World Population Year

THE POPULATIONOF

GREECE

CI.CR.E.D. Series

1974 WORLD POPULATION YEAR

THE POPULATION OF GREECE

CICRED Series

THE POPULATION OF GREECEA Monograph for the World Population Year 1974

prepared by

DIMITRIOS TRICHOPOULOS GEORGE PAPAEVANGELOUProfessor of Hygiene Epidemiology Associate Professor of Hygiene

and Medical Statistics and Epidemiology

with the collaboration of

JOHN DANEZIS VICTORIA KALAPOTHAK.I

Assistant Professor of Obstetrics Lecturer in Hygieneand Cynecology and Epidemiology

members of the Department of Hygiene and Epidemiology

of the University of Athens Medical School

CICRED Series

PREFACE

The United Nations declared 1974 as the World Population

Year and in the same year the World Population Conference was

convened. On the occasion of these events the United Nations

have suggested the publication of monographs presenting, ac-

cording to a common plan, past population development, pre-

sent situation and future trends in the various countries. The

Committee for International Coordination of National Research

in Demography (CICRED), under the Chairmanship of Jean tíour-

geois-Pichat has assumed the responsibility of coordinating

these national population monographs.

The country monograph for Greece was prepared at the re-

quest of CICRED at the Center of Demographic Research of the

Department of Hygiene and Epidemiology of the University of

Athens Medical School. The monograph is based mainly on ma-

terials already published in official demographic issues and

scientific journals, and its content structure and length fol-

low the pattern prescribed uniformly on international scale by

CICRED.

Athens, December 1974

Dimitrios Trichopoulos

- 7 -

CONTENTS

Page

CIÍAPTER 1

HISTORICAL ASPECTS OF POPULATION GROWTH 9

CHAPTER I I

COMPONENTS OF GROWTH 16

2.1 Quality and general pattern of vital statistics 16

2.2 Foetal mortality 17

2.3 Infant mortality 20

2.4 General mortality • 25

2.5 Fertility 32

2.6 International migration . . . 39

CHAPTER III

POPULATION COMPOSITION 44

3.1 Sources and quality of data 44

3.2 The growth of the Greelr. population, and its eth-nical, racial and religious homogeneity . . . . 45

3.3 Population composition by age and sex . . . . 45

3.4 Population composition by marital status . . . 50

3.5 Education 53

3.6 Household atid family 56

CHAPTER IV

POPULATION DISTRIBUTION AND INTERNAL MIGRATION . . . 64

4.1 Definitions and sources of data 64

4.2-Population distribution by departments . . . 66

4.3 Population distribution in urban-rural areas andin major cities 67

4.4 Internal migration 70

CHAPTER V

THE LA30UR FORCE 79

5.1 Sources of data and definitions 79

5.2 Economically active population by age, sex andemployment status 80

-8-

Page5.3 Economically active population by occupation, branch

of economic activity, and level of education . . . 84

5.4 Economically active population by occupational status 91

5.5 Economically non-active population 93

CHAPTER VI

POPULATION PROJECTIONS 96

6.1 Total population by age 96

6.2 Labour force 102

CHAPTER VII

POPULATION POLICY 104

7.1 Position of the Church 104

7.2 Contraception, contraceptives, and abortion laws . . 106

7.3 The development of population policy 108

BIBLIOGRAPHY . . ; 115

-9-

CHAPTER I

HISTORICAL ASPECTS OF POPULATION GROWTH

It is difficult to trace the origin and the growth of the

Greek population whose history goes back to more than 4000 years.

It is believed that Greek speaking tribes have lived in the Balkan

penninsula since the beginning of the second millenium B.C. The

first information about the population of Greece concern the Mi-

noan era. It is estimated that around 1500 B.C., 1.5 million people

lived in Greece. After the collapse of the Minoan civilization,

Greece was inhabited by Dorian tribes. During the Golden age of

Pericles, Athens grew as a city of more than 250,000 inhabitants.

Furthermore, many colonies were soon created all over Greece, Mi-

nor Asia and other Mediterranean areas, so that there existed pro-

bably more than five million Greeks during the 4th century B.C.

The demographic as well as the political history of Greece is cha-,

racterised by repeated and sometimes abrupt changes. The enormous

expansion of the Greek territory during the period of Alexander the

Great was followed by its collapse during the period of the Roman

Empire and later by the creation of the Byzantine Empire, which is

considered as the continuation of the Greek nation.

No historical demographic data exist for the entire Byzantine

period. The conquest of Constantinople by the Turks and the 370

years of Turkish occupation suppressed the Greek population, but

not its national identity. Thus a war of Independence started in

1821 and a new State was born in 1828.

-10-

The demographic history of modern Greece starts in 1828, when

the first official census revealed that the new Nation occupied an

area.of 47,516 square Km., sparsely inhabited by 753,400 Greeks.

Thereafter several population censuses were conducted at irregular

intervals (Table 1.1), but the first real census which included some

population characteristics was taken in 1861. The following cen-

suses improved in their quality. However their data continued to

be quantitatively and qualitatively imperfect and their analysis

reveals underenumeration of the infant population and females, as

well as poor reporting of the age of old people.

The registration of vital events was very early instituted:

It started in 1860 on a country-wide basis and continued there-

after with repeated interruptions in times of national and inter-

national crises. No registration data exist for the period bet-

ween 1886 and 1921. The registration system collapsed again in

1941 and it resumed only in 1950. Thus in certain periods of ma-

jor demographic disturbances there are no data to illustrate the

demographic evolution of the Greek population. Furthermore,at the

beginning these data were even worse than census data. An under-

estimation of vital events and especially of infant deaths re-

sulted in low rates.

In spite of the obvious omissions and the general poor quality,

the existing population statistics provide the only way for studying

the evolution, the structure and the dynamics of Greek population

(Valaoras,1943, Alivizatos,1953, Valaoras,1967). Table 1.1 summarizes

-11-

Table .1.1

The growth of the area and of the population of Greece.Censuses 1828-1971

Year

182818391845186118701879188918961907192019281940195119611971

Population(in thousands)

753.4823.7960.21096.81457.91679.52187.22433.82631.95016.96204.77344.97632.88388.68768.6

Table

Area 2

(in km )

475164751647516475165021150211636066360663211150176129281129-281131944131944131944

1.2

Populationper km

15.917.320.223.129.033.534.438.341.637.148.457.358.364.166.5

Live births, deaths and natural increase in Greece (per1000 population per year)

Period

1860-641865-691870-741875-791880-841885-89

1920-241925-291930-341935-39

1950-541955-591960-641965-691970-72

Birth

rate

28.729.028.327.623.134.7

20.229.330.026.5

19.419.318.118.016.1

Death

rate

20.621.321.719.016.824.3

15.616.316.614.4

7.27.37.88.18.5

Naturalincrease

8.18.76.68.66.39.6

4.613.013.412.1

12.212.010.39.97.6

-12-

the census data and Table 1.2 the vital statistics of modern

Greece. Their study provides the following information on the

growth of the Greek population during the last 150 years (Vala-

oras,1960).

The size of the population increased irregularly from 753

thousands in 1828 to 8,769 thousands in 1971. The greatest part

of this increase resulted from the gradual integration within the

newly created Nation of adjacent provinces, previously under fo-

reign domination. The addition of the Ionian Islands in 1864 in-

creased the initial area by about 3,000 square Km. and the popu-

lation by 17%. In 1881 Thessaly and Arta were annexed increasing

the territory by about 13,000 square Km. and the population by.

14%. The devastating wars that foilowed in 1897 and 1912 and the

intense emigration during the first fifteen years of the twentieth

century kept the population almost stationary.

In 1912 the Balkan Wars started, and Greece experienced up to

1925 extensive demographic changes. New territories were annexed

which doubled its geographical area. The population increased con-

siderably, to a large extent by the influx of refugees, after a

disastrous war and an exchange of population between Greece and

Turkey. The influx of refugees brought about a revitalization of

the Greek population, which was expressed by a vigorous growth.

Second World War left its marks on the Greek population. In

addition to considerable losses caused by direct action, the occu-

pation of Greece, the general famine as well as the civil war that

followed resulted in heavy population losses, mainly through cur-

-13-

tailed fertility and excessive mortality. These disasters were

largely encountered by the tenacity of the Greek people so that

now the Greek population, after the integration of the Dodeca-

nesus in 1947, lives in an area of 131,944 square Km. and nvm-

bers 8,769 thousands inhabitants.

In addition to the anomalous political history of Greece,

the components of natural increase and the international migra-

tion have both markedly affected the rate of growth and the evo-

lution of the Greek population.

Up to the end of the 19th century reported birth rates flu-

ctuated around 30-35 /oo and reported death rates around 20-25 />o.

Taking into account the reffered underregistration of vital events

and using sofisticated methods Valaoras (1974b) estimated the act-

ual fluctuating levels at about 40°/oo and 25°/oo respectively.

Both rates started to decline thereafter. The decline of morta-

lity was more swift although the intervening wars disturbed its

natural course. However, the effects of wars and of the intense

emigration, obscured more strongly the course of the birth rates.

It appears, nevertheless, that the decline of fertility was smal-

ler and started later than that of mortality.

After 1950 mortality fluctuated around the present level of

8 /oo, whereas fertility declined slowly from about 20°/oo to

about 16 /oo. These changes have caused a decline in the natural

increase rate of the population. Table 1.2 shows that this rate

declined from 13.0°/oo in 1925-29 to the present level of 7.6°/oo

(Papaevangelou,1972).

-14-

Table 1.3

Emigration from Greece in absolute numbers since 1900

Period. Emigrants

1901-1905 514791906-1910 120341911-1915 1285211916-1920 675981921-1925 505311926-1930 408381931-1935 147971936-1940 157031941-194511946-1950J 2 0 1 7 6

1951-1955 680631956-1960 1617501961-1965 4656991966-1970 364725

1971 and 1972 105142

-15-

The growth of the.population of Greece was always greatly

curtailed by emigration. Table 1.3 shows the officially re-

ported emigration for the period since 1900. It is obvious that

two main peales of emigration occurred; the first between 1910

and 1915 and the second after 1960. Limitations in international

migration statistics do not permit the estimation of the net mi-

gration. It is also impossible to study the exact effects of thet

various components of population growth because of the anomalous

demographic history of Greece and the long periods during which

registration data are missing. Furthermore, it is difficult to

make adjustments for differential errors in population enumeration,

underregistration of births and deaths and errors in migration sta-

tistics. However the existing data from 1950 to 1972 show, that mi-

gration heavily curtailed the population growth. Thus in the pe-

riod 1950-54 the annual net growth was reduced to 10.2°/oo (natu-

ral increase 12..2 /oo); in 1955-59 it was 9.3 /oo (natural in-

crease 12.0 /oo); in 1960-64 5.1 /oo (natural increase 10.3°/oo);

in 1965-69 6.5%>o (natural increase 9.9°/<JO); and in 1970-72

4.1 /oo (natural increase 7.6 /oo).

Emigration patterns changed considerably during the last two

decades. Earlier in the century emigrants were mainly settled in

U.S.A., Canada and Australia. Recently, however, the economic de-

velopment of Western Europe directed most of them to European

countries (mainly to Western Germany).

