum

6 The best way to reduce the effect of acid rain not uses much energy in one place As we can

help in lot of ways as

a Turns off lights when we leave a room

b If we have a car then doesnlsquot use it for the short journeys etc etc

EFFECTS OF ACID RAIN ON ENVIRONMENT

Acid rain is an extremely destructive form of pollution and the environment suffers from its

effects Forests trees lakes animals and plants suffer from acid rain

Trees are an extremely important natural resource They provide timber regulate local climate and

forests are homes to wildlife Acid rain can make trees lose their leaves or needles as is shown in

these pictures of forests damaged by acid rain in Germany The needles and leaves of the trees turn

brown and fall off Trees can also suffer from stunted growth and have damaged bark and leaves

which makes them vulnerable to weather disease and insects All of this happens partly because of

direct contact between trees and acid rain but it also happens when trees absorb soil that has come

into contact with acid rain The soil poisons the tree with toxic substances that the rain has

deposited into it

11

Lakes are also damaged by acid rain A lake polluted by acid rain will support only the hardiest

species Fish die off and that removes the main source of food for birds Also birds can die from

eating toxic fish and insects Just as birds can be killed from eating toxic fish fish can die from

eating animals that are toxic Acid rain can even kill fish before they are born Acid rain hits the

lakes mostly in the springtime when fish lay their eggs The eggs come into contact with the acid

and the entire generation can be killed Fish usually die only when the acid level of a lake is high

when the acid level is lower they can become sick suffer stunted growth or lose their ability to

reproduce

EFFECTS OF ACID RAIN ON ARCHITECTURE

Architecture and artwork can be destroyed by acid rain Acid particles can land on

buildings causing corrosion When sulfur pollutants fall of the surfaces of buildings (especially

those made out of sandstone or limestone) they react with the minerals in the stone to form a

powdery substance that can be washed away by rain This powdery substance is called gypsum

Acid rain can damage buildings stained glass railroad lines airplanes cars steel bridges and

underground pipes

EFFECTS OF ACID RAIN ON HUMAN HEALTH

Humans can become seriously ill and can even die from the effects of acid rain One of the

major problems that acid rain can cause in a human being is respiratory problems Many can find it

difficult to breathe especially people who have asthma Asthma along with dry coughs headaches

and throat irritations can be caused by the sulfur dioxides and nitrogen oxides from acid rain

Acid rain can be absorbed by both plants (through soil andor direct contact) and animals (from

things they eat andor direct contact) When humans eat these plants or animals the toxins inside of

their meals can affect them Brain damage kidney problems and Alzheimers disease have been

linked to people eating toxic animals plants

When the United States Congress Office of Technology Assessment looked at the effects of acid

rain in North America in the year 1982 they discovered that sulfur pollution kills 51000 people in

a year and about 200000 people become ill as a result of the pollution People are getting sick and

dying but we can stop it Go back to the main page to discover solutions to the acid rain problem

SOLUTIONS TO THE ACID RAIN PROBLEM

Acid rain is a big problem but it is not unstoppable If the amount of sulfur dioxides and

nitrogen oxides in the air is reduced then acid rain will be reduced There are many helpful things

that normal people (people who arent part of a power company or the government) can do First

12

of all conserve energy and pollute less Use less electricity and carpool use public

transportation or walk when you can This will help more than one might think When less energy

is used less coal is burnt and as a result there is less acid rain Experts say that if energy was used

more carefully we could cut the amount of fuel burned in half Also if coal was cleaned before it

was burnt the dangerous pollutants that cause acid rain would be cleaned away If coal is crushed

and washed in water the sulfur washes out However this is a very costly method and many power

companies and governments do not want to spend their money cleaning coal It is also costly to

burn low-sulfur coal (low-sulfur coal gives off less sulfur in the air as opposed to high-sulfur coal)

ATMOSPHERIC DISPERSION (THE MODEL)

A dispersion model is a mathematical description of the meteorological transport and

dispersion process that is quantified in term of source and meteorological parameters during a

particular time The meteorological parameters required for use of the models include wind

direction wind speed and atmospheric stability In some models provisions may be made of

including lapse rate and vertical mixing height most models will require data about the physical

stack height the diameter of the stack at the emission discharge point the exit gas temperature and

velocity and the mass rater of emission of pollutants

Models are usually classified as either short term of climatologically models Short term

models are generally used under the following circumstances (1) to estimate ambient

concentrations where it is impractical to sample such as over rivers or lacks or at great distance s

above the ground (2) to estimate the required emergency source reductions associated with periods

or air stagnations under air pollution episode alert condition and (3) to estimate the most probable

location of high short term ground level concentrations as part of a site selection evaluation for the

location of air monitoring equipment The model- it gives the ground level concentration (x) of

pollutant at a point (coordinates x and y) downwind from a stack with an effective height (H) The

standard deviation of the plume in the horizontal and vertical directions is designated by sy and sz

respectively The standard deviations are functions of the downward distance from the source and

the stability of the atmosphere The equation is as follows

Q

X = e[- frac12 (YSy)sup2] e [- frac12 (HSz)sup2]

π Sy Sz u

Where

S(x y O H) = downwind concentration at ground level gm3

Q= emission rate of pollutants gs

Sy Sz = plume standard deviations m

13

U = wind speed ms

The dispersion models require the input of data which includes

Meteorological conditions such as wind speed and direction the amount of atmospheric

turbulence (as characterized by what is called the stability class) the ambient air

temperature and the height to the bottom of any inversion aloft that may be present

Emissions parameters such as source location and height source vent stack diameter and

exit velocity exit temperature and mass flow rate

Terrain elevations at the source location and at the receptor location

The location height and width of any obstructions (such as buildings or other structures) in

the path of the emitted gaseous plume

Many of the modern advanced dispersion modeling programs include a pre-processor module

for the input of meteorological and other data and many also include a post-processor module for

graphing the output data andor plotting the area impacted by the air pollutants on maps

The atmospheric dispersion models are also known as atmospheric diffusion models air

dispersion models air quality models and air pollution dispersion models

GAUSSIAN AIR POLLUTANT DISPERSION EQUATION

The technical literature on air pollution dispersion is quite extensive and dates back to the

1930s and earlier One of the early air pollutant plume dispersion equations was derived by

Bosanquet and Pearson[1]

Their equation did not assume Gaussian distribution nor did it include

the effect of ground reflection of the pollutant plume

Sir Graham Sutton derived an air pollutant plume dispersion equation in 1947 which did

include the assumption of Gaussian distribution for the vertical and crosswind dispersion of the

plume and also included the effect of ground reflection of the plume

Under the stimulus provided by the advent of stringent environmental control regulations

there was an immense growth in the use of air pollutant plume dispersion calculations between the

late 1960s and today A great many computer programs for calculating the dispersion of air

pollutant emissions were developed during that period of time and they were called air dispersion

models The basis for most of those models was the Complete Equation for Gaussian Dispersion

Modeling Of Continuous Buoyant Air Pollution Plumes shown below

where

f = crosswind dispersion parameter

=

g = vertical dispersion parameter =

g1 = vertical dispersion with no reflections

14

=

g2 = vertical dispersion for reflection from the ground

=

g3 = vertical dispersion for reflection from an inversion aloft

=

C = concentration of emissions in gmsup3 at any receptor located

x meters downwind from the emission source point

y meters crosswind from the emission plume centerline

z meters above ground level

Q = source pollutant emission rate in gs

u = horizontal wind velocity along the plume centerline ms

H = height of emission plume centerline above ground level in m

σz = vertical standard deviation of the emission distribution in m

σy = horizontal standard deviation of the emission distribution in m

L = height from ground level to bottom of the inversion aloft in m

exp = the exponential function

The above equation not only includes upward reflection from the ground it also includes

downward reflection from the bottom of any inversion lid present in the atmosphere

The sum of the four exponential terms in g3 converges to a final value quite rapidly For

most cases the summation of the series with m = 1 m = 2 and m = 3 will provide an adequate

solution

It should be noted that σz and σy are functions of the atmospheric stability class (ie a

measure of the turbulence in the ambient atmosphere) and of the downwind distance to the

receptor The two most important variables affecting the degree of pollutant emission dispersion

obtained are the height of the emission source point and the degree of atmospheric turbulence The

more turbulence the better the degree of dispersion

The resulting calculations for air pollutant concentrations are often expressed as an air

pollutant concentration contour map in order to show the spatial variation in contaminant levels

over a wide area under study In this way the contour lines can overlay sensitive receptor locations

and reveal the spatial relationship of air pollutants to areas of interest

15

THE BRIGGS PLUME RISE EQUATIONS

The Gaussian air pollutant dispersion equation (discussed above) requires the input of H

which is the pollutant plumes centerline height above ground levelmdashand H is the sum of Hs (the

actual physical height of the pollutant plumes emission source point) plus ΔH (the plume rise due

the plumes buoyancy)

To determine ΔH many if not most of the air dispersion models developed and used

between the late 1960s and the early 2000s used what are known as the Briggs equations GA