- 1 6 -

CHAPTER H

COMPONENTS OF GROWTH

2.1. Quality and general pattern of vital statistics

The- purpose of this chapter is to summarize the existing in-

formation on the magnitude, nature, distribution and trends of mor-

tality in Greece and on the patterns of growth of the Greek popula-

tion. The analysis was based mainly on the most recent medico-de-

mographic data concerning the Greek population and published an-

nually in the "Statistical Yearbook of Greece" and in the "Vital

Statistics of the Population of Greece" and on similar data con-

cerning other European populations and published annually in the

"World Health Statistics Annual" of the World Health Organization

and in the "United Nations Demographic Yearbook". The results of

a number of relevant studies were also taken into consideration.

As it was already stated, in Greece, comparatively reliable

data on vital statistics exist for the years 1930-1938 and after

1956. Even for these periods, however, the analysis reveals a

number of systematic errors, mainly uhder-registration of peri-

natal deaths and misstatements in the reported cause of death

(NSSG, 1966). Furthermore, data are not classified by educa-

tional level, professional class, economic status etc. and

therefore, differentials in fertility and mortality can only be

studied between urban and rural population. However, inspite

of these limitations, population statistics provide a fairly

clear picture of the trends of mortality and fertility as well

as of the health of the population in Greece to-day.

-17-

Table 2.1 provides a summary of vital statistics in

Greece since 1930.

2.2. Foetal mortality

The registration of late foetal deaths (i.e. of still-

born after the 28th week of pregnancy) is compulsory in

Greece. However, inspite of the legal obligation, registra-

tion is incomplete, particularly in the rural areas of the

country. This incompleteness accounts for the peculiar time-

trends of still-birth ratio in urban(io,000+)» semi-urban

(2,000-9,999) and rural (-1,999) areas of the country(Figure 2.1).

It seems likely that in urban areas there is an actual decline

of late foetal mortality, whereas for the semi-urban and ru-

ral areas the actual trends are obscured by the improvement

in the completeness of registration. This improvement, how-

ever, is not due to an amelioration of the registration sy-

stem in the rural areas but to the mere fact that an increas-

ing proportion of pregnant women from these areas have their

deliveries in the cities (where the registration system has

always been better). Thus, when the events are classified by

place of occurence (rather than by place of mother's residence),

no sign of improvement is noted in the rural areas (Figure 2.1).

Population statistics allow an evaluation of the effects

of the inadequate prenatal care in most rural areas of Greece

on late foetal (and neonatal) mortality when conditions of de-

livery and completeness of registration are not different from

those in the urban areas. This is possible because, as already

-18-

Table 2.1

Summary of vital statistics in Greece since 1930

PeriodPopulation

(in thousands)

Live birthsper 1000population

Deathsper 1000

population

Infant deathsper 1000live-born

1930-341935-39

1950-541955-591960-641965-691970-72

65457029

77318105843487048852

30.026.6

19.519.318.118.016.1

16.714.4

7.27.37.88.18.5

128114

4141393428

Table 2.2

Reported infant mortality in Greece during the periods 1931-1939and ]949-1972

YearInfant deaths

per 1000 live-born Year Infant deathsper 1000 live-born

193119321933193419351936193719381939

• •

194919501951195219531954

133.8128.7122.7111.7112.8114.2122.299.4

118.2

• •

41.935.543.640.542.542.4

195519561957195819591960196119621963196419651966196719681969197019711972

43.538.744.239.040.640.139.940.439.335.834.334.034.334.431.829.626.927.3

STILL-BIRTHRATIO

26 -

24-

2 2 -

20 -

18-

16-

14-

12-

10-

8 -

6 -

4 -

2 -

URBAN AREASby place of residence)

SEMI-URBAN AREASby place of residence)

RURAL AREAS(by place of residence)

' RURAL AREAS(by place of occurence)

T71—1—1—1—1—1—1—m—rn—1—1—11956 57 58 '59'60 '61 '62 '63 '64 '65'66 "67'68 '69 '70 YEAR

Figure 2.1 Still-born per 1000 live-born in urban and semi-urban areas (by place of residence of mother) andin rural areas (by place of residence of motherand place of occurence) in Greece, during the pe-riod 1956-1970

-20-

stated, a large proportion of the pregnant women living in

rural areas come at a late stage of pregnancy to have their

delivery in a hospital of an urban area (more than 82% of

all births in 1970 took place in a maternity hospital). It

can be estimated, that among this group of women, the still-

birth ratio is about 20% higher than among women with perma-

nent urban residence. Although factors of selection may be

partly responsible for this difference, it seems likely that

a substantial part is attributable to the inferior prenatal

care in rural areas.

2.3. Infant mortality

Reported infant mortality has fallen significantly du-

ring the last 40 years from about 130 per 1,000 live-born

to about 27 per 1,000 live-born (Table 2.2). Since under-

registration of neonatal deaths is still evident particularly

in rural areas the actual infant mortality rate may be closer

to (or slightly higher than) 30 per 1,000 live-births (Tri-

chopoulos,1964, NSSG,1966, Valaoras,1974b). Inspite of this

remarkable improvement, the Greek rate is still among the

highest in Europe, being more than twice that of the Scandi-

navian countries (Table 2.3). Approximately 2/3 of all in-

fant deaths in this country occur within the first four weeks

of life (neonatal mortality). Nevertheless, in proportional

terms, the easily preventable late infant mortality is parti-

cularly high in Greece, being almost four times that of the

Scandinavian countries. The study of infant mortality rates

-21-

Table 2.3

Infant mortality (total), neonatal mortality (0-27 days), and late infantmortality (28-365 days), in European countries (1970)

CountryInfant deaths Infant deaths Infant deaths

(total) (10-27 days) (28-365 days)per 1OOO live-born per 1000 live-born per 1000 live-born

AlbaniaAustriaBelgiumBulgariaCzechoslovakiaDenmarkFinlandFranceGermany EasternGermany WesternGreeceHungaryIcelandIrelandItalyLuxembourgMaltaNetherlandsNorwayPolandPortugalRomaniaSpainSwedenSwitzerlandUnited Kingdom

England-WalesN. IrelandScotland

Yugoslavia

25.920.527.322.114.213.218.218.523.629.635.911.719.529.624.927.912.712.733.258.049.428.011.015.1

18.222.919.655.5

19.014.413.215.711.010.512.613.018.419.628.48.3

12.820.416.8¿2.09.59.5

19.625.418.2

9.110.8

12.315.812.823.4

6.96.1

14.16.43.22.75.65.55.2

10.07.53.46.79.28.15.93.23.2

13.632.631.2

1.94.3

5.97.16.8

32.1

-22-

by regions (nomos) of Greece shows a remarkable variability

which is accounted for by differences in hygienic conditions

and to some extent by differences in completeness of regi-

stration.

Table 2.4 shows infant mortality rates by cause in

Greece, England and Wales, and Norway. The excessive in-

fant mortality in Greece, is mainly attributable to infecti-

ous diseases (including pneumonia etc), to immaturity and

to various ill-defined diseases of early infancy and, to a

lesser degree, to various anoxic and hypoxic conditions (ate-

lectasia etc). It is worthwhile to note that infant morta-

lity from birth injuries is lower in Greece than in England

and Wales, Norway and many other highly developed European

countries. This may be either a reflection of the skill of

Greek obstetricians or of their unwillingness to report

"birth injuries" as the cause of an infant's death.

The postwar trends of neonatal and late infant mortality

in urban, semi-urban and rural areas of Greece by place of re-

sidence are shown in Figure 2.2. The main conclusions that

can be drawn from the study of these rather peculiar time-

trends are the following: (a) Neonatal mortality in urban

areas is high, whereas the actual level of this mortality in

rural areas is unknown because of the apparent incompleteness

of registration of neonatal deaths. Under-registration is also

responsible for the unreliability of the shown trends of neo-

natal mortality, (b) Late infant mortality declines clearly

and steadily in the urban and semi-urban areas; by contrast

-23-

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-25-

in rural areas the decline of this rate is relatively slower

and rather irregular, (c) Since 1964 reported infant mortality

has been higher in urban areas than in rural ones- a pattern

reminiscent of the pre-war experience. One of the factors res-

ponsible for this change seems to be the apparent increase of

neonatal mortality in urban areas, probably due to an amelio-

ration of the registration system.

2.4. General mortality

Table 2.5 shows age-specific mortality rates for Greece

and their rank among the corresponding rates of all 27 Euro-

pean countries for which data are available (rank 1 indicates

the lowest, and rank 27 the highest rate). It is of particular

significance that infant and childhood mortality of Greece are

still relatively high, whereas the mortality of adults of this

country is among the lowest in Europe and indeed in the whole

world. This situation is also reflected in- the life-tables of

European populations. It can be seen in Table 2.6 that expe-

ctation of life for Greeks at the age of 35 ia among the longest

in Europe. This holds true for both men and women although it

is more pronounced for men.

Age-specific death rates for all ages below 60 have been

declining in Greece during the period 1952-1970. The decline

was most evident among the younger age-groups. By contrast,

age-specific death rates for ages above 60 have been constant

or slightly increasing during the same period. The fact that

almost 2/3 of the deaths among persons over 60 years old are

—26-

Table 2.6

Expectation of life at birth and at the ages of 35 and 55 yearsby sex in European countries in 1970

Country

AustriaBulgariaCzechoslovakiaDenmarkFranceGermany WesternGreece*HungaryIrelandItalyLuxembourgMaltaNetherlands

NorwayRomaniaSpainSwedenUnited Kingdom

England-V/alesN.IrelandScotland

Yugoslavia

Birth

Mai -

66.469.166.371.069.167.371.666.368.668.566.468.070.971.065.769.072.3

68.867.767.0,65.1

Fern

73.473.573.276.176.773.676.072.273.274.673.172.976.677.570.474.477.4

75.273.673.369.9

Age in years

35

Mai -

35.538.335.138.737.236.240.636.136.637.535.636.438.538.837.137.639.8

36.635.935.136.4

Fein

41.241.540.742.943.941.344.140.640.642.741.240.343.544.140.542.144.0

42.240.940.540.6

55

Mai -

18.520.618.121.120.218.922.619.019.120.018.618.720.621.119.720.221.9

18.918.518.019.3

Fern

23.023.122.524.825.723.125.422.422.624.323.121.625.025.422.423.725.6

24.122.922.822.4

In a well documented study Valaoras (1974b) claims that theexpectation of life in Greece in 1970 is for males 70.1 atbirth, 39.9 at 35, and 21.7 at 55 and for females 73.8 atbirth, 42.9 at 35, and 24.3 at 55

-27-

due to either cardiovascular diseases or malignant neoplasms

explains the stagnation of the mortality in the older ages. In-

spite of the improvement of most age-spec ific mortality rates,

in Greece, the crude death rate has recently shown an upward

trend which is accounted for by the ageing of the Greek popu-

lation.

Table 2.7 shows death rates from the 14 internationally

most important causes of death, in Greece, in 1961 and in 1970.