Briggs published his first plume rise model observations and comparisons in 1965 In 1968 at a

symposium sponsored by CONCAWE (a Dutch organization) he compared many of the plume rise

models then available in the literature In that same year Briggs also wrote the section of the

publication edited by Slade dealing with the comparative analyses of plume rise models That was

followed in 1969 by his classical critical review of the entire plume rise literature in which he

proposed a set of plume rise equations which have became widely known as the Briggs

equations Subsequently Briggs modified his 1969 plume rise equations in 1971 and in 1972

Briggs divided air pollution plumes into these four general categories

Cold jet plumes in calm ambient air conditions

Cold jet plumes in windy ambient air conditions

Hot buoyant plumes in calm ambient air conditions

Hot buoyant plumes in windy ambient air conditions

Briggs considered the trajectory of cold jet plumes to be dominated by their initial velocity

momentum and the trajectory of hot buoyant plumes to be dominated by their buoyant momentum

to the extent that their initial velocity momentum was relatively unimportant Although Briggs

proposed plume rise equations for each of the above plume categories it is important to emphasize

that the Briggs equations which become widely used are those that he proposed for bent-over hot

buoyant plumes

In general Briggss equations for bent-over hot buoyant plumes are based on observations and

data involving plumes from typical combustion sources such as the flue gas stacks from steam-

generating boilers burning fossil fuels in large power plants Therefore the stack exit velocities

were probably in the range of 20 to 100 fts (6 to 30 ms) with exit temperatures ranging from 250

to 500 degF (120 to 260 degC)

A logic diagram for using the Briggs equations [3]

to obtain the plume rise trajectory of bent-over

buoyant plumes is presented below

16

ldquoSCRUBBERSrdquo

The Scrubber is one of the most common pollution control device used by industries It

operates on a very simple principle that a polluted gas is brought into contact with the absorbent so

that the pollutants can be removed

There are two types of Scrubbers Wet Scrubbers and Dry Scrubbers Mechanism of

both the scrubbers is almost same The only difference is in case of Dry Scrubbers End Product is

in solid form while in case of Wet Scrubbers it is found in liquid form

17

A) ndash DRY SCRUBBERS

Dry Scrubbing system removes particulate matter and acid gases from combustion flue gas

While capturing mercury heavy metals dioxins and furans

The heart of the Dry Scrubbing process is the ―Spray Drier Absorber Flue gas enters the

top of the reactor where it is immediately mixed with a finely atomized spray of reagent The

reagent to form neutralized salt absorbs the acid gases at the same time evaporates leaving a dry

powder

The dried reaction products and fly ash are swept out of the reactor to a particulate collector

where they are removed from the flue gas

The below chart shows that the application has the contaminants and the absorbents use for

the absorption purpose

Typical Typical

Application Contaminates Absorbents

Aluminum Anode Baking Fluorides SO2 VOCs Petroleum coke Alumni

Aluminum pot lines Benzene pyrene Fluorides Petroleum coke Alumni

SO2

Municipal Waste HF Heavy Metals Ca (OH)2 + activated

Carbon

Clinical Waste HCl SO2 NaCHO2 + activated

Carbons

Steel Production SO2 Ca (OH)2

Cerium Production HCL HF Ca (OH)2

Molybdenum alloy

Production HCL HF Ca (OH)2

B) ndash WET SCRUBBERS

It absorbs both physical and chemical pollutants from the gas stream This system relies on

a chemical reaction with an absorbent to remove a wide range of pollutants including SO2 acid gas

and other toxic from the flue gas Here liquid absorbent is sprayed on the flue gas in an absorber

vessel may dissolve or diffuse with liquid

In this process we have slurry of waste or by product is in liquid shape This may require an

additional treatment

Wet Scrubber technology can be applied to difficult processes such as gas absorption and

particle collection treating combustible particles and removal of wet sticky or corrosive particles

18

The mechanism of wet scrubbers is so simple that for better understanding of its function

we can built our own Wet Scrubber as

Procedure

1 Set up the apparatus as per process and put a paper towel in 55-ml flask and place this

above the burner

2 Connect a 30-cm piece of rubber tubing in order to link first flask with the second making

sure an air-tight seal exists

3 Fill a second 500-ml flask approximately frac34 full of water Construct a 3rd

flask like 2nd

4 Connect rubber tubing and heat the 1st flask until smoke appears

5 Put a vacuum on the 3rd

flask to draw a stream of smoke through the 2nd

flask If smoke

collects in the 2nd

flask above the water a 2nd

scrubber can be added

6 Observe the change of color in the wet scrubber

ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATOR

A precipitator is a device that captures particulate from a gas stream In the simplest term a

precipitator is a large box The particulate laden gases are drawn into one side of the box using

perforated plate and diffusers to evenly distribute the gas Inside high voltage electrodes impart a

negative charge to the particles entrained in the gas These negatively charged particles leave the

box up to 99 cleaner than when it entered

In Dry ESP the particles are usually removed from the collecting plate by introducing a jerk

in it In a Wet ESP the collecting plate is emptied flushed by pumping water in it

Dry units are attractive due to their ability to collect and transport the dust in a dry

condition This eliminates the use of water and the concerns of pollution corrosion and dewatering

If the dust particles can be collected and handled in a dry condition it is always more advantageous

to employ a dry electro precipitator

The electrostatic precipitator uses a voltage differential between two electrodes to extract

and collect particulate

Where Electrostatic Precipitators are utilized

Electrostatic Precipitators are not only used in utility applications but also in other industries

such as cement (dust) pulp and paper (salt cake and lime dust) petro-chemicals (sulfuric acid mist)

and steel (dust and fumes)

APPLICATIONS

INDUSTRY MATERIAL COLLECTED

Coal-fired Power Generation Fly ash

19 Pulp and Paper Salt cake lime dust

Chemical Sulfuric acid Mist

Cement Dust

Steel Dust Fumes

Electrostatic Precipitators has been reliable technology since early 1900lsquos Originally

developed to abate serious smoke nuisance the manufacturers of Zinc Copper and Lead quickly

found electric gas cleaning a cost efficient way to recover valuable product carried out of the stack

from furnace operation Today Electrostatic Precipitators are found mainly on lower plants

incinerators and various boiler applications

In the wood products industry the dry electrostatic precipitator preceded by multi clones is now

normally considered the best available control technology for wood fired boiler emissions

Wet electrostatic precipitators have found renewed interest from particleboard and plywood veneer

manufactures for controlling dryer exhaust

A dry ESP operates at temperature above 7000F and maintains the fly ash in its natural dry

condition simplifying material handling

CYCLONE

For particle size greater than above 10 um the collector of choice is the cyclone This is

inertial collector with no moving parts







[(9 μ B2

H)] frac12

d05=

[ρp Qg Ө] frac12



the collector



20

GREENHOUSE EFFECT GLOBAL WARMING

The ―Greenhouse Effect is a natural phenomenon that warms up the earth It works on the

same principles as the ordinary garden glasshouse which allows the light to get in but does

not allow the heat to get out

The earth is surrounded by a shield of atmospheric gases primarily nitrogen (78) and

oxygen (21) The remainder of the air composition is made up of what are called as ―trace

gases which include carbon dioxide (CO2) methane (CH4) etc

The earth maintains its temperature through insulation with a thermal blanketlsquo of

greenhouse gases which allow penetration of the sunlsquos rays but prevent some heat radiation

back into space Light from the sun penetrates the atmosphere and reaches the earth surface

warming it up

The earth then radiates much of this heat in the form of infrared rays which have a wave

length longer than that of visible light and are thus absorbed by the greenhouse gases This

absorption of heat warms up the atmosphere which in turn radiates some of the heat back to

earth

Greenhouse gases related to human actively are increasing at an unprecedented rate leading

to an overall warming of the earthlsquos surface The major greenhouse gases include carbon

dioxide tropospheric ozone nitrous oxide methane CFCs and water vapor These gases are

largely transparent to solar radiation but opaque to outgoing long wave radiation

A brief discussion on greenhouse gases and their role is give below

Carbon Dioxide (CO2)

Carbon dioxide is a by-product of most living things and many commercial processes

Carbon dioxide is a waste product when organism ―burn food (flue) to release energy

required for life activities CO2 is also given off when humans burn fossil fuels and

when a huge amount of fuel is used for transpiration and energy

Only about half the carbon dioxide emitted in the atmosphere is absorbed by oceans

forests the rest remains in the atmosphere acting as greenhouse gas The overall

contribution of manmade CO2 to enhance the greenhouse effect is thought to be of the

order of 20

Carbon dioxide differs from nitrogen (N2) and oxygen (O2) the two main gases in the

atmosphere in that it absorbs infra-red radiation (heat) causing the temperature of the

earth to increase

21

Methane (CH4)

In general methane is formed from the decomposition of organic material The major

sources of methane are livestock waste decomposition such as in landfill areas and coal

mining Methane is also released from natural gas leakages Rice paddies gas drilling

venting and transmission natural marches and swamps and burning vegetation

The increase in methane is linked to the worldlsquos growing population and its need for

food and disposable goods Studies suggest that methane is about 20 times more

powerful as a greenhouse gas than CO2

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCrsquos)

The chlorofluorocarbons (CFClsquos) are part of a larger family of compounds known as the

halocarbons of which those containing chlorine and bromine are of primary concern

CFClsquos are non reactive non caustic non corrosive and nonflammable chemicals mainly

used in refrigeration air conditioning dry cleaning plastic foams and aerosols

CFClsquos are also a potent greenhouse gas In the upper atmosphere ultra violet light

breaks off a chlorine atom from a CFClsquos molecule which then reacts with ozone

molecule breaking it apart and forming an oxygen molecule and chlorine monoxide

The free oxygen atom breaks up chlorine monoxide and chlorine is free again to repeat

the process As more and more of the ozone are depleted the ozone layer gets thinner

and allows more ultraviolet rays reach the surface of earth

Nitrous Oxide (N2O)

This greenhouse gas is released by burning of fossil fuels and vegetation and by the use

of nitrogenous fertilizers in agriculture One process which causes nitrous oxide to be

released is denitrification by bacteria in soil groundwater and the oceans

This process may occur in natural soils but can also be increased by planting pastures

with nitrogen fixing plants cultivated to improve soil fertility The addition of nitrate

and ammonium fertilizers to soils is

NOISE AS AN ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION

Noise pollution usually called Environmental Noise Pollution in technical venues is

unwanted human-created sound that disrupts the environment The dominant form of noise

pollution is from transportation sources principally motor vehicles The word noise comes from the

Latin word nausea meaning seasickness

Noise is unwanted sound mdash barking dogs loud music passing traffic Studies show that

over 40 percent of Peoples are disturbed at home or lose sleep because of Noise Pollution

22

Everyone reacts differently to noise What can be unbearable for one person may pass

almost unnoticed by another How annoyed we become depends on the loudness time place and

frequency of noise Distinct features of noise such as screeches or rumbles are also important

Noise is measured on the decibel scale Noise levels referred to as decibels on the (A) scale

(written as dB (A)) are a good indicator of peoplelsquos response to noise

Human-created noise harmful to health or welfare Transportation vehicles are the worst

offenders with aircraft railroad stock trucks buses automobiles and motorcycles all producing

excessive noise Construction equipment eg jackhammers and bulldozers also produce

substantial noise pollution

Noise intensity is measured in ―DECIBEL unit The decibel scale is logarithmic each 10-

decibel increase represents a tenfold increase in noise intensity Human perception of loudness also

conforms to a logarithmic scale a 10-decibel increase is perceived as roughly a doubling of

loudness Thus 30 decibels is 10 times more intense than 20 decibels and sounds twice as loud 40

decibels is 100 times more intense than 20 and sounds 4 times as loud 80 decibels is 1 million

times more intense than 20 and sounds 64 times as loud Distance diminishes the effective decibel

level reaching the ear Thus moderate auto traffic at a distance of 100 ft (30 m) rates about 50

decibels To a driver with a car window open or a pedestrian on the sidewalk the same traffic rates

about 70 decibels that is it sounds 4 times louder At a distance of 2000 ft (600 m) the noise of a

jet takeoff reaches about 110 decibelsmdashapproximately the same as an automobile horn only 3 ft (1

m) away

Subjected to 45 decibels of noise the average person cannot sleep At 120 decibels the ear

registers pain but hearing damage begins at a much lower level about 85 decibels The duration of

the exposure is also important There is evidence that among young Americans hearing sensitivity

is decreasing year by year because of exposure to noise including excessively amplified music

Apart from hearing loss such noise can cause lack of sleep irritability heartburn indigestion

ulcers high blood pressure and possibly heart disease One burst of noise as from a passing truck

is known to alter endocrine neurological and cardiovascular functions in many individuals

prolonged or frequent exposure to such noise tends to make the physiological disturbances chronic

In addition noise-induced stress creates severe tension in daily living and contributes to mental

illness

Noise is recognized as a controllable pollutant that can yield to abatement technology In the

United States the Noise Control Act of 1972 empowered the Environmental Protection Agency to

determine the limits of noise required to protect public health and welfare to set noise emission

standards for major sources of noise in the environment including transportation equipment and

facilities construction equipment and electrical machinery and to recommend regulations for

controlling aircraft noise and sonic booms Also in the 1970s the Occupational Safety and Health

Administration began to try to reduce workplace noise Funding for these efforts and similar local

efforts was severely cut in the early 1980s and enforcement became negligible

EFFECTS OF NOISE

The WHO suggests that noise can affect human health and well-being in a number of ways

including annoyance reaction sleep disturbance interference with communication performance

effects effects on social behavior and hearing loss Noise can cause annoyance and frustration as a

result of interference interruption and distraction Activity disturbance is regarded as an important

23

indicator of the community impact of noise The AEC national noise survey assessed two major

disturbances for example to listening activities and sleep 41 of respondents reported

experiencing disturbance to listening activities and 42 to sleep

Research into the effects of noise on human health indicates a variety of health effects

People experiencing high noise levels (especially around airports or along roadrail corridors) differ

from those with less noise expo sure in terms of increased number of headaches greater

susceptibility to minor accidents increased reliance on sedatives and sleeping pills increased

mental hospital admission rates

Exposure to noise is also associated with a range of possible physical effects including

colds changes in blood pressure other cardiovascular changes increased general medical practice

attendance problems with the digestive system and general fatigue

There is fairly consistent evidence that prolonged exposure to noise levels at or above 80

dBcan cause deafness The amount of deafness depends upon the degree of exposure

EFFECTS OF NOISE POLLUTION ON

(A)- HUMAN HEALTH

Hearing

The mechanism for chronic exposure to noise leading to hearing loss is well established

The elevated sound levels cause trauma to the cochlear structure in the inner ear which gives rise

to irreversible hearing loss The pinna (visible portion of the human ear) combined with the middle

ear amplifies sound levels by a factor of 20 when sound reaches the inner ear In Rosens seminal

work on serious health effects regarding hearing loss and coronary artery disease one of his

findings derived from tracking Maaban tribesmen who were insignificantly exposed to

transportation or industrial noise This population was systematically compared by cohort group to

a typical US population The findings proved that aging is an almost insignificant cause of hearing

loss which instead is associated with chronic exposure to moderately high levels of environmental

noise

Noise effects on both health and behavioral in nature The following discussion refers to

sound levels that are present within 30 to 150 meters from a moderately busy highway

Cardiovascular Health

High noise levels can contribute to Cardiovascular effects and exposure to moderately high

(eg above 70 dB) during a single eight hour period causes a statistical rise in blood pressure of

five to ten mmHg a clear and measurable increase in stress [1]

and vasoconstriction leading to the

increased blood pressure noted above as well as to increased incidence of coronary artery disease

(B)- ENVIRONMENT

Noise pollution can also be harmful to animals High noise levels may interfere with the

natural cycles of animals including feeding behavior breeding rituals and migration paths The

most significant impact of noise to animal life is the systematic reduction of usable habitat which

in the case of endangered species may be an important part of the path to extinction Perhaps the

most sensational damage caused by noise pollution is the death of certain species of beaked whales

brought on by the extremely loud (up to 200 decibels) sound of military sonar

24

SAFE LEVELS OF NOISE

State government regulations state that our maximum daily noise dose should be no more

than the equivalent of 85dB(A) for eight hours a day Permanent hearing damage is likely to occur

if this daily dose is exceeded repeatedly

PROBLEMS CAUSED BY NOISE

Annoyance

When we think talk relax listen to music or sleep we need quiet Even relatively low

levels of noise can cause annoyance and frustration Sudden increases in volume and tone makes

sounds annoying mdash the reason why sirens are so penetrating A quieter background can make noise

more intrusive Natural sounds are generally less annoying than ones we think unnecessary or

controllable Intermittent sounds such as a tap dripping on a quiet night can be more disturbing than

the sound of falling rain

Speech interference

Noise can interfere with speech When the background noise level is 50dB(A) normal conversation

can be easily carried with someone up to 1m away Any more than that and problems will arise

Sleep interference

Noise can wake people from sleep and keep them awake Even if not actually woken a personlsquos

sleep pattern can be disturbed resulting in a reduced feeling of well-being the next day

Decreased work performance

As noise levels increase our ability to concentrate and work efficiently and accurately reduces

Louder noise bursts can be more disruptive Noise is more likely to reduce the accuracy of the work

than reduce the total quantity of work done Complex tasks are more likely to be impaired Noise

can also make instructions or warnings unclear resulting in accidents

Hearing loss

Prolonged exposure to noise levels above 85dB can damage inner ear cells and lead to hearing loss