The ranks occupied by the Greek rates among the corresponding

rates of 26 European countries for which data are available are

also shown (rank 1 indicates the lowest and rank 26 the highest

rate). It should be noted that international comparisons by

cause of death are hindered by the existing differences among

countries with respect to the classification of some diseases

and to the proportion of deaths attributed to "ill-defined or

unknown" causes. Furthermore the figures .on Table 2.7 are ba-

sed on data, given by the World Health Organization, which are

not age-adjusted. It is clear, nevertheless, that the compa-

ratively low mortality of adults in Greece is mainly due to the

apparently low incidence of cardiovascular diseases, malignant

neoplasms, and accidents. On the other hand, the excessive pre-

mature mortality in Greece is attributable mainly to infective

diseases and to a lesser extent, to diseases of the nervous sy-

stem and to ill-defined conditions of early infancy (including

immaturity). Table 2.7 illustrates also the gradual assimila-

tion of the nosological spectrum of the Greek population to that

-28-

Table 2.7

Death rates (per 100000 population) from 14 important causes, in Greece, in1961 and in Í970, and their rank among the corresponding rates of 26 Euro-pean countries for which comparable data are available (rank 1 indicates thelowest and rank 26 the highest rate)

Cause of deathRate

18.01.2

41.415.116.510.325.712.231.079.6105.738.283.6124.8

Rank

15201223816241713204351

Rate

9.51.2

48.313.140.222.018.315.824.628.3131.444.4117.3171.5

Rank

161013241421251812156282

TuberculosisAcute respiratory infectionsInfluenza and pneumoniaOther infective and parasitic diseasesOther diseases of respiratory systemDiabetes melitusDiseases of nervous system and sense organsCirrhosis of liverOther diseases of digestive systemComplications of pregnancy (per 100000 live-born)Malignant neoplasms including lymphoraasAccidents and violenceCerebrovascular diseaseIschaemic heart and other diseases of circulation

-29-

of the more developed European populations. Thus «îortality-

rates from infective diseases and complications of pregnancy-

are declining whereas mortality rates from cardiovascular di-

seases, malignant neoplasms, chronic diseases of the respirato-

ry system, and diabetes melitus are gradually increasing.

Table 2.8 gives the chances per 1,000 live-born, of event-

ually dying from specified causes, by sex, in Greece and se-

lected European countries in 1970. It can be seen that 1 out

of 7 Greeks is expected to die from cancer, 1 out of 6 from

cerebrovascular disease, and 1 out of 4 from another disease

of the circulatory system (including ischaemic heart disease).

The probability of eventually dying from a motor vehicle acci-

dent is still rather small in Greece (1% as compared to 2?/a in

Italy and 1.9J6 in Sweden).

A comparison of age specific death rates in the urban

(10,000+) and in the rural (-1, 999) population of Greece reveals

that up to the age of 45 years mortality is higher in rural a-

reas, while the opposite is true for the older ages (Figure

2.3). The excess premature mortality in rural areas is main-

ly due to infective diseases; on the other hand, the higher

mortality of adults in urban areas is accounted for by the

correspondingly higher death rates from cardio-vascular di-

seases and malignant neoplasms. Age and cause specific morta-

lity rates of semi-urban population hold usually intermediate

positions between the corresponding rates of the urban and ru-

ral population.

-30-

Table 2.8

Chances per 1000 live-born, of eventually dying from specified causes, by sex,in Greece and selected European countries (1970)

Country

Bulgaria

(5.0P,0*

Greece

(12.0»/) +

Italy

(3.390*

Netherlands

(3.5°/.) +

Norway

(5.050*

Spain

Sweden

England-Wales

Infectionsand otherdiseases ofrespiratorysystem

M

F

M

F

MF

M

F

M

F

M

F

M

F

MF

142

116

108

10790

85

66

91

114

128

109

65

66

170138

Otherinfectiveand parasitic

19

10

26

16

1811

6

7

7

7

26

13

10

8

7

4

Malignantneoplasms

lymphomas

148

109

165

108

190

151

235

199

178

1G7

151

124

189

185

208

175

Cerebro-vasculardisease

192

258

128

181

133

161

103

154

143

201

125

166

95

132

111

178

Ischaemicheartdisease andother diseas.of circula-tory system

293

340

211

218

312

378

364

351

375

330

293

348

450

441

381

369

Motorvehicleaccidents

15

4

14

5

29

8

28

10

17

6

IS

5

18

9

14

7

Ill-defined and unknown causes of death as percentage to all deaths inthe country

AGE SPECIFICDEATH RATES

0.10 10 20 30 40 80 90 AGE

Figure 2.3 Annual death rates specific for age per 1OOO popu-

lation in urban ( ) and rural ( ) areas of

Greece around 1968. (Infant deaths per 1000 live-

born; infant mortality rectified)

-32-

2.5. Fertility

The birth-rate in Greece declined during the last forty

years from about 30°/oo to about 16°/oo (Table 2.9) (Katsou-

yiannopoulos,1970). The reduction of fertility has occurred

especially in mothers over the age of 35, and in birth orders

beyond the third child (Tables 2.10 and 2.11).

The new attitude of the Greek population towards repro-

duction was brought about by the deep socio-economic changes

that took place in Greece during this period. However, the

ways and means by which the reduction in fertility was brought

about were not evident.

In order to clarify the ways and means by which the re-

duction in fertility came about, a field survey was conducted

in 1962-1963 by the Department of Hygiene and Epidemiology of

the University of Athens (Valaoras, Polychronopoulou, and Tri-

chopoulos,1965). It was found that the average desired family

size was 2.6 children in urban and 2.9 children in rural areas.

Of the urban and rural married women interviewed, 87 percent

and 79 percent, respectively, reported practicing some method

of birth control (Table 2.12) primarily coitus interruptus

(withdrawal) or the condom (Table 2.13). The contraceptive

pill and the intrauterine device were almost unknown to the

sample interviewed.

In view of the rather low effectiveness of the reported

birth control methods, these findings could not fully explain

the drastic curtailment in the number of live births in Greece.

-33-

Table 2.9

Live-born per 1000 population in Greece during theperiods 1925-1940 and 1949-1972

Year

192519261927L9281929

19301931193219331934

19351936193719381939

1940• •• •* •* •

• •• •

1949

Live-born

26.330.028.830.528.9

31.330.828.428.631.1

28.227.926.225.924.8

24.5• •

• •

• •

• •

• •

* •

18.6

Year

19501951195219531954

19551956195719581959

1960196 L196219631964

19651966196719681969

197019711972

Live-born

20.020.319.318.419.2

19.419.719,319.019.4

18.917.918.017.518.0

17.718.018.718.217.4

16.515.915.7

-34-

Table 2.10

Fertility rates (per 1000 women at specified ages) in Greece

Age of mother Gross Netrepro- repro-

Period auction auction15-19 20-24 25-29 30-34 35-39 40-44 45-49 r & t e p a t e

1933-37 18.2 129.4 205.5 178.5 141.1 51.6 12.6 1.79 1.26

1956-59 15.5 100.6 154.2 110.4 54.6 16.6 3.0 1.10 1.01

1960-64 17.9 109.1 145.4 103.9 46.4 12.6 1.6 1.06 0.98

1965-69 30.4 128.2 154.5 98.7 44.1 10.2 1.2 1.13 1.05

1970-71 36.7 143.6 150.8 91.8 41.8 9.4 1.0 1.16 1.09

Table 2.11

Fertility rates by birth order (per 1000 women aged 15-49)in Greece

Period

1936

1956-59

1960-64

1965-69

1

26.3

28.8

28.6

29.4

2

22.5

21.4

22.8

25.8

Birth

3

19.210.19.3

9.0

order

4

16.04.9

3.9

3.1

5

11.72.7

1.9

1.2

6 +

15.7

3.2

2.3

1.3

-35-

Table 2.12

Percent of urban and rural married womenpracticing birth control, by age, inGreece, 1962-1963

Age

-2020-2425-2930-3435-3940-4445*

Percent

Urban

74.432.584.892.095.190.575.0

practicing

Rural

53.880.681.285.586.074.469.6

Total 87.1 78.7

Table 2.13

Birth control methods per 100users in Greece, 1962-1963

Method Urban Rural

WithdrawalCondom

Other

41.33.

25.

72

1

67.19.

13.

43

3

Total 100.0 100.0

-36-

Tiiu.s a new field survey was undertaken in 1966-1967 in order

to evaluate the frequency and reveal the epidemiologic background

of induced abortions, which are illegal in Greece but thought to

have been the factor responsible for the reduction in live births •

The study was carried out by the Department of Hygiene and Epi-

demiology of the University of Athens (Valaoras, Polychronopou-

lou and Trichopoulos,1969). Approximately one third of the mar-

ried women interviewed reported one or more induced illegal a-

bortions. On the average, there was a correspondence of 75 in-

duced abortions per 100 married women of reproductive age, or of

34 induced abortions per 100 live-born. The findings of the a-

bortion survey by age of mother, duration of marriage, schooling

of the mother, urban or rural population, as well as by order of

pregnancy, are given in Tables 2.14, 2.15, 2.16, 2.17 and 2.18

respectively. With the use of the available data Polychronopou-

lou and Trichopoulos (1969) later estimated that induced illegal

abortions were responsible for about 40 percent of the recent re-

duction of the fertility of the Greek population.

The decline of fertility has caused strong concern, parti-

cularly around 1963 when the net reproduction rate fell below the

value of 1.0, and again after 1969 when most age-specific ferti-

lity indices after showing short-term anodic trends between 1963-

1967 started again to decline (Valaoras,1973, 1974a). Although

the prospects of the future growth of the Greek population are

certainly not entirely satisfactory, they are nevertheless not

so alarming as they are sometimes thought of. In this regard,

-37-

Table 2.14

Live-born and induced abortions, by age of mother

-2525-2930-3435-3940-4445+

Numberinterviewed

4851044153314461070924

Per

Live-born

113174205234245308

100 interviewed

Admittingabortion

152834404238

Totalabortions

2050699310186

Total 6502 221 35 75

Table 2.15

Live-born and induced abortions by duration ofmarriage

„ _ •• . Per 100 interviewedYears of Numbermarriage interviewed Live- Admitting Total

born abortion abortions

0-4 1281 113 14 185-9 1806 195 31 5310-14 1478 235 43 8915-19 1041 271 45 11520+ 882 346 49 134

Total 6488 221 35 75

Table 2.16

Induced abortions by years of school attendance ofmother

Schoolyears

01-34-78-1213+

Numberinterviewed

54522422639943113

Abortionsper 100

interviewed

9491656038

Total 6482 75

-38-

Table 2.17

The frequency of abortion in two metropolitan populationsof Greece, in other urban areas, and in other areas of thecountry

Number P e r 1 0° interviewedPopulation . , . ,

interviewedAdmitters Abortion«

Athens andSalonicit

Other urban

Qoooo*)

Other areas(semi-urban and rural)

5 1 4

2 3 8 2

3 6 Q 6

3 7 7 7

Total 6502 35 75

Table 2.18

Outcome of pregnancies, by order

Order ofpregnancy

123456 +

Number ofpregnancies

625252273460215313251644

Per

Livebirths

88.880.160.550.542.232.6

cent outcorr.e of pregnancy

Stillbirths

1.81 .31.83 .51.01.0

Spontaneousabortions

6.67.79.09.09.09.1

Inducedabortions

2.810.928.739.047.857.3

Total 20041 69.9 1.5 7.9 20.7

-39-

it should be noted that: (a) the net reproduction rate varies

now above the limit of 1.0, thus suggesting a continuation of

future population growth, (b) among the younger age groups

(15-19 and 20-24) birth rates show clear anodic trends (Table

2.10 and Figure 2.4), as a consequence of which there is a

tendency for younger mothers and shorter intervals between

successive generations, and (c) the fertility rate among Greek

women of reproductive age (10-49 years old) occupies the 16th

rank among the corresponding rates of 26 European countries

for which data are available (rank 1 indicates the highest ra-

te). Therefore, the situation in Greece is not exceptional,

with European fertility standards (Table 2.19).

2.6. International migration

Since 1922, when an exchange of population minorities bet-

ween Greece and Turkey took place, the population of Greece is

practically homogeneous. Thus, no ethnic or religious diffe-

rentials are of importance, since about 97% of the population

are Greek speaking and belong to the Greek orthodox Church.

International emigration has always been a potent factor

shaping the profile of the Greek population. Since 1960, how-

ever, the wave of emigration, mainly toward Western Germany,

reached unprecedented dimensions. The excess of emigrants over

repatriated during the periods 1962-1966 and 1969-1970 became

almost as large as the excess of births over deaths, thus caus-

ing a virtual stagnation in the rate of population growth (Table

2.20) Recently, however, the trend has shown signs of change,

LIVE-BORNPER 1000

WOMEN

150-

100-

8 0 -

6 0 -

4 0 -

2 0 -

10-1

25-2920-24

30-34

1956357 '58 '59 '60 '61 '62 '63 '64 '65 '66 '67 '68 '69 '70 YEAR

Figure 2.4 Ldve-born :in Greece per 1000 women at the speci-

fied age-groups during the period 1956-1970

-41-

Table 2.19

Live-born per 3 000 population (1970) and per 1000 women at thereproductive age (1968) in European countries (latest availablecomparable data)

„ , Live-born Live-born_° r y Eer_i°°9 population per. 1000 women age 10-49

64.757.456.452.867.356.561.956.665.861.250.380.681.062.251.453.466.667.052.673.387.3• •

58.363.3

64.5• •

68.363.3

AlbaniaAustriaBelgiumBulgariaCzechoslovakiaDenmarkFinlandFranceGermany EasternGermany WesternGreeceHungaryIcelandIrelandItalyLuxembourgMaltaNetherlandsNorwayPolandPortugalRomaniaSpainSwedenSwitzerlandUnited Kingdom

England-WalesN.IrelandScotland-

Yugoslavia

35.315.214.716.315.914.414.016.813.913.216.514.719.721.916.813.016.318.316.616.819.321.119.613.715.8

16.021.116.817.8

-42-

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-43-

due to some extent "to changes of policies or economic condi-

tions in the countries of destination.

Emigration rate has always been higher from rural areas

and it has been partly responsible for the more pronounced de-

cline of fertility in the rural population. Most emigrants

are males (about 55 per cent) and between 15 and 44 years of

age (Table 2.20), thus depleting seriously the labour force

of the country. The majority of emigrants are unskilled work-

ers without occupation, followed by agricultural workers and

by production technicians and workers (in 1972 the correspond-

ing proportions were 51.6%, 23.8% and 15.5%). On the other

hand, among the repatriated Greeks, production technicians and

workers form a substantially larger part (in 1972 38.9%). The

wave of emigration is stronger towards Western Germany, but it

is also strong towards U.S.A., Australia and Canada (in 1972

61.5%, 15.2%, 8.4% and 5.3% respectively).

-44 -

CHAPTER III

POPULATION COMPOSITION

3.1. Sources and quality of dala

The National Statistical Service of Greece carried out,

on March 14, 1971, the general population census, and during the

preceding week (7-13 March) the census of dwellings. The analy-

sis that follows is based mainly on data derived fro« a 3S sample

elaboration of the census returns, which was undertaken by the

National Statistical Service of Greece (NSSG,1973a, 1973b, 1973c).

Data from other censuses and particularly from that of 1961 were

also used for comparative purposes.

The first population census took place in 1828. Since then,

14 more population censuses were carried out (Table 1.1). However,

data of all censuses before 1920 and to a lesser extent of those

of 1928, 1940 and 1951 are inaccurate because of extensive under-

reporting and frequent misstaternents. Thus, in all censuses be-

fore 1920 more nales were registered than females, -an improbable

finding which may reflect the relative importance attributed to

the two sexes by the Greek society of that time. Furthermore, in

these censuses males were always fewer than expected in the age

groups 15-24 presumably because several young men were not regi-

stered in order to avoid the draft. These and other apparent

weaknesses have created serious doubts about the reliability of

the earlier population statistics. Although corrections have been

attempted by eminent Greek demographers in order to improve the

-45-

quality of the earlier statistics (Valaoras,1960, NSSG,1966),

confidence should be placed mainly on conclusions based on da-

ta derived from the last turo censuses.

3.2. The growth of the Greek population, and its ethnical, racial andreligious homogeneity

Within 150 years the population of Greece has increased

from 753 thousands in 1828 to 8,769 thousands in 1971 (Table

1.1). This growth was accomplished not only by the natural

increase of the population but also by the annexation of new

areas (mainly in 1913) and by the influx of more than 1 million

Greek refugees from Asia Minor, after a disastrous war with Tur-

key (in 1922). Since 1922, when the exchange of population mi-

norities between Greece and Turkey took place, the population

of Greece is practically homegeneous (about 97 per cent are

Greek-speaking and belong to the Greek Orthodox Church).

3.3. Population composition by age and sex

The population distribution by sex and age groups at the

census of 1971 is shown in Table 3.1, and is illustrated by

means of a population pyramid in Figure 3.1. The overall sha-

pe of the pyramid indicates that the population of Greece has

already exceeded the stage of maturity with respect to age

structure. Three otlier demographic features may be noted in

the population pyramid; the demographic "scars" which are evi-

dent in tlie age groups 25-29 and 45-54 of both sexes, and cor-

respond to the periods of war, destruction and famine 1941-1943

-46-

Table 3.1

Population of Greece by sex and age groups. Census of 1971

Age groups

0-45-9

10-1415-1920-2425-2930-3435-3940-4445-4950-5455-5960-6465-6970-7475-7980-8485-8990-9495+

Males

38970035920036776033596032730024384028568031416032096024398020410024132021816017290011946066460412601900068002060

Females

378380338800346380322520305320257600318760337240341620268000238420254560231220193300160820860206624027120114404820

Total

7680806 9800071414065848063262050144060444065140066258051198044252049588044938056620028028015248010750046120182406880

Total 4280060 4488580 8768640

3opulation in thousands

DO 300 200 100

Population in thousands

100 200 300 400

Age

Figure 3.1 Population pyramid (by sex and five-years age-

groups) of Greece at the census of 1971

-48-

and 1916-1922; and the underrepresentation of males in the

older age-groups (mainly 75-79), which is accounted for not

only by the differential mortality but also by the massive

emigration during the decade around 1910 of young males to-

ward, the United States of America.

The percentage distribution of the population of Greece

by major age-groups in all censuses since 1907 is shown in

Table 3.2. The progressive demographic maturation of the po-

pulation is evident in the relatively rapid changes of the

age structure, which were brought about by the almost simul-

taneous rapid decline of birth rate and remarkable prolonga-

tion of life expectancy. Within a period of less than three

generations, the proportion of children and adolescent de-

clined by more than one third and the proportion of old per-

sons almost tripled. Several Greek demographers consider

these changes as too rapid and too extensive for a country with

the geopolitical position and the socio-economic development

of Greece, and believe that our population has already shown

symptoms and signs of ageing (Valaoras,1973, 1974a). Never-

theless the increase of the biologically and economically more

active part of the population aged 15-64 years, from 57.6 per

cent in 1907 to 65.3 per cent in 1961 and the marked proportio-

nal decrease of the economically dependent population of child-

ren, were certainly responsible to a considerable extent for the

rapid economic development of the country in the last decades.

-49-

Table 3.2

Percentage distribution of census population of Greece (1907-1971) by age groups

1907192019281940195119611971

0-14

38.334.332.233.028.326.424.9

Percentage by age

15-24

18.318.920.116.819.916.114.7

25-44

25.925.025.928.227.728.627.6

groups

45-64

13.416.116.015.717.220.621.7

65+

4.15.75.86.36.98.311.1

100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0

Table 3.4

Percent literates in the census populationof Greece (1879-1971) by sex (population of10 years of age and over)

Census

Year

18791907192019281940195119611971

Total

19.339.550.458.2. ,

76.482.385.2

Literates

Males

30.859.666.176.2

89.092.593.6

percent

Females

7.019.539.340.6* •

64.772.777.2

-50-

3.4. Population composition by marital status

The percentage distribution of the Greek population ac-

cording to marital status within groups of persons of the same

sex and age (5-years groups) at the censuses of 1951, 1961 and

1971 is shown in Table 3.3. The data of the Table reveal a

number of interesting facts.

(a) The proportion of those who stay single throughout

life is small and approximately the same among males and fe-

males. The percentages shown may be partly distorted by the

differential mortality by marital status, but even so it ap-

pears that only about 5 per cent remain unmarried.

(b) In all age-groups below 40 the proportion of married

is higher among women than among men, due to the usually earlier

marriage of women. After that age the proportion of widows ri-

ses sharply among women but only moderately among men, because

of the higher mortality rates of males, their higher average

age at marriage and their higher frequency of re-marriage after

widowhood or divorce. As a result, the percentage of married

men exceeds that of married women in all ages above 40.

(c) In both sexes and in all age-groups the proportion of

married is higher in 1971 than in 1961, and the difference is

more evident among the younger age-groups. The phenomenon is

accounted for by the slight increase of crude nuptiality rates

(from below 6.0 in 1940-1949, to 7.9 in 1950-1959, and 8.4 in

1960-1969) and mainly by the marked recent trend for earlier

marriage of both men and women. Thus in 1958-1962 13.1 per-

-51 -

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-52-

cent of the brades (first marriage) were younger than 20 and

their median age at marriage was 24.4 years, while in 1970-

1971 the corresponding figures were 26.2 per cent and 23.1

years. Similarly in 1958-1962 21.1 per cent of the grooms

(first marriage) were younger than 25 and their median age

at marriage was 28.6 years, while in 1970-1971 the correspond-

ing figures were 28.6 per cent and 28.3 years. The lessening

of the age at marriage' was the main factor responsible for

the recent rise of the fertility rates among the younger age-

groups, since in Greece almost 99 per cent of all live-born

are legitimate.

(d) The percentage of single persons is smallest in 1971

and highest in 1951 for the age-groups below 50, while the op-

posite is true for the older age-groups. This paradoxical phe-

nomenon may be accounted for by the fact that the older age-

groups at the 1971 census belong to the cohort that had expe-

rienced the relatively low nuptiality rates of the period

1940-1949 (crude average probably below 6.0) while the cor-

responding age-groups at the 1961 and 1951 censuses had expe-

rienced the slightly higher nuptiality rates of the periods

1930-1939 (crude average 6.6) and 1920-1929 (crude average

7.1) respectively.

* • •

In the pre-war period (1933-1937) the median age of brides(23.3) was slightly higher but the median age of grooms(27.3) substantially lower than the corresponding valuesin 1970-1971

-53-

(e.) The proportion of widows is lower in 1971 than in 1961

and 1951 among both sexes and in all age-groups. The prolonga-

tion of the expectation of life even among middle-aged persons

and the higher re-marriage rates (particularly of males) are

partly responsible for this change.