At first hearing loss is usually temporary and recovery takes place over a few days After further

exposure a person may not fully recover their initial level of hearing mdash irreversible damage will

have been done causing deafness The extent of deafness depends on the degree of exposure and

individual susceptibility Even brief exposure to very high levels of 130dBor more can cause

instant irreversible hearing damage

MAJOR SOURCES OF NOISE

The overarching cause of most noise worldwide is generated by transportation systems

principally motor vehicle noise but also including aircraft noise and rail noise Hybrid vehicles for

road use are the first widely sold automobiles in 100 years to achieve significant noise source

reduction Poor urban planning may also give rise to noise pollution since juxtaposition of

industrial to residential land uses for example often results in adverse consequences for the

residential acoustic environment

Besides transportation noise other prominent sources are office equipment factory

machinery appliances power tools lighting hum and audio entertainment systems With the

popularity of digital audio player devices individuals in a noisy area might increase the volume in

order to drown out ambient sounds Construction equipment also produces noise pollution

25

Noise from recreational off-highway vehicles (OHVs) is becoming a serious problem in

rural areas ATVs also known as quads or four wheelers have increased in popularity and are

joining the traditional two wheeled dirt motorcycles for off-road riding

The noise from ATV machines is quite different from that of the traditional dirt bike The

ATVs have large bore four stroke engines that produce a loud throaty growl that will carry further

due to the lower frequencies involved The traditional two stroke engines on dirt bikes have gotten

larger and while they have higher frequencies they still can propagate the sound for a mile or

more The noise produced by these vehicle is particularly disturbing due to the wide variations in

frequency and volume

Recreational off-road vehicles are generally not required to be registered and the control of

the noise they emit is absent in most communities However there is a growing awareness that

operation of these machines can seriously degrade the quality of life of those within earshot of the

noise and some communities have enacted regulations either by imposing limits on the sound or

through land use laws Rider organizations are also beginning to recognize the problem and are

enlightening members as to future restrictions on riding if noise is not curtailed

MAJOR NOISE SOURCES ARE

Road Traffic

Road traffic noise is one of the most widespread and growing environmental problems in urban

NSW In 1991 it was estimated that in Sydney

15 million residents were exposed to outdoor traffic noise levels defined by the OECD as

undesirable (between 55 and 65 dB(A)) where sleep and amenity are affected

350000 of these residents were estimated to experience noise levels considered as

unacceptable (greater than 65dB) where behavior patterns are constrained and health

effects are demonstrable

In 1994 the NSW Road Traffic Noise Taskforce reported that road traffic noise has become a

major urban environmental problem because

historically land use planning has not been well integrated with transport planning

allowing residential developments and major transport corridors to occur in close proximity

without appropriate buffer zones or treatment to buildings

there has been an increasing community reliance on road transportation and a reluctance to

implement or accept partial solutions involving greater use of public transport traffic on

many existing roads through built-up areas has increased well beyond expectations

prevailing during planning or construction of the roadways

potential solutions apart from new vehicle noise standards are complex often costly and

require coordinated actions by a number of agencies and the community

while there is high community awareness of the problem there is a general lack of

understanding of its extent and possible solutions

The impact of road traffic noise on the community depends on various factors such as road

location and design land use planning measures building design vehicle standards and driver

behavior

Motor vehicle ownership in NSW has increased substantially over the last 30 years and general

levels of road traffic noise throughout NSW have increased through this period

26

Although some site specific measurements have been taken in response to particular issues

there is a general lack of consistent data on the impact of road traffic on noise levels within the state

and even within urban areas The lack of background noise data collected both before and after

construction of new roads or expansion of existing ones making it difficult to assess the impact on

ambient noise levels In response to this lack of data the RTA is developing a comprehensive road

traffic noise database of all its road traffic noise measurements RTA information indicates that

many of the major roads within Sydney have traffic volumes in excess of 30000 vehicles per day

This volume of traffic produces a noise level of about 70 dB

Air Traffic

In the Sydney metropolitan area it has been the cause of considerable community concern

particularly since the opening of the third runway at Sydneys Kingsford Smith airport and with the

planning of a second Sydney airport The extent of aircraft noise impact depends on the types of

aircraft flown the number of flights and flight paths

Between 1990 and 1996 total aircraft movements at Sydney airport increased by 37 to

meet the increasing demand at the airport The in crease in the number of flights an important

factor in overall noise levels has led to an increase in general noise levels associated with air

traffic The third runway at Sydney airport was opened by the Commonwealth government in

November 1994 Airport operations changed to accommodate the new runway and included the

introduction of new flight paths The change in operations at Sydney airport led to changes in the

noise levels experienced by the community Many affected areas reported that they were being

exposed to higher noise impacts than predicted in the environmental impact statement or that

impacts were occurring in areas where no aircraft noise was predicted Recent changes to the

operation of Sydney airport have led to an increase in the level of complaints

Rail Traffic

There are two main sources of noise and vibration relating to the operation of the rail

network the operation of trains and the maintenance and construction of rail infrastructure

The level of noise associated with rail traffic is related to the type of engine or rolling stock

used the speed of the train and track type and condition Major NSW population centers are served

by electric trains which are generally quieter than diesel Areas affected by freight trains often

experience higher noise levels than areas affected by passenger trains The problem of noise is

compounded by the requirements of railway operations (especially night operations) and factors

such as stopping patterns and topography which can lead to localized problems

Rail noise can be considerable but generally affects a far smaller group of the population

than road or aircraft noise as it is generally confined to residents living along rail lines in urban

areas While changes to locomotives and rolling stock mean that they have become quieter over the

last few years railway noise remains a problem because of longer more frequent and faster trains

and the build up of the urban environment

The Hunter Valley is the most important centre for coal production for export purposes in

NSW Large coal trains used to carry the coal are a source of noise related complaints in the area

In response to this Freight Rail Corp organized an extensive study of rail related noise The study

found that the majority of the sites monitored along the Sydney to Newcastle line and along major

coal routes on occasions exceeded at least one of the EPA targets for environmental noise of

railway operation For residents adjacent to existing railway lines the target levels are the maximum

level of 85 dB and level of 60 dB(A) Although noise associated with freight trains is generally

27

higher than that from passenger trains the study also indicated that passenger traffic was a

significant component of overall noise along the Sydney-Newcastle line Freight Rail Corp and Rail

Access Corp are currently compiling a profile of noise associated with all freight and passenger

trains in NSW

Neighborhood amp Domestic Noise

Other significant sources of noise annoyance in Sydney include barking dogs car alarms garbage

recycling lawn-mowers building construction and household noise A significant proportion of

complaints received by local councils the police and the EPA are related to neighborhood noise

(EPA 1993a) The national noise survey found that noise from barking dogs and road traffic have

the greatest impact on residential communities Noise from barking dogs is of particular concern

because it is unpredictable and often happens repeatedly

Incompatible land use

Generally the determination of land use zoning includes the separation of activities which are

incompatible due to noise levels For example heavy industrial area will be separated from

residential areas by light industrial recreational facilitates andor retail activities However

changing land uses over many decades and earlier inappropriate zoning controls have resulted in

unacceptable noise levels for some areas and uses

The Department of Urban Affairs and Planning (DUAP) has developed environmental impact

statement guidelines for major developments which address sitting issues for which noise

generation is a consideration in addition to ensuring noise impact assessment is carried out as part

of the assessment process

To address land use planning along rail corridors the rail sector has developed a strategy to

encourage inclusion of noise and vibration generated by existing and future rail operations in the

development process A key aim of the strategy is to improve awareness of council planners

developers and the community to rail noise and vibration related issues As part of this initiative in

December 1995 the rail sector distributed a series of educational guidelines to all councils with rail

lines in their area This was followed in March 1996 by an educational workshop for councils

Increased awareness of the issue of incompatible land use planning has led to a number of councils

including Hornsby Sydney City Botany Fairfield and Sutherland in Sydney introducing codes for

noise in development plans

ldquoNOISE CONTROL MEASURESrdquo

The EPA controls noise from scheduled premises those required by the Noise Control Act

to have a license and noise associated with rail traffic and the construction or upgrading of

freeways and toll roads The Police and local councils are generally responsible for neighborhood

noise issues and have authority to issue noise abatement directions to control noise from premises

and for noise from burglar alarms Local councils have an essential role in minimizing the effects of

excessive noise particularly in their local residential areas from smaller factories non-scheduled

premises and public places The Waterways Authority has specific responsibilities in relation to

noise from vessels in navigable waters

Air services Australia is responsible for control of environmental noise associated with

aircraft arriving and departing from Sydney (Kingsford Smith) airport The Federal Airports

Corporation as the airport owner and operator is responsible for noise associated with noise at the

airport including on-ground air movements

28

The Environmental Planning and Assessment Act 1979 provides responsibility and

opportunity for controlling environmental noise through the planning process Consideration of the

implications of environmental noise at the planning stage can often avoid or minimize the need for

supplementary noise controls However in some instances noise reduction or mitigation measures

are essential for example

controls on noise levels generated from a source (eg vehiclemachine design

driveroperator behavior)

controls on noise transmission (eg through the use of noise barriers)

measures to reduce the level of sound reaching a receiver (eg soundproofing sensitive or

affected buildings)