(f) The divorced represent a small but increasing group of

the population. More women than men were counted as "divorced"

because of the higher re-marriage rate of the divorced males.

3.5. Education

Data from the census of 1971 and from previous censuses,

concerning the level of education of the population of Greece

are summarized in Tables 3.4, 3.5 and 3.6. Table 3.4 illustra-

tes the growth of literacy in Greece during the last 100 years;

Table 3.5 shows the distribution of the population by educatio-

nal level in the various age and sex groups; and Table 3.6 de-

monstrates the educational differences between the population

of urban, semi-urban and rural areas.

Males are on average more educated than females, but the

gap is narrowing and tend ta disappear among the younger age-

groups. The educational achievements of the younger generation

are of course higher than those of the older generation and the

contrast is more marked among women. Examination of the age-

groups 15-29 years (Table 3.5) reveals that to-day about 95%

of population complete primary school, about 30% secondary

school and about 6% receive a higher degree. As it might be

expected, the educational level is higher in urban areas and

-54-

Table 3.5

Percent distribution of population of Greece according to educational levelby age and ses: (census 1971)

Sex and

Malestt

it

it

it

ti

ii

ti

age

10-1415-1920-2425-2930-4445-6465+total(10+)

Male population(10+) (in thousands)

Femalesti

ti

it

ti

M

II

ti

10-1415-1920-2425-2930-4445-6465+total(10+)

Female population(10+)(in thousands)

Withhighereducation

0.12.36.97.15.43.94.4

152420

...0.12.24.42.31.50.81.6

•"38100

Withsecondaryeducation

]1.827.320.514.49.36.912.1

419700

•12.827.419.612.07.03.410.4

370500

Withprimaryeducation

56.282.764.763.852.352.442.656.5

1956860

58.080.861.559.344.237.520.046.3

1656860

Literatebut notprimary

42.33.74.06.421.024.128.620.6

715000

40.74.46.411.726.420.46.818.9

676160

Illiterate

1.51.71.72.45.28.818.06.4

222700

1.31.92.55.015.133.669.022.8

817300

Total

100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0

3466680

100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0

3578920

* Excluding 64480 males and 192480 females with unknown educational level

-55-

Table 3.6

Percent distribution of population of urban, semi-urban, and ruralareas of Greece according to educational level (census 1971)

Educational level

Illiterate

Literate butnot primary school

With primaryeducation

With secondaryeducation*

With highereducation

Urban

Males

4.3

15.0

54.9

19.0

6.8

areas

Females

14.1

17.4

49.0

17.1

2.4

Semi-urban areas

Males

7.7

23.4

59.5

6.8

2.6

Females

25.4

21.6

47.2

4.7

1.1

Rural

Males

9.3

28.6

57.9

3.0

1.2

areas

Females

35.9

20.5

41.6

1.4

0.6

Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

Population (10+)(thousands) 1899.1 2032.5 417.0 424.1 1215.0 1314.8

-56-

lower in rural areas, where even to-day more than one third of

the female population 10 years old or more is illiterate.

One of the peculiar characteristics of higher education

in Greece is the plenitude of medical students and medical do-

ctors. At the 1971 census 17,200 of the 210,520 College and

University graduates were medical doctors (8.2 per cent) and

among the 11,482 new graduates of the academic year 1971-1972,

1,355 (11.8 per cent) were medical doctors. Indeed the ratio

of physicians to population in Greece is among the highest,and

the rate of increase of this ratio the highest in the world

(World Health Organization, World Health Statistics Annual,Vo-

lume III). An interesting relevant observation made by Greek

authors (Center of Planning and Economic Research,1972a) and

later by other investigators (Ward Hinds,1974) is that beyond

a certain limit the ratio of physicians to population is nega-

tively correlated with a number of health indices (notably in-

fant survival). This finding contrasts sharply with the positive

correlation which exists between the same indices and the rela-

tive number of para-medical personnel and seems to imply that

too many physicians may exercise a detrimental effect on the

quality of medical care.

3.6. Household and family

In the 1961 and 1971 population and housing censuses the

following definitions, pertaining to household and dwelling,

were used:

H o u s e h o l d : (a) A group of two or more per-sons who live together, jointly provide themselves with

-57-

food or other essentials for living and usually sharemeals (multi-person household). The group may be com-posed of related persons only, or of unrelated persons,or of a combination of both, including boarders, but ex-cluding lodgers, (b) A person who lives alone in a sepa-rate housing unit, or who shares the housing unit withother persons, but does not join with them -i.e..he doesnot share meals - to form a member of their household(one-person household).

H o u s i n g u n i t : A separate and independentspace which, by the way it has been built, rebuilt or con-verted, is intended for habitation, or one not intendedfor habitation but occupied as living quarters at the timeof the census.

R e g u l a r ( c o n v e n t i o n a l ) d w e l -l i n g : A permanent and independent structure constitutedby one regular room at least and intended for the purposesof habitation by a private household.

R e g u l a r r o o m : A space within a buildingreaching at least to a height of 2 metres, of a size largeenough to hold a bed for an adult (that is 4-square metresat least), with direct day-light from a window or a glass-door.

Tables 3.7-3.11 summarize the information derived from data

collected in the last two censuses (1961 and 1971) and concerning

the distribution of private households according to the size, to

the number of persons per room, to the facilities available and

to the type of water supply and sewerage. Institutional house-

holds (hospitals etc) were not included in the present analysis.

Of the total population (8,769 thousands) 8,455 thousands were

members of private households and 314 thousands of institutional

households.

The number of households has increased from 2,143 to 2,556

thousands between 1961 and 1971. This increase reflects both

the increase of the population and the decline of the average

household size. Thus, in 1961 31.5 per cent of the households

-58-

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-59-

had 5 or more members while in 1971 the proportion dropped to

20.3 per cent (Table 3.7). The decline of the household size

is accounted for by the decline of family size and by the pro-

gressive abandonment of the traditional cohabitation of parents

with their children even after their marriage. As expected,the

average household size is smaller in urban than in semi-urban

and rural areas, since the responsible demographic and social

changes are more extensive in the urban population.

The number of private households has increased considerably

in urban areas but has remained relatively stable in semi-urban

and rural areas. Nearly all households (99.5 per cent) are now

living in regular dwellings and in most of them (88.7 per cent)

there are less than 2 persons per room (Table 3.8). This con-

trasts sharply with the situation in 1961 when in more than one

third of the households there were 2 or more persons per room.

Significant improvement has been achieved in the type of water

supply, whereas the waste disposal system and particularly the

type of sewerage is far from satisfactory in many regions of the

country and particularly the rural areas (Tables 3.9 and 3.10).

Nevertheless, the improvement in the type of water supply and in

some regions of the type of sewerage have contributed signifi-

cantly in the marked decline of the incidence of most water-trans-

mitted diseases.

Tables 3.10 and 3.11 demonstrate the rapid change of the qua-

lity of everyday1s life in Greece. Within a decade the percenta-

ge of regular dwellings with bath or shower increased from 13.8

-60-

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-63-

to 35.6 per cent, of those with electric light fron 54.8 to

88.3 per cent, of those with toilet with VÏ.C. from 14.2 to

45.2 per cent, and of those with water supply through plumb-

ing system within the dwelling from 27.8 to 65.0 per cent.

However, in spite of the general improveinent, the situation

is not yet satisfactory, particularly in the rural areas of

the country.

-64 -

CHAPTER IV

POPULATION DISTRIBUTION AND INTERNAL MIGRATION

4.1. Definitions and sources of data

Greece is divided into 9 geographical Departments, and

these Departments are further divided into 52 administrative

regions (nomos). When the State of modern Greece was esta-

blished in 1828 it comprised only Central Greece, Peloponne-

sos and the Cyclades islands, but other parts of the country

were liberated soon afterwards (mainly in 1881 and 1913). The

evolution of the population of these Departments since their

annexation is evident through the subsequent population censu-

ses (Table 4.1).

Since 1928 the communes and municipalities of the country

are classified into urban, semi-urban and rural areas. Ac-

cording to this classification urban is the population of ci-

ties of more than 10,000 inhabitants, semi-urban is the popu-

lation of towns of 2,000-9,999 inhabitants and rural is the popu-

lation of villages of less than 2,000 inhabitants. Urban po-

pulation naturally comprises the population of Greater Athens,

Greater Salónica, and Greater Patras (the three larger cities

of Greece, in 1971) as well as that of all other urban agglo-

merations. It should be noted that definition of urban-rural

population differs for the censuses prior to 1920.

All the classifications in this chapter by urban, semi-

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-66-

urban, and rural areas, or by departments of the country, re-

fer to de facto population, that is to those present in the

area on 14 March 1971, and not to those usually (regularly)

residing there.

Data concerning Internal Migration were collected orily

during the last population census (1971), and they refer only

to the five years preceding the census. In order to measure

the expansion and the form of the internal migration during

that period, all persons born before January 1966 were asked

as to the place of their regular residence, namely in which

municipality or commune they usually resided, in December 1965.

This information, combined with the place of usual residence

during the census conduct, yielded the data on internal migra-

tion. A migrant (i.e. out-migrant and in-migrant) is any per-

son which, in the year 1971, was living in a municipality or

commune other than the one of December 1965. Data concerning

internal migration refer to households members and therefore

the figures given for various groups are not identical with

those presented in other tabulations.

4.2. Population distribution by departments

Table 4.1 shows the evolution of the population of Greece

by geographical departments during the period 1839-1971. The

growth of the population is continuous, uninterrupted and rapid

only in the department of Central Greece, due to the intense in-

ternal migration towards Athens, which belongs to this depart-

ment. In the other departments the stagnation of the rate of

-67-

population growth became evident after the Second World War,

and since 1961 has given place to actual decline. The de-

cline was more marked in the departments with large segments

of rural population.

4.3. Population distribution in urt -n - rural areas and in major cities

In the census of 1971 more than half of the population

were residents of cities of more than 10,000 inhabitants, and

almost 30 per cent were living in Greater Athens, the capital

of the country. The same census has also demonstrated the ho-

peless shrinkage of the rural population. In 1971 only 3 per-

cent of the population were living in villages of less than 200

inhabitants, whereas the remaining rural population was almost

equally distributed in villages of 200-499, 500-999 and 1,000-

1,999 inhabitants (Table 4.2).

Table 4.3 shows the precentage distribution of population

of Greece in urban, semi-urban and rural areas of the country,

in the six population censuses since 1920. During the last

fifty years the augmentation of urban and the shrinkage of rural

population have been continuous, but they were accelerated bet-

ween 1961 and 1971. The decrease of the absolute and relative

size of the rural population has been accompanied by a marked

distortion of its age structure (Table 4.4), which reflects, in

a negative way the age structure of the population of migrants.