Major Noise Control Measures are

Reducing Road Traffic Noise

The Noise Control (Motor Vehicles and Motor Vehicle Accessories) Regulation 1995

prescribes noise levels for classes of motor vehicles and restricts allowable noise levels for vehicles

manufactured at variable times depending on the class of the vehicle In addition the EPA conducts

a noisy vehicle testing program on passenger cars motor bikes and trucks However despite

progress in addressing the problem of individually noisy vehicles the rise in traffic volume has

meant an increase in traffic noise overall

The Road Traffic Noise Committee was formed in December 1995 to facilitate the

implementation of the recommendations made by the Road Traffic Noise Taskforce Initiatives

completed or currently under way as part of this process include

developing the EPA environmental criteria for road traffic noise (see below)

releasing the Roads and Traffic Authoritys (RTA) community education information about

traffic noise and homes

in 1996 250 RTA Vehicle Inspectors were trained by the EPA in measuring and identifying

noisy vehicles and were declared Authorized Officers under the Noise Control Regulations

Researching road traffic noise for which the RTA has allocated $230000 for 1996-97

Promoting at a national level a new Australian Design Rule for heavy vehicle exhaust

breaks (a joint effort by the EPA and the RTA)

The EPA in consultation with the RTA is currently finalizing environmental noise criteria to

indicate noise levels that will guide the development of strategies to protect people and

communities from excessive levels of road traffic noise The environmental criteria will improve

the management of road traffic noise for new or upgraded roads and will apply to new roads

bridges or freeways new road use or upgrading of an existing road bridge or freeway or new

development near an existing road

In response to community concerns about noise from major arterial roads the NSW

Government introduced the Noise Abatement Program A noise complaint register was developed

by the RTA as a first step to implementing the program which provides noise abatement measures

to reduce noise in sensitive locations such as residences and schools These include noise mounds

noise attenuation walls and quieter road surfacing In 1995-96 a total of $8223000 was spent

under the program benefiting at least 1200 homes 5 schools and 3 churches (information supplied

to EPA by RTA) A further $14720000 has been allocated for 1996-97

29

Some local council are addressing the issue of road traffic noise by introducing traffic

management initiatives to reduce noise These include use of traffic calming measures resealing of

council-controlled roads and blocking of streets to limit access to certain routes

At a federal level the National Road Transport Commission is developing a new Australian

Design Rule to limit noise from exhaust brakes on new heavy vehicles An education campaign to

limit the use of exhaust brakes on current vehicles is also under preparation Both of these are

planned to be implemented in December 1997

Since traffic volumes and noise levels are connected the continuing growth in traffic volume

within many urban areas of NSW can only further increase the noise levels Reducing reliance on

private transport and utilizing public transport is a strategy which will reduce traffic volumes and

noise To reduce the impact of environmental ambient noise levels to the population in NSW it is

important to consider transportation needs in an integrated fashion to reduce the impact to the

community

Reducing Air Traffic Noise

A range of measures have been introduced by the Commonwealth government to reduce or mitigate

some of the noise impact associated with Sydney airport including

a noise amelioration program that includes insulation and acquisition of the most affected

properties including houses schools child care centers nursing homes and hospitals As of

31 January 1997 $64326000 had been spent on insulation (the average cost for a house is

$38000) and $31900000 on land acquisition (data supplied to EPA by Commonwealth

Department of Transport amp Regional Development 1997)

the introduction of an aircraft noise levy in October 1995 for each jet aircraft landing at the

airport The level of the levy is based on the noise characteristics of the aircraft Money

from the levy is being used to pay for noise amelioration measures

The Commonwealth government through Air services Australia is now pursuing a policy of

sharing the noise from aircraft using the airport Further changes designed to continue the policy of

sharing aircraft noise across Sydney have been proposed in a long term operating plan for the

airport In NovemberDecember 1996 there were 11847 complaints associated with aircraft noise

from Sydney airport (data from Air services Australias Noise Inquiry Unit) This represents an

increase of 241 compared to the same period in 1995

The issue of air traffic related noise is one of the major community concerns regarding the

proposed second Sydney airport An environmental impact statement for the proposal is currently

being prepared

Reducing Rail Traffic Noise

Under the provisions of the Noise Control Act 1975 in NSW the railway system is classified

as scheduled premises and as such the EPA has a regulatory role and seeks to achieve noise targets

for rail operations throughout the state to minimize the impact on local residents

The railway sector has in recent years recorded an increase in the identification and reporting

of noise problems by the community There is a range of initiatives to address this issue including

retrofitting existing locomotives to reduce noise emitted

30

upgrading existing track to continuously welded rail which removes rail joints-a

significant source of noise and vibration

designing new bridges to reduce noise and retrofitting of existing bridges with noise

attenuation devises

deploying quieter rolling stock in noise sensitive areas

use of electric locomotives at night time wherever possible in the Sydney metropolitan area

Altering the holding pattern of trains to avoid them being held at signals for extended

periods in built up areas

―OZONE DEPLETION

Without ozone every living thing on the earthlsquos surface would be incinerated The presence

of Ozone in the upper atmosphere (20 to 40 km and up) provides a barrier to ultraviolet (UV)

radiation Too much UV will cause skin cancer Although oxygen also serves as a barrier to UV

radiation it only absorbs over a narrow band centered at wavelength of 02 μm

Air Pollution threats to this protective ozone shield It is assumed that Chlorofluorocarbons

(CFC) that are used as aerosol propellants and refrigerants react with ozone The frightening aspect

of this series of reactions is that the chlorine atom removes ozone from the system And that the

chlorine atom is continually recycled to convert more ozone to oxygen It has been estimated that a

5 reduction in ozone could result in nearly a 10 increase in skin cancer Thus CFCs in the lower

atmosphere become a serious air pollution problem at higher elevations By 1987 the evidence that

CFCs destroy ozone in the stratosphere above Antarctica every spring had become irrefutable

More than half of the total ozone column was wiped out and essentially all ozone disappeared from

some regions of the stratosphere

Research confirmed that the ozone layer on a worldwide basis shrunk approximately

25 in the preceding decade Initially it was believed that this phenomenon was peculiar to the

Geography and Climatology of Antarctica and that the warmer northern hemisphere was strongly

protected from the processes that lead to massive ozone losses

A number of alternatives to the fully chlorinated and hence more destructive CFCs have

been developed These are primarily fluorocarbons that carry hydrogen atoms which make them

more easily oxidized in the lower atmosphere before they reach stratosphere These compounds are

now undergoing toxicity testing before they can become commercially available

―INDOOR AIR POLLUTION

People who lived in cold climates may spend from 70 to 90 of their times indoors In the

last two decades researchers have become interested in identifying sources concentrations and

31

impacts of air pollutants that arise in conventional domestic residences Starting results indicates

that in certain cases indoor air may be substantially more polluted than the outdoor air

Carbon monoxide from improperly operating furnaces has long been a serious concern In

numerous instances people have died from furnace malfunction Gas ranges ovens pilot lights gas

and kerosene space heaters and cigarette smoke all contribute in indoor pollution The public has to

expect that the recreational habits of smokers should not interfere with the quality of the others

breathe Smokers were allowed to smoke only in the designated lounge area

NO2 levels have been found to range from 70 microgm3 in an air-conditioned house with

electric ranges to 182 microgm3 in non-air-conditioned houses with gas stoves Formaldehyde (CH2O)

and radon are not regulated as ambient air pollutants have been found in dwellings at alarmingly

high concentrations

Unlike the other air pollution sources that continue to emit as long as there is anthropogenic

activity CH2O is ventilated over a period of time the concentration will drop In next few years we

may anticipate some regulatory effort to reduce the emission of these pollutants The house and

apartment dwellers has little recourse other than to replace gas appliances remove or cover

formaldehyde sources and put out the smokers

2

(2) ndash Pollution

Air polluted due to the presence of one or more than one contaminant present in the air in

sufficient quantity composition and characteristics which causes injury to life as well as damages

the materials and properties

Organic are Methane Benzene formaldehyde chlorinated hydrocarbons

AND

Inorganic are NOX SOX COX H2S HF NH3

(3) ndash Control

A Naturally self cleansing way of the environment

1 Dispersion

2 Gravitational settling

3 Natural Absorption process

4 Rain out

5 Adsorption

B Controlling Air Pollution source through engineering devices

1 Stationary Source and

2 Mobile Source

Stationary Source

a Absorption

1a) - Wet Scrubbers

2a) - Dry Scrubbers

b Combustion

c Fuel Gas Desulphurization

d Particulate Pollutants

Mobile Sources

a Fundamentals of different available engines

b Control

Dispersion

Dispersion of pollutants by winds reduces the concentrations of air pollutants by moving the

smog from one place to another This diluted the smoke but not remove it

To calculate it mathematically a model has been developed to estimate the concentration of

the particular pollutant for the specific location and time

3













Rainout




Adsorption






Absorption






lower concentration

4

Scrubbers







Combustion














in World War I




than 37 MJm3





oxidation emission

5






Gypsum






Cyclone









[(9 μ B2

H)] frac12

d05=

[ρp Qg Ө] frac12



the collector



Filter


filters


6


























i)- Natural


I) - Natural Source



7











Lead




Hydrogen Sulfide

Hydrogen Fluoride




Ozone (O3)

Formaldehydes





and tobacco smoking







8








Effects Cancer






















SO2 + 2H2O H2SO4

9


NO2 + H2O HNO3


CO2 + H2O HCO3


2Cl2 + 2H2O 4HCl + O2

















Forest Damages








10






functioning



atmosphere





the exhaust gases


SO2 to form Gypsum















deposited into it

11








reproduce







underground pipes


















12




























Q


π Sy Sz u

Where




13

U = wind speed ms






























where


=



14

=


=


=
















solution










15

























buoyant plumes









16

ldquoSCRUBBERSrdquo







17







powder





Typical Typical




SO2


Carbon


Carbons



Molybdenum alloy











18



Procedure


above the burner




flask like 2nd




flask If smoke

collects in the 2nd






















APPLICATIONS





Cement Dust

Steel Dust Fumes












CYCLONE









[(9 μ B2

H)] frac12

d05=

[ρp Qg Ө] frac12



the collector



20











warming it up




earth














order of 20



earth to increase

21

Methane (CH4)



















Nitrous Oxide (N2O)














22




















m) away










illness









EFFECTS OF NOISE





23















(A)- HUMAN HEALTH

Hearing










noise









(B)- ENVIRONMENT







24






Annoyance







Speech interference



Sleep interference








Hearing loss


















25

















Road Traffic























behavior



26









Air Traffic















Rail Traffic





















27




trains in NSW








































28










affected buildings)

































29













community




















being prepared








30




attenuation devises





―OZONE DEPLETION

























31











high concentrations






3













Rainout




Adsorption






Absorption






lower concentration

4

Scrubbers







Combustion














in World War I




than 37 MJm3





oxidation emission

5






Gypsum






Cyclone









[(9 μ B2

H)] frac12

d05=

[ρp Qg Ө] frac12



the collector



Filter


filters


6


























i)- Natural


I) - Natural Source



7











Lead




Hydrogen Sulfide

Hydrogen Fluoride




Ozone (O3)

Formaldehydes





and tobacco smoking







8








Effects Cancer






















SO2 + 2H2O H2SO4

9


NO2 + H2O HNO3


CO2 + H2O HCO3


2Cl2 + 2H2O 4HCl + O2

















Forest Damages








10






functioning



atmosphere





the exhaust gases


SO2 to form Gypsum















deposited into it

11








reproduce







underground pipes


















12




























Q


π Sy Sz u

Where




13

U = wind speed ms






























where


=



14

=


=


=
















solution










15

























buoyant plumes









16

ldquoSCRUBBERSrdquo







17







powder





Typical Typical




SO2


Carbon


Carbons



Molybdenum alloy











18



Procedure


above the burner




flask like 2nd




flask If smoke

collects in the 2nd






















APPLICATIONS





Cement Dust

Steel Dust Fumes












CYCLONE









[(9 μ B2

H)] frac12

d05=

[ρp Qg Ө] frac12



the collector



20











warming it up




earth














order of 20



earth to increase

21

Methane (CH4)



















Nitrous Oxide (N2O)














22




















m) away










illness









EFFECTS OF NOISE





23















(A)- HUMAN HEALTH

Hearing










noise









(B)- ENVIRONMENT







24






Annoyance







Speech interference



Sleep interference








Hearing loss


















25

















Road Traffic























behavior



26









Air Traffic















Rail Traffic





















27




trains in NSW








































28










affected buildings)

































29













community




















being prepared








30




attenuation devises





―OZONE DEPLETION

























31











high concentrations






4

Scrubbers







Combustion














in World War I




than 37 MJm3





oxidation emission

5






Gypsum






Cyclone









[(9 μ B2

H)] frac12

d05=

[ρp Qg Ө] frac12



the collector



Filter


filters


6


























i)- Natural


I) - Natural Source



7











Lead




Hydrogen Sulfide

Hydrogen Fluoride




Ozone (O3)

Formaldehydes





and tobacco smoking







8








Effects Cancer






















SO2 + 2H2O H2SO4

9


NO2 + H2O HNO3


CO2 + H2O HCO3


2Cl2 + 2H2O 4HCl + O2

















Forest Damages








10






functioning



atmosphere





the exhaust gases


SO2 to form Gypsum















deposited into it

11








reproduce







underground pipes


















12




























Q


π Sy Sz u

Where




13

U = wind speed ms






























where


=



14

=


=


=
















solution










15

























buoyant plumes









16

ldquoSCRUBBERSrdquo







17







powder





Typical Typical




SO2


Carbon


Carbons



Molybdenum alloy











18



Procedure


above the burner




flask like 2nd




flask If smoke

collects in the 2nd






















APPLICATIONS





Cement Dust

Steel Dust Fumes












CYCLONE









[(9 μ B2

H)] frac12

d05=

[ρp Qg Ө] frac12



the collector



20











warming it up




earth














order of 20



earth to increase

21

Methane (CH4)



















Nitrous Oxide (N2O)














22




















m) away










illness









EFFECTS OF NOISE





23















(A)- HUMAN HEALTH

Hearing










noise









(B)- ENVIRONMENT







24






Annoyance







Speech interference



Sleep interference








Hearing loss


















25

















Road Traffic























behavior



26









Air Traffic















Rail Traffic





















27




trains in NSW








































28










affected buildings)

































29













community




















being prepared








30




attenuation devises





―OZONE DEPLETION

























31











high concentrations






5






Gypsum






Cyclone









[(9 μ B2

H)] frac12

d05=

[ρp Qg Ө] frac12



the collector



Filter


filters


6


























i)- Natural


I) - Natural Source



7











Lead




Hydrogen Sulfide

Hydrogen Fluoride




Ozone (O3)

Formaldehydes





and tobacco smoking







8








Effects Cancer






















SO2 + 2H2O H2SO4

9


NO2 + H2O HNO3


CO2 + H2O HCO3


2Cl2 + 2H2O 4HCl + O2

















Forest Damages








10






functioning



atmosphere





the exhaust gases


SO2 to form Gypsum















deposited into it

11








reproduce







underground pipes


















12




























Q


π Sy Sz u

Where




13

U = wind speed ms






























where


=



14

=


=


=
















solution










15

























buoyant plumes









16

ldquoSCRUBBERSrdquo







17







powder





Typical Typical




SO2


Carbon


Carbons



Molybdenum alloy











18



Procedure


above the burner




flask like 2nd




flask If smoke

collects in the 2nd






















APPLICATIONS





Cement Dust

Steel Dust Fumes












CYCLONE









[(9 μ B2

H)] frac12

d05=

[ρp Qg Ө] frac12



the collector



20











warming it up




earth














order of 20



earth to increase

21

Methane (CH4)



















Nitrous Oxide (N2O)














22




















m) away










illness









EFFECTS OF NOISE





23















(A)- HUMAN HEALTH

Hearing










noise









(B)- ENVIRONMENT







24






Annoyance







Speech interference



Sleep interference








Hearing loss


















25

















Road Traffic























behavior



26









Air Traffic















Rail Traffic





















27




trains in NSW








































28










affected buildings)

































29













community




















being prepared








30




attenuation devises





―OZONE DEPLETION

























31











high concentrations






6


























i)- Natural


I) - Natural Source



7











Lead




Hydrogen Sulfide

Hydrogen Fluoride




Ozone (O3)

Formaldehydes





and tobacco smoking







8








Effects Cancer






















SO2 + 2H2O H2SO4

9


NO2 + H2O HNO3


CO2 + H2O HCO3


2Cl2 + 2H2O 4HCl + O2

















Forest Damages








10






functioning



atmosphere





the exhaust gases


SO2 to form Gypsum















deposited into it

11








reproduce







underground pipes


















12




























Q


π Sy Sz u

Where




13

U = wind speed ms






























where


=



14

=


=


=
















solution










15

























buoyant plumes









16

ldquoSCRUBBERSrdquo







17







powder





Typical Typical




SO2


Carbon


Carbons



Molybdenum alloy











18



Procedure


above the burner




flask like 2nd




flask If smoke

collects in the 2nd






















APPLICATIONS





Cement Dust

Steel Dust Fumes












CYCLONE









[(9 μ B2

H)] frac12

d05=

[ρp Qg Ө] frac12



the collector



20











warming it up




earth














order of 20



earth to increase

21

Methane (CH4)



















Nitrous Oxide (N2O)














22




















m) away










illness









EFFECTS OF NOISE





23















(A)- HUMAN HEALTH

Hearing










noise









(B)- ENVIRONMENT







24






Annoyance







Speech interference



Sleep interference








Hearing loss


















25

















Road Traffic























behavior



26









Air Traffic















Rail Traffic





















27




trains in NSW








































28










affected buildings)

