Thus, in rural areas only 36.6 per cent are 15-44 years old (of

which 47.9 per cent males), as compared to 41.3 per cent in

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-69-

Table 4.3

Percentage distribution of population of Greecein urban (cities of more than 10000 inhabitants),semi-urban (towns of 2000-9999 inhabitants), andrural (villages of less than 2000 inhabitants)areas of the country. Censuses 1920-1971

Census ofYear

192019281940195119611971

Percentage

Urban

26.631.132.837.743.353.2

distribution

Semi-urban

9.714.514.814.812.911.6

in areas

Rural

63.754.452.447.543.835.2

Table 4.4

Percentage distribution of population of Greece (census1971) in urban, semi-urban and rural areas, by sex andage groups

Urban

Semi-urban

Rural

0-14

23.0

26.7

27.2

Percent

15-24

16.6

14.3

12.0

by age

25-44

29.7

27.0

24.6

groups

45-64

2] .2

20.6

22.6

65+

9.

11.

13.

5

4

6

Percent

males

48.7

49.8

48.6

Tot¿il 24.9 14.7 27.6 2.1 .7 1] .1 48.8

-70-

semi-urban areas (of which 49.8 per cent males), and 46.3 per

cent in urban areas (of which 49.7 per cent males). On.the

other hand the percentages of children and old persons are

markedly higher in the rural than in the urban population,

whereas the corresponding figures for the semi-urban population

hold intermediate positions (Table 4.4). These differences are

due less to fertility and mortality differentials than to the

decrease of the active population of adults in the rural (and

semi-urban) areas of Greece.

4.4. Internal migration

Table 4.5 shows the distribution of households members

born before 1966 by sex and residence in 1971. The Table shows

also the distribution of households members belonging to these

groups according to their residence in 1965 (a) in the same mu-

nicipality or commune, or (b) elsewhere in Greece, or (c) a-

broad. Thus, the Table allows an evaluation of the extent of

internal migration in Greece in the last 5 years before the

1971 census.

About 88 per cent of households members were living in

1971 in the same municipality or commune as in 1965, whereas

10 per cent have moved to their new residence from elsewhere

in Greece and 2 per cent have moved there from abroad. The

proportion of in-migrants was highest in urban areas and par-

ticularly in Greater Salónica (20 per cent of the resident po-

pulation of 1971) and lowest in rural areas (6 per cent of the

resident population of 1971). The population of males was only

-71-

Table 4.3

Households members born before 1966, by sex, residence in 1971 and residence in1965. Numbers in thousands

Residence in 1965Residence at the Households

1Q71 <-on a members In the same Elsewherei a census (total) municipality in Abroad

or commune Greece

Number % Number % Number % Number %

Greater Athens total 2233.2 100.0 1915.7 85.8 256.1 11.5 61.4 2.7males 1068.5 100.0 913.6 85.5 122.4 11.5 32.5 3.0females 1164.7 100.0 1002.1 86.0 133.7 11.5 28.9 2.5

Greater Salónica

Greater Patras

Other urban areas

Semi-urban ai'eas

Rural areas

Greece,

totalmalesfemales

totalmalesfemales

totalmalesfemales

totalmalesfemales

totalmalesfemales

totalmalesfemales

487.4237.0250.4

104.950.654.3

1226.5591.9634.6

891.7432.0459.7

2771.51326.01445.5

7715.13705.94009.2

100.0100.0100.0

100.0100.0100.0

100.0100.0100.0

100.0100.0100.0

100.0100.0100.0

100.0100.0100.0

389.2186.3202.9

90.943.347.6

1041.5499.1542.4

783.2378.1405.1

2600.11242.51357.6

6820.73262.93557.8

79.978.681.0

86.785.687.7

84.984.385.5

87.987.688.1

93.893.893.9

88.488.188.8

85.043.341.7

12.76.66.1

168.183.484.7

98.348.150.2

144.367.177.2

764.5370.9393.6

17.418.316.6

12.113.011.2

13.714.113.3

11.011.110.9

5.25.05.4

9.910.09.8

13.27.35.9

1.30.70.6

16.99.47.5

10.25.84.4

27.016.410.6

130.072.257.8

2.73.12.4

1.21.41.1

1.41.61.2

1.11.31.0

1.01.20.7

1.71.91.4

-72-

slightly more mobile.

Table 4.6 shows the distribution of in-migrants in the ma-

jor urban agglomerations and the other areas of the country from

elsewhere in Greece according to their residence in 1965. Of

in-migrants in Greater Athens and Greater Salónica about 45 per

cent arrive from rural areas, about 20 per cent from semi-urban

areas and about 35 per cent from other urban areas of the count-

ry. On the other hand, of in-migrants in other urban, or semi-

urban, or rural areas, about 55 per cent arrive from rural areas,

about 12 per cent from semi-urban areas, about 19 per cent from

Greater Athens or Greater Salónica, and about 14 per cent from

other urban areas. It should be added that of the 764.5 thou-

sands households members who resided in 1965 in a municipality

or commune other than that in which they were enumerated in 1971,

.340.8 resided in 1965 within the same geographical department as

in 1971.

Table 4.7 shows the distribution of households members born

before 1966, and who resided in 1965 in a municipality or commune

other than that in which they were enumerated in 1971, by sex and

area of residence in 1965. The Table also shows the distribution

of out-migrants by area of residence in 1971. When the popula-

tion of each area is taken into account, it appears that internal

migration from Greater Athens towards other areas of the country

is relatively unimportant, whereas that fron other urban areas is

at least 3 times higher, that from semi-urban areas at least 4

times higher, and that from rural areas at least 5 times higher

than the corresponding rate from Greater Athens. During the five

-73-

Table 4.6

Households members born before 1966 and who resided elsewhere in Greece in 1965by residence in 1971. Percentage distribution by residence in 1965 within groupsof migrants with the same residence in 1971

Residing Percentage distribution by residence in 1965Residence at the elsewhere in

]971 census " f ^ w ^ u " 1 9 6 j ! . Greater Greater Greater O t h e r Semi-urban Ruraltotal(thousands) urban

Athens Salónica Patras a r e a s areas areas

Greater Athens 256.1 3.5 2.3 30.9 17.7 45.6Greater Salónica 85.0 6.3 0.1 26.3 22.7 44.6Greater Patras 12.7 14.2 1.3 14.1 14.1 56.3Other urban areas 168.1 14.5 3.4 0.6 13.5 12.3 55.7Semi-urban areas 98.3 15.2 3.9 0.8 14.6 13.3 54.2Rural areas 144.3 13.0 3.4 0.7 14.3 10.6 58.0

Greece: total 764.5 8.5 3.1 1.1 21.0 14.8 51.5

-74-

Table 4.7

Households members (census 1971) born before 1966 and who resided elsewherein Greece in 1965 by sex and residence in 1965. Percentage distribution by-residence in 1971 within groups of migrants with the same sex and residencein 1965

Percentage distributionResidence Residing elsewhere^ b y r e s i d e n C e in_1971

in 1965 in Greece in 1971:Greater Other urban Semi-urban Rural

total (thousands) A t n e n s „eae areas areas

Greater Athens

Other urban areas

Semi-urban areas

Rural areas

Greece : total

Both sexesMalesFemales

Both sexesMalesFemales

Both sexesMalesFemales

Both sexesMalesFemales

Both sexesMalesFemales

65.235.629.6

193.098.594.5

113.454.758.7

392.9182.1210.8

764.5370.9393.6

48.746.051.3

40.040.439.6

29.830.229.4

33.533.034.0

48.448.548.1

27.828.727.0

36.836.836.8

35.337.133.8

34.735.933.6

22.922.223.8

9.810.59.1

9.89.310.2

13.613.613.5

12.913.012.8

28.729.328.1

13.714.812.6

13.513.513.4

21.319.123.3

18.918.119.6

-75-

years preceding the last census the rate of (internal) migration

from urban areas was higher among males, whereas migration from

semi-urban and rural areas was higher among females. Internal

migration was directed mainly towards Greater Athens (33 per

cent) ana other urban areas (35 per cent) and to a lesser ex-

tent towards semi-urban (13 per cent) and rural areas (19 per

cent) (in the last case, mainly towards non-mountainous villa-

ges).

Table 4.8 shows in-migrants to and out-migrants from com-

munes belonging to the main areas (urban, semi-urban, rural) as

well as to the geographical departments of the country. The

Table allows an evaluation of the effect of internal migration

on the growth of the corresponding segments of the population

of Greece. When the actual population of every area and depart-

ment is taken into account, it appears that the net effect of in-

ternal migration is strongly positive only for Greater Athens and

Greater Salónica, slightly positive for the remaining urban areas,

and strongly negative for the rural areas. As a result, in all

departments except of those of Central Greece and Macedonia, where

Athens and Salónica belong, the net effect of internal migration

was a reduction of the population size by up to 1 per cent per

year during the five-year period under consideration (1966-1970).

Table 4.9 shows the age structure of the population in urban,

semi-urban and rural areas and of in-migrants to and out-migrants

from communes belonging to these areas. The high proportion of

persons aged 15-24 and 25-44 among the migrants, and the direction

-76-

Table 4.8

In-migrants to and out-migrants from communes belonging (a) to main agglo-merations, or to other urban, or semi-urban, or rural areas of the country,(b) to the ten Departments of the country. (Internal migration deduced for764480 households members born before 1966, from their place of residencein 1965 and in 1971). Numbers in thousands

AreasIn- Out-migrants migrants Departments

In- Out-migrants migrants

Greater Athens 256.1Greater Salónica 85.0Greater Patras 12.7Other urban 168.1Semi-urban 98.3Rural 144.3

65.2 Greater Athens 256.2 65.223.6 Central Greece(rest) 89.1 116.48.6 Peloponnesos 73.3 119.7

160.8 Ionian Islands 12.2 22.0113.4 Epirus 26.8 47.0392.9 Thessaly 52.1 80.9

Macedonia . 173.0 176.6Thrace 17.4 33.7Aegean Islands 25.2 45.2Crete 39.2 57.8

Greece(total) 764.5 764.5 Greece(total) 764.5 764.5

- 7 7 -

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of the wave of migration from the villages towards the cities,

help to explain the augmentation of these age-groups in the

urban population and their underrepresentation in the rural

population.

-79-

CHAI'TER V

THE LABOUR FORCE

5.1. Sources of data and clef initions

The following analysis, as well as that presented in chap-

ters III and IV, is based mainly on data derived from the sample

elaboration of the returns of the 1971 census (NSSG, 1973a, 1973b,

1973c). The definitions and criteria used for the analysis are

summarized below.

Persons aged 10 and over (excluding those making their mili-

tary service and those serving prison terms) were classified as

economically active and economically non-active. A person was

considered as "working" when by his work he earned his own or

his household's living. Two different criteria were used for

this classification.

According to the first criterion, as economically active

were considered those who replied that they usually work, no mat-

ter whether during the census period were working or not. Thus

as economically active were considered (a) those who had lost

their job, but they were looking for one (unemployed), (b) those

who happened to abstain from their job, because of illness or

leave of absence, (c) those who took a job a few days before the

census day, (d) those periodically working in seasonal jobs, and.

(e) the unpaid family members, if they systematically work daily

and at least for one third of the normal working time, within the

family enterprise. All others were considered as economically

-80-

non-active. Most of the classifications in this chapter are

made according to this criterion.

According to the second criterion, the classification of

a person as economically active or economically non-active was

made by. reference -to his employment situation in the week pre-

ceding the census day. Persons aged 10 and over were considered

as: employed, if during the week preceding the census day had

worked more than 10 hours, or less than 10 hours (or not at all)

because of leave of absence, illness, lack of clients etc; un-

employed, if during the week preceding the census day had worked

less than 10 hours (or not at all) but they had declared that

they were looking for a job; economically non-active, if during

the week preceding the census day, neither had they worked more

than 10 hours, nor were they looking for a job.