29













community




















being prepared








30




attenuation devises





―OZONE DEPLETION

























31











high concentrations






7











Lead




Hydrogen Sulfide

Hydrogen Fluoride




Ozone (O3)

Formaldehydes





and tobacco smoking







8








Effects Cancer






















SO2 + 2H2O H2SO4

9


NO2 + H2O HNO3


CO2 + H2O HCO3


2Cl2 + 2H2O 4HCl + O2

















Forest Damages








10






functioning



atmosphere





the exhaust gases


SO2 to form Gypsum















deposited into it

11








reproduce







underground pipes


















12




























Q


π Sy Sz u

Where




13

U = wind speed ms






























where


=



14

=


=


=
















solution










15

























buoyant plumes









16

ldquoSCRUBBERSrdquo







17







powder





Typical Typical




SO2


Carbon


Carbons



Molybdenum alloy











18



Procedure


above the burner




flask like 2nd




flask If smoke

collects in the 2nd






















APPLICATIONS





Cement Dust

Steel Dust Fumes












CYCLONE









[(9 μ B2

H)] frac12

d05=

[ρp Qg Ө] frac12



the collector



20











warming it up




earth














order of 20



earth to increase

21

Methane (CH4)



















Nitrous Oxide (N2O)














22




















m) away










illness









EFFECTS OF NOISE





23















(A)- HUMAN HEALTH

Hearing










noise









(B)- ENVIRONMENT







24






Annoyance







Speech interference



Sleep interference








Hearing loss


















25

















Road Traffic























behavior



26









Air Traffic















Rail Traffic





















27




trains in NSW








































28










affected buildings)

































29













community




















being prepared








30




attenuation devises





―OZONE DEPLETION

























31











high concentrations






8








Effects Cancer






















SO2 + 2H2O H2SO4

9


NO2 + H2O HNO3


CO2 + H2O HCO3


2Cl2 + 2H2O 4HCl + O2

















Forest Damages








10






functioning



atmosphere





the exhaust gases


SO2 to form Gypsum















deposited into it

11








reproduce







underground pipes


















12




























Q


π Sy Sz u

Where




13

U = wind speed ms






























where


=



14

=


=


=
















solution










15

























buoyant plumes









16

ldquoSCRUBBERSrdquo







17







powder





Typical Typical




SO2


Carbon


Carbons



Molybdenum alloy











18



Procedure


above the burner




flask like 2nd




flask If smoke

collects in the 2nd






















APPLICATIONS





Cement Dust

Steel Dust Fumes












CYCLONE









[(9 μ B2

H)] frac12

d05=

[ρp Qg Ө] frac12



the collector



20











warming it up




earth














order of 20



earth to increase

21

Methane (CH4)



















Nitrous Oxide (N2O)














22




















m) away










illness









EFFECTS OF NOISE





23















(A)- HUMAN HEALTH

Hearing










noise









(B)- ENVIRONMENT







24






Annoyance







Speech interference



Sleep interference








Hearing loss


















25

















Road Traffic























behavior



26









Air Traffic















Rail Traffic





















27




trains in NSW








































28










affected buildings)

































29













community




















being prepared








30




attenuation devises





―OZONE DEPLETION

























31











high concentrations






9


NO2 + H2O HNO3


CO2 + H2O HCO3


2Cl2 + 2H2O 4HCl + O2

















Forest Damages








10






functioning



atmosphere





the exhaust gases


SO2 to form Gypsum















deposited into it

11








reproduce







underground pipes


















12




























Q


π Sy Sz u

Where




13

U = wind speed ms






























where


=



14

=


=


=
















solution










15

























buoyant plumes









16

ldquoSCRUBBERSrdquo







17







powder





Typical Typical




SO2


Carbon


Carbons



Molybdenum alloy











18



Procedure


above the burner




flask like 2nd




flask If smoke

collects in the 2nd






















APPLICATIONS





Cement Dust

Steel Dust Fumes












CYCLONE









[(9 μ B2

H)] frac12

d05=

[ρp Qg Ө] frac12



the collector



20











warming it up




earth














order of 20



earth to increase

21

Methane (CH4)



















Nitrous Oxide (N2O)














22




















m) away










illness









EFFECTS OF NOISE





23















(A)- HUMAN HEALTH

Hearing










noise









(B)- ENVIRONMENT







24






Annoyance







Speech interference



Sleep interference








Hearing loss


















25

















Road Traffic























behavior



26









Air Traffic















Rail Traffic





















27




trains in NSW








































28










affected buildings)

































29













community




















being prepared








30




attenuation devises





―OZONE DEPLETION

























31











high concentrations






10






functioning



atmosphere





the exhaust gases


SO2 to form Gypsum















deposited into it

11








reproduce







underground pipes


















12




























Q


π Sy Sz u

Where




13

U = wind speed ms






























where


=



14

=


=


=
















solution










15

























buoyant plumes









16

ldquoSCRUBBERSrdquo







17







powder





Typical Typical




SO2


Carbon


Carbons



Molybdenum alloy











18



Procedure


above the burner




flask like 2nd




flask If smoke

collects in the 2nd






















APPLICATIONS





Cement Dust

Steel Dust Fumes












CYCLONE









[(9 μ B2

H)] frac12

d05=

[ρp Qg Ө] frac12



the collector



20











warming it up




earth














order of 20



earth to increase

21

Methane (CH4)



















Nitrous Oxide (N2O)














22




















m) away










illness









EFFECTS OF NOISE





23















(A)- HUMAN HEALTH

Hearing










noise









(B)- ENVIRONMENT







24






Annoyance







Speech interference



Sleep interference








Hearing loss


















25

















Road Traffic























behavior



26









Air Traffic















Rail Traffic





















27




trains in NSW








































28










affected buildings)

































29













community




















being prepared








30




attenuation devises





―OZONE DEPLETION

























31











high concentrations






11








reproduce







underground pipes


















12




























Q


π Sy Sz u

Where




13

U = wind speed ms






























where


=



14

=


=


=
















solution










15

























buoyant plumes









16

ldquoSCRUBBERSrdquo







17







powder





Typical Typical




SO2


Carbon


Carbons



Molybdenum alloy











18



Procedure


above the burner




flask like 2nd




flask If smoke

collects in the 2nd






















APPLICATIONS





Cement Dust

Steel Dust Fumes












CYCLONE









[(9 μ B2

H)] frac12

d05=

[ρp Qg Ө] frac12



the collector



20











warming it up




earth














order of 20



earth to increase

21

Methane (CH4)



















Nitrous Oxide (N2O)














22




















m) away










illness









EFFECTS OF NOISE





23















(A)- HUMAN HEALTH

Hearing










noise









(B)- ENVIRONMENT







24






Annoyance







Speech interference



Sleep interference








Hearing loss


















25

















Road Traffic























behavior



26









Air Traffic















Rail Traffic





















27




trains in NSW








































28










affected buildings)

































29













community




















being prepared








30




attenuation devises





―OZONE DEPLETION

























31











high concentrations






12




























Q


π Sy Sz u

Where




13

U = wind speed ms






























where


=



14

=


=


=
















solution










15

























buoyant plumes









16

ldquoSCRUBBERSrdquo







17







powder





Typical Typical




SO2


Carbon


Carbons



Molybdenum alloy











18



Procedure


above the burner




flask like 2nd




flask If smoke

collects in the 2nd






















APPLICATIONS





Cement Dust

Steel Dust Fumes












CYCLONE









[(9 μ B2

H)] frac12

d05=

[ρp Qg Ө] frac12



the collector



20











warming it up




earth














order of 20



earth to increase

21

Methane (CH4)



















Nitrous Oxide (N2O)














22




















m) away










illness









EFFECTS OF NOISE





23















(A)- HUMAN HEALTH

Hearing










noise









(B)- ENVIRONMENT







24






Annoyance







Speech interference



Sleep interference








Hearing loss


















25

















Road Traffic























behavior



26









Air Traffic















Rail Traffic





















27




trains in NSW








































28










affected buildings)

































29













community




















being prepared








30




attenuation devises





―OZONE DEPLETION

























31











high concentrations






13

U = wind speed ms






























where


=



14

=


=


=
















solution










15

























buoyant plumes









16

ldquoSCRUBBERSrdquo







17







powder





Typical Typical




SO2


Carbon


Carbons



Molybdenum alloy











18



Procedure


above the burner




flask like 2nd




flask If smoke

collects in the 2nd






















APPLICATIONS





Cement Dust

Steel Dust Fumes












CYCLONE









[(9 μ B2

H)] frac12

d05=

[ρp Qg Ө] frac12



the collector



20











warming it up




earth














order of 20



earth to increase

21

Methane (CH4)



















Nitrous Oxide (N2O)