Although the two classifications are based on different cri-

teria and do not coincide conceptually, they are nevertheless

highly correlated and therefore their joint use, as in Tables

5.1 and 5.2 does not introduce any serious error.

•5.2. Economically active population by age. sex and employment status

Inspite of the increase, however slow, of the population

of Greece in the last decade, the labour force has decreased

from 3,640 thousands in 1961 to 3,284 thousands in 1971. Seve-

ral factors were responsible for this decline, including the

following: (a) emigration, which has reached unprecedent levels

during the mid 60's, (b) decrease of participation of women in

-81-

Table 5.1

Population of Greece aged 10 and over classified into economically active and non-active by sex and areas (urban, semi-urban, rural). Percentage distribution ofeconomically active by conditions of employment during the week prior to censusday (1971)

Percentage distribution ofeconomically active by condi-tions of employment during theproceeding weekArea Sex

Econo- Econo- Econ-mically mically micallyactive non-active active(thousands) (thousands) (per cent) Employed Employed

Total for 20 for up u n e m P x -hours or to 19 o y e d

more hours

Greece

Urban

Semi-urban

Rural

BothMalesFemales

BothMalesFemales

BothMalesFemales

BothMalesFemales

3283.92369.8914.1

1569.31202.3367.0

369.1279.090.1

1345.4888.4457.0

3886.31029.32857.0

2278.6613.3

1665.3

449.5115.5334.0

1158.2300.5"857.7

45.869.724.2

40.866.218.1

45.170.721.3

53.774.734.8

100.0100.0100.0

100.0100.0100.0

100.0100.0100.0

100.0100.0100.0

76.480.865.0

84.186.078.2

71.776.856.1

68.374.955.0

20.316.230.9

12.010.616.4

24.319.538.9

29.222.842.2

3.33.04.1

3.93.45.4

4.03.75.0

2.52.32.8

-82-

Table 5.2

Population of Greece aged 10 and over classified into economically active and non-active by age and sex. Percentage distribution of economically active by conditionsof employment during the week prior to census day (1971)

Percentage distribution of eco-Econo- Econo- Econo- comically active by conditions

Sex and age mically mically mically "eedin^îTk* ^ " ^ *""active non-active active n£_ï-Ë(thousands) (thousands) (per cent) _, , . Employed Employed

for 20 for up 'hours or to 19 Oy

_ _ _ more hours

Male 10-14 41.7 325.8 11.3 100.0 66.6 17.2 16.2" 15-19 156.2 164.7 48.7 100.0 78.0 14.5 7.511 20-24 165.6 56.4 74.6 100.0 82.7 11.1 6.2" 25-29 220.2 16.7 92.9 100.0 85.7 11.0 3.3ii 30-44 886.1 32.0 96.5 100.0 85.6 12.1 2.3" 45-64 757.8 148.7 83.6 100.0 80.0 18.1 1.9" 65* 142.3 284.9 33.3 100.0 56.9 42.5 0.6

" 10 or more 2369.7 1029.3 69.7 100.0 80.8 16.2 3.0

Female 10-1415-1920-2425-2930-4445-6465+

10 or more

24.288.7

112.485.2

319.9244.838.9

914.1

322.2233.7192.8172.3677.7747.4510.8

2857.0

7 . 027.536.833.132.124.7

7 . 1

24.2

100.0100.0100.010O.0100.0100.0100.0

100.0

49.665.576.276.370.062.328.2

65.0

30.624.617.319.727.135.871.4

30.9

19.89 . 96 . 54 . 02 . 91.90 . 4

4 . 1

-83-

economic life, due to progressive urbanization of the popula-

tion, (c) prolongation of the average time spent in education

and (d) improvement of the social security services, including

the granting of pensions to large segments of the rural popu-

lation (Center of Planning and Economic Research,1972b).

Tables 5.1 and 5.2 show the population of Greece (census

1971) aged 10 and over, classified into economically active and

non-active, by sex and area class (Table 5.1) and by sex and

age-group (Table 5.2). In addition, these Tables show the per-

centage distribution of economically active by conditions of

employment during the week preceding the census day in the va-

rious areas of the country (Table 5.1) and in every sex and age-

group (Table 5.2).

About 70 per cent of the male and 24 per cent of the fe-

male population of Greece are economically active. Among both

men and women the percentage of economically active is highest

in rural and lowest in urban areas,- and the differences remained

unchanged when age-standardization was performed to account for

the existing differences in the age structure of the populations

compared. On the other hand, about 29 per cent in the rural,but

only 12 per cent in the urban areas, of the corresponding econo-

mically active population, were employed for less than 20 hours

weekly.

With respect to employment status by age and sex, it is

noteworthy that the proportion of unemployed declines steadily

with advancing age among both men and women. More than 80 per

-84-

cent of economically active men (86 per cent in the age-groups

25-44) but only 65 per cent of economically active women (76

per cent in the age-groups 20-29) were employed for more than

20 hours a week.

TaBle 5.3 shows the median value of hours of work during

the week preceding the census day, among those employed during

that week by sex, age, marital status and agricultural or non-

agricultural occupation. It appears that men are working more

than women, the young more than the old, single persons more

than those ever married, and those engaged in non-agricultural

occupations more than those engaged in agricultural ones (pos-

sibly because of the seasonal nature of agricultural work, or

because of the high proportion of employees among the non-agri-

cultural workers).

In general, of the economically active population of Greece

(3,284 thousands) 72 per cent are males and 62 per cent are 15-44

years old. These facts emphasize the importance of the emigra-

tion wave since most of the emigrants are economically active and

the large majority are 15-44 years old (Table 2.20).

5.3. Economically active population by occupation, branch of economicactivity, and level of education

The distribution of the economically active population by

branch of economic activity (NSSG,1971a) is shown in Table 5.4.

It is evident that in rural areas the large majority of the eco-

nomically active population is concentrated in Agriculture, where-

as in the cities the distribution is more even, since Manufactu-

-85-

to

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-87-

ring occupies 27 per cent, Services 20 per cent, Trade 17 per

cent and Construction and Transport 10 per cent each, of the

economically active population. There are more men than women

in every major branch of economic activity, but the "males to

females" ratio varies considerably being highest in Mining and

Construction and lowest in Services and Agriculture.

Table 5.5 shows the distribution of the economically acti-

ve population by major occupational groups (NSSG,1971b). As

expected, in rural areas the large majority of the economically

active population are Farmers (80 per cent), followed by Crafts-

men and non-agricultural labourers (11 per cent), whereas in ur-

ban areas the majority are Craftsmen and labourers (45 per cent),

followed by Clerical workers (14 per cent), Merchants and sales

workers (11 per cent) and Service workers (11 per cent). In ur-

ban areas 10 per cent of the economically active population hold

Professional or Administrative occupations, while in semi-urban

and rural areas the corresponding figures are 4 per cent and 2

per cent respectively.

Tables 5.6 and 5.7 show the proportions of illiterate and

those with secondary or higher education in every branch of eco-

nomic activity and in every major occupational group. It is in-

teresting, that the level of education of the economically active

males is not very different from that of the economically non-

active, whereas among females the educational level is higher

among the economically active. The difference is not wholly

attributable to the existing difference in the age structure of

-88-

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-91-

the two groups. It is also interesting that in several branches

of economic activity female workers are frequently more educated

than males. As expected the level of education is relatively

high in Professional, Administrative, and Clerical occupations

and relatively low among Farmers, Craftsmen and labourers, and

Service workers.

5.4. Economically active population by occupational status

Table 5.8 gives the distribution of economically active po-

pulation according to occupational status in urban, semi-urban,

and rural areas of the country, in males and females, in broad

age-groups, and in the major occupational groups.

Employers represent a mere 4 per cent of the economically

active population. They are proportionally more in urban areas

and among males. Salary and wage earners form the largest part

of the economically active population in urban areas (68 per

cent), whereas in rural areas the proportion of own account work-

ers (mainly males) and unpaid family members (mainly females)

reaches 84 per cent.

Age is an important determinant of the distribution by oc-

cupational status. Before the age of 30 the majority of the eco-

nomically active population are salary and wage earners, followed

by the group of unpaid family members. With increasing age both

these groups becone less important in proportional terms, while

the percentage of own account workers (and to some extent of em-

ployers) rises sharply. Thus in the age-group 45-64 the proport-

ions of salary and wage earners and unpaid family members are

-92-

Table 5.8

Economically active by (a) urban, semi-urban and rural areas, (b) sex, (c) agegroups and (d) major groups of occupations. Percentage distribution by occupa-tional status. Greece, census 1S71

Econo- Percentage distributionmi callv ^ v occupational status

Classification „ ^ . .f t " — } Employers Recount Unpaid S a l a r y a n d

workers lamily w a g e e a r n e r smembers

Greece 3283.9 4.4 35.7 17.7 42.2

UrbanSemi-urbanRural

MaleFemale

10-2930-4445-6465+

Professional,technical,etcAdministrative,executive,etcClerical,etcMerchants and salesServiceFarmers,loggers,etcCraftsmen and labourers*Not determined/not declared

1569.3369.2

1345.4

2369.7914.2

894.11206.01002.6181.2

186.222.4

249.4231.7228.0

1330.5966.269.5

7 . 13 . 41 . 5

5 . 51 . 5

2 . 15 . 25 . 45 . 3

4.-321.0

0 . 316.0

4 . 41.66 . 23 . 5

22.244.249.1

42.916.7

13.934.749.671.2

20.34 . 32 . 5

51.521.254.022.431.7

2 . 918.334.9

7 . 644.1

26.215.313.714.3

1 .60 . 40 . 85 . 73 . 8

39.62 . 65 . 2

67.834.114.5

44.037.7

57.844.831.3

9 . 2

73.874.396.426.870.6

4 . 868.859.6

(not in agriculture)

-93-

about half the corresponding proportions in the age-group

10-29. By contrast the percentages of own account workers

and employers in the age-group 45-64 are 3.5 and 2.5 times

higher than the corresponding figures in the earlier age-

group.

The distribution according to occupational status in

the major groups of occupations is rather predictable. Among

Merchants and sales workers 52 per cent are own account work-

ers and 16 per cent are employers, while among Farmers, log-

gers etc,54 per cent are own account workers and 40 per cent

are unpaid family members. In all other major occupational

groups the large majority are salary and wage earners.

5.5. Economically non-active population

The economically non-active population comprises 30.3

per cent of the male population and 75.8 per cent of the fe-

male population, aged 10 and over. Proportionally, it is

larger i-n urban than in semi-urban or rural areas and it varies

considerably by age and sex (Tables 5.1 and 5.2).

In Table 5.9 data concerning the distribution of the eco-

nomically non-active population according (a) to reason for

not working and (b) to main source of sustenance, are summari-

zed. With respect to "reason for not working", comparisons

are hindered by the high and variable between sub-groups pro-

portion of persons not working for reasons "other or not decla-

red". Nevertheless it appears that in the total economically

non-active population of Greece of both sexes, slightly more

- 9 4 -

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-95-

than one half are occupied with the housework and slightly-

more than one quarter are pupils or students, while the act-

ual proportion of invalids may be slightly higher than 6 per

cent. On the other hand, the main source of sustenance for

the economically non-active is Household for 77 per cent, Pen-

sion for 16 per cent, Property income for 3 per cent, and Al-

lowances and benefits for 2 per cent. The lack of reliable

comparable data for the past make it difficult to attribute

the proper significance to these figures.