22




















m) away










illness









EFFECTS OF NOISE





23















(A)- HUMAN HEALTH

Hearing










noise









(B)- ENVIRONMENT







24






Annoyance







Speech interference



Sleep interference








Hearing loss


















25

















Road Traffic























behavior



26









Air Traffic















Rail Traffic





















27




trains in NSW








































28










affected buildings)

































29













community




















being prepared








30




attenuation devises





―OZONE DEPLETION

























31











high concentrations






14

=


=


=
















solution










15

























buoyant plumes









16

ldquoSCRUBBERSrdquo







17







powder





Typical Typical




SO2


Carbon


Carbons



Molybdenum alloy











18



Procedure


above the burner




flask like 2nd




flask If smoke

collects in the 2nd






















APPLICATIONS





Cement Dust

Steel Dust Fumes












CYCLONE









[(9 μ B2

H)] frac12

d05=

[ρp Qg Ө] frac12



the collector



20











warming it up




earth














order of 20



earth to increase

21

Methane (CH4)



















Nitrous Oxide (N2O)














22




















m) away










illness









EFFECTS OF NOISE





23















(A)- HUMAN HEALTH

Hearing










noise









(B)- ENVIRONMENT







24






Annoyance







Speech interference



Sleep interference








Hearing loss


















25

















Road Traffic























behavior



26









Air Traffic















Rail Traffic





















27




trains in NSW








































28










affected buildings)

































29













community




















being prepared








30




attenuation devises





―OZONE DEPLETION

























31











high concentrations






15

























buoyant plumes









16

ldquoSCRUBBERSrdquo







17







powder





Typical Typical




SO2


Carbon


Carbons



Molybdenum alloy











18



Procedure


above the burner




flask like 2nd




flask If smoke

collects in the 2nd






















APPLICATIONS





Cement Dust

Steel Dust Fumes












CYCLONE









[(9 μ B2

H)] frac12

d05=

[ρp Qg Ө] frac12



the collector



20











warming it up




earth














order of 20



earth to increase

21

Methane (CH4)



















Nitrous Oxide (N2O)














22




















m) away










illness









EFFECTS OF NOISE





23















(A)- HUMAN HEALTH

Hearing










noise









(B)- ENVIRONMENT







24






Annoyance







Speech interference



Sleep interference








Hearing loss


















25

















Road Traffic























behavior



26









Air Traffic















Rail Traffic





















27




trains in NSW








































28










affected buildings)

































29













community




















being prepared








30




attenuation devises





―OZONE DEPLETION

























31











high concentrations






16

ldquoSCRUBBERSrdquo







17







powder





Typical Typical




SO2


Carbon


Carbons



Molybdenum alloy











18



Procedure


above the burner




flask like 2nd




flask If smoke

collects in the 2nd






















APPLICATIONS





Cement Dust

Steel Dust Fumes












CYCLONE









[(9 μ B2

H)] frac12

d05=

[ρp Qg Ө] frac12



the collector



20











warming it up




earth














order of 20



earth to increase

21

Methane (CH4)



















Nitrous Oxide (N2O)














22




















m) away










illness









EFFECTS OF NOISE





23















(A)- HUMAN HEALTH

Hearing










noise









(B)- ENVIRONMENT







24






Annoyance







Speech interference



Sleep interference








Hearing loss


















25

















Road Traffic























behavior



26









Air Traffic















Rail Traffic





















27




trains in NSW








































28










affected buildings)

































29













community




















being prepared








30




attenuation devises





―OZONE DEPLETION

























31











high concentrations






17







powder





Typical Typical




SO2


Carbon


Carbons



Molybdenum alloy











18



Procedure


above the burner




flask like 2nd




flask If smoke

collects in the 2nd






















APPLICATIONS





Cement Dust

Steel Dust Fumes












CYCLONE









[(9 μ B2

H)] frac12

d05=

[ρp Qg Ө] frac12



the collector



20











warming it up




earth














order of 20



earth to increase

21

Methane (CH4)



















Nitrous Oxide (N2O)














22




















m) away










illness









EFFECTS OF NOISE





23















(A)- HUMAN HEALTH

Hearing










noise









(B)- ENVIRONMENT







24






Annoyance







Speech interference



Sleep interference








Hearing loss


















25

















Road Traffic























behavior



26









Air Traffic















Rail Traffic





















27




trains in NSW








































28










affected buildings)

































29













community




















being prepared








30




attenuation devises





―OZONE DEPLETION

























31











high concentrations






18



Procedure


above the burner




flask like 2nd




flask If smoke

collects in the 2nd






















APPLICATIONS





Cement Dust

Steel Dust Fumes












CYCLONE









[(9 μ B2

H)] frac12

d05=

[ρp Qg Ө] frac12



the collector



20











warming it up




earth














order of 20



earth to increase

21

Methane (CH4)



















Nitrous Oxide (N2O)














22




















m) away










illness









EFFECTS OF NOISE





23















(A)- HUMAN HEALTH

Hearing










noise









(B)- ENVIRONMENT







24






Annoyance







Speech interference



Sleep interference








Hearing loss


















25

















Road Traffic























behavior



26









Air Traffic















Rail Traffic





















27




trains in NSW








































28










affected buildings)

































29













community




















being prepared








30




attenuation devises





―OZONE DEPLETION

























31











high concentrations








Cement Dust

Steel Dust Fumes












CYCLONE









[(9 μ B2

H)] frac12

d05=

[ρp Qg Ө] frac12



the collector



20











warming it up




earth














order of 20



earth to increase

21

Methane (CH4)



















Nitrous Oxide (N2O)














22




















m) away










illness









EFFECTS OF NOISE





23















(A)- HUMAN HEALTH

Hearing










noise









(B)- ENVIRONMENT







24






Annoyance







Speech interference



Sleep interference








Hearing loss


















25

















Road Traffic























behavior



26









Air Traffic















Rail Traffic





















27




trains in NSW








































28










affected buildings)

































29













community




















being prepared








30




attenuation devises





―OZONE DEPLETION

























31











high concentrations






20











warming it up




earth














order of 20



earth to increase

21

Methane (CH4)



















Nitrous Oxide (N2O)














22




















m) away










illness









EFFECTS OF NOISE





23















(A)- HUMAN HEALTH

Hearing










noise









(B)- ENVIRONMENT







24






Annoyance







Speech interference



Sleep interference








Hearing loss


















25

















Road Traffic























behavior



26









Air Traffic















Rail Traffic





















27




trains in NSW








































28










affected buildings)

































29













community




















being prepared








30




attenuation devises





―OZONE DEPLETION

























31











high concentrations






21

Methane (CH4)



















Nitrous Oxide (N2O)














22




















m) away










illness









EFFECTS OF NOISE





23















(A)- HUMAN HEALTH

Hearing










noise









(B)- ENVIRONMENT







24






Annoyance







Speech interference



Sleep interference








Hearing loss


















25

















Road Traffic























behavior



26









Air Traffic















Rail Traffic





















27




trains in NSW








































28










affected buildings)

































29













community




















being prepared








30




attenuation devises





―OZONE DEPLETION

























31











high concentrations






22




















m) away










illness









EFFECTS OF NOISE





23















(A)- HUMAN HEALTH

Hearing










noise









(B)- ENVIRONMENT







24






Annoyance







Speech interference



Sleep interference








Hearing loss


















25

















Road Traffic























behavior



26









Air Traffic















Rail Traffic





















27




trains in NSW








































28










affected buildings)

































29













community




















being prepared








30




attenuation devises





―OZONE DEPLETION

























31











high concentrations






23















(A)- HUMAN HEALTH

Hearing










noise









(B)- ENVIRONMENT







24






Annoyance







Speech interference



Sleep interference








Hearing loss


















25

















Road Traffic























behavior



26









Air Traffic















Rail Traffic





















27




trains in NSW








































28










affected buildings)

































29













community




















being prepared








30




attenuation devises





―OZONE DEPLETION

























31











high concentrations






24






Annoyance







Speech interference



Sleep interference








Hearing loss


















25

















Road Traffic























behavior



26









Air Traffic















Rail Traffic





















27




trains in NSW








































28










affected buildings)

































29













community




















being prepared








30




attenuation devises





―OZONE DEPLETION

























31











high concentrations






25

















Road Traffic























behavior



26









Air Traffic















Rail Traffic





















27




trains in NSW








































28










affected buildings)

































29













community




















being prepared








30




attenuation devises





―OZONE DEPLETION

























31











high concentrations






26









Air Traffic















Rail Traffic





















27




trains in NSW








































28










affected buildings)

































29













community




















being prepared








30




attenuation devises





―OZONE DEPLETION

























31











high concentrations






27




trains in NSW








































28










affected buildings)

































29













community




















being prepared








30




attenuation devises





―OZONE DEPLETION

























31











high concentrations






28










affected buildings)

































29













community




















being prepared








30




attenuation devises





―OZONE DEPLETION

























31











high concentrations






29













community




















being prepared








30




attenuation devises





―OZONE DEPLETION

























31











high concentrations






30




attenuation devises





―OZONE DEPLETION

























31











high concentrations






31











high concentrations






air and noise pollution

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