-96-

CHAPTER VI

POPULATION PROJECTIONS

6.1. Total population by age

This chapter- presents a series of population projections

prepared by the Center of Planning and Economic Research (1972b).

Population projections for Greece have also been prepared by the

National Statistical Service of Greece (1966) and Siampos (1969)

and another series ,is now in preparation by Professor Valaoras

(1974b) and the National Statistical Service. The projections

presented in this chapter were based on the population of Greece

as of 1.1.1970, estimated by the National Statistical Service

and extended to the year 1985 and in less detail up to the year

2000. Population was projected from 1970 onward at five-years

intervals. The evolution of the forces of mortality, fertility

and migration in the period 1960-1969 were extrapolated into the

future. Three different assumptions regarding fertility (opti-

mistic, median and pessimistic) and one concerning the evolution

of mortality and migration were used. The assumptions on which

the population projections were based are given in Table 6.1.

Assumptions on fertility

(a) Optimistic assumption

According to this assumption the slight increase of the

number of children per woman from 2.19 in 1960-1964 to 2.34 in

1965-1969 will continue its upward movement up to 2.79 in 1980-

1984.

-97-

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-98-

(b) Median assumption

In view of the great uncertainty of long-term trends, it

is assumed that fertility will continue its upward trend, but

in a shighter degree, so that the number of children per woman

will be only 2.43 in 1980-1984 and 2.52 in 1995-1999.

(c) Pessimistic assumption

According to this assumption the recently noted upward mo-

vement of the fertility levels is temporary and it is believed

that fertility will resume its downward course reaching a low

level of 2.10 in 1980-1984.

Assumptions on mortality

It is believed that the downward course of mortality will

continue in the future. The increase of the expectation of li-

fe at birth will be slightly higher for females than for males.

It is also assumed that the rate of increase will be higher up

to 1985 than thereafter up to 2000. Thus it is assumed that the

expectation of life for the first period will increase by 0.7

years for males and 1.0 years for females for each five-years

interval. For the second period the increase will be 0.4 years

for males and 0.5 years for females. According to these assum-

ptions the expectation of life will be 70.9 years for males and

75.2 years for females in 1980-1984 and 72.0 and 76.6. in 1995-

1999.

It is of particular interest that the expectation of life

at birth in 1970 was recently estimated to exceed clearly the

corresponding figure of the adopted assumptions for the period

-99-

1970-1974 (section 2.4 page 26). Furthermore additional improve-

ment In life expectancy at birth may be readily achieved in

Greece, since infant mortality, which responds easily to so-

cial and hygienic measures, is still relatively high.

Assumptions on migration

The data on migration are incomplete since data on repa-

triation exist only from 1968 onward. Furthermore the most

unpredictable component of population projections is usually

migration. The present .series of projections were based on

the assumption that net migration will follow a downward trend.

Thus it was assumed that the annual net migration will be 20,000

for the period 1970-1974, 15,000 for the period 1975-1979, 5,000

for the period 1980-1984 and zero net migration from 1985 to 2,000.

It is rather unrealistic to assume that the notoriously through-

out its history mobile Greek population will eventually stop mi-

grating. However, these assumptions were based on the steady

decrease in Greece's net migration losses during the last few

years.

The three sets of population projections according to the

three assumptions on fertility are given in Tables 6.2, 6.3 and

6.4. The following conclusion may be drawn from the study of

these projections.

(a) The computed total population of Greece around 1985

will range from 9.9 to 9.7 and 9.5 millions, under the optimi-

stic, median and pessimistic assumptions respectively. It will

be around 10.7 millions in 2000 under the median assumption.

-100-

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-102-

(b) The net growth rate will vary around 0.8%, 0.6% and

0.5% for the period between 1970-1985 under the above three

assumptions.

(c) The crude death rate will follow an upward trend under

all adopted assumptions.

(d) The crude birth rate will increase only under the op-

timistic assumption.

(e) All used assumptions imply a progressive ageing of the

Greek population.

The computed figures may vary within large margins because

they are the final products of lengthy elaborations based on in-

herently weak data. However they roughly illustrate the alterna-

tive patterns of evolution of the main demographic characteristics

of the population of Greece.

6.2. Labour force

According to the optimistic assumption (section 6.1) which

was considered as realistic by the Center of Planning and Econo-

mic Research (1972b) the labour force will increase annually by

1.10 per cent until 1985 and by 1.25 per cent afterwards and un-

til 2000. These desired changes are expected to be accomplished

through higher fertility and repatriation rates, as well as by

the increasing participation in economic life of a few special

population groups (married women, students etc) due to introductior

and wider acceptance of flexible patterns of part-time employment.

The increasing participation of women in the' labour force,

the prolongation of the average period devoted to education, and

-103-

the voluntary earlier retirement age, will cause important

changes in the age and sex structure of the economically active

population. Thus the proportion of women in labour force will

increase from 28 per cent in 1971, to 31 per cent around 1985,

and to 33 per cent in 2000. The age group 10-24 will decrease

from 17 per cent in 1971, to 8 per cent in 1985 and to 7 per

cent in 2000. The age-group 25-64 will increase from 77 per

cent in 1971, to 88 per cent in 1985 and to 90 per cent in 2000.

Finally the age-group 65 or more will decrease from 6 per cent

in 1971, to 4 per cent in 1985 and to 3 per cent in 2000.

Although the labour force will expand annually by 1.10 per

cent until 1985 and by 1.25 per cent afterwards the total labour

supply (in working hours) will increase by only 0.80 per cent

until 1985 and by only 0.90 per cent afterwards. The discrepan-

cy will reflect the progressively increasing proportion of part-

time workers. Nevertheless, the total amount of working hours

is expected to increase from 7 billions hours annually in 1971,

to about 8 billions hours in 1985 and 9 billions hours in 2OOO.

-104-

CHAPTER VII

POPULATION POLICY

7.1. Position of the Church

The Greek Orthodox Church, which is the official Church

of the country, prohibits, condemns, and punishes not only the

practice of abortion but also the avoidance of procreation.

(Old Testament, Chapter 38, Genesis, lines 8 etc). The Church

does not allow abortion even under medical grounds.

According to the &Y' Rule of the Elvira's Synod the woman

who induces abortion is punished with prohibition from the holy

communion for a lifetime-that is until her last moments before

death, when she is allowed to receive it. The punishment of a

10-year prohibition from the holy communion is imposed by 3asil

the Great and others, while, according to Fasting John, 5-year

and 3-year penalties are imposed on married and unmarried women,

respectively. The penalty not only condemns the pregnant woman

but includes also the physician who performs the abortion and

all those who participate in any aspect of it.

The Greek Orthodox Church believes that every human being,

including the fetus, is entitled to life. Only God can give

life, and therefore nobody has the right to take life away, not

even from the fetus. According to the moral rules, in very ex-

ceptional cases when the life of the pregnant woman is in danger

and the physician faces the so-called confrontation of duties is

he permitted to save the life of the mother by sacrificing the

life of the fetus.

-105-

The Greek Orthodox Church prohibits and condemns the use

of abortifacient drugs as well as the means of controlling con-

ception. The (married) woman who takes measures to prevent con-

ception is punished by a 3-year forced abstention from the holy

communion (21st Rule of Fasting John). The pregnant woman who

uses abortifacient drugs, as well as her physician or anybody

else who provides them, are condemned to a 10-year abstention

from the holy communion (91st Rule of "Penthekti Synod"). Eu-

nuchism is also prohibited and condemned according to the eighth

Rule of the "Protosecond Synod". A legendary example is that of

Origenes who as a teacher of young women castrated himself for

reasons of self-control and was condemned by the Church.

The prohibition and condemnation of all those who avoid

child-bearing is illustrated in Chapter 38 of Genesis of the

Old Testament with the episode of Avnan and his wife Thamar who

was the widow of his brother. Avnan did not want to have a child

with her, and for this reason he let his seed pour on to the

earth. God considered that as an evil deed and punished him

with death.

Despite the general strictures of the Greek Orthodox Church

against contraception, many religious leaders feel that because

of the large number of illegal abortions in Greece they may have

to be more realistic about contraception. Of course abstinence

is openly accepted and the rhythm method is not condemned. Among

enlightened priests there seems also to be a widespread attitude

to advise that "instead of ending with an abortion God gave you

the mind to prevent conception".

-106-

After the publicity given in recent years to the epidemic

nature of illegal abortions in Greece, the Church has been great-

ly concerned with the subject. Through a special committee crea-

ted within the Holy Synod the problem of abortions was reviewed

and examined in detail. An encyclical, which was distributed

among the priests, provided the necessary information and stated

the position of the Church on abortion. The encyclical stressed

mainly that "the murderous trend of inducing abortion is threaten-

ing the nucleus of the family unit and endangering the survival of

our nation". Other points were also considered: the financial pro-

blem, the psychological consequences, and the medical complications.

The encyclical urged the believers against "this destructive trend"

and asked them "to realise that children in a family are a bles-

sing not a curse" (Louros, Danezis and Trichopoulos,1974).

7.2. Contraception, contraceptives, and abortion laws

There is no special legislation concerning the importation

and distribution of contraceptives in Greece. All pharmaceutical

products have to be approved by the "State Laboratory for the Con-

trol of Pharmaceutical Products", acting similarly to the Food and

Drug Administration of the U.S.A. Although many oral contrace-

ptives are available in Greece none is manufactured by Greek phar-

maceutical industries or tested locally by either government or

private organizations.

Condoms are freely sold throughout Greece. Diaphragms and

spermicides have recently been introduced but their circulation

is limited. Only one type of intrauterine device is available.

-107-

Oral contraceptives were introduced in 1963; they are not ad-

vertised as contraceptives but only for their gynecological ef-

fects and can be obtained without a physician's prescription.

Male sterilization is not practiced. Female sterilization is

practiced on a limited number of women on strictly medical grounds.

The modern aspects of control of conception are not formally

included in the medical curriculum. Furthermore legal fertility

control services are not yet provided in governmental programs

of public health. Therefore, knowledge among practicing physi-

cians about family planning and contraception is frequently in-

adequate. As a result, only a small proportion of Greek women

make use of the modern and reliable methods of contraception,

and the effectiveness and side effects of these methods are fre-

quently unknown.

Abortions are illegal in Greece. Their legal status is co-

vered by the following articles of the Criminal Code.

A pregnant woman who purposefully destroys by abortionor otherwise the embryo she is bearing, or who allows some-one else to do so, is punishable by imprisonment of up tothree years.

V/hoever, with the approval of the pregnant woman,bringsabout the embryo's death or provides to her the means fordoing so is punishable by imprisonment of at least 6 months.If, furthermore, he performs abortions on a regular basis heis punishable by imprisonment of ten years maximum.

Whoever, without the knowledge of the pregnant woman oragainst her desires, purposefully brings about the embryo'sdeath, is punishable by imprisonment of a minimum of 5 years.

The act is not unjust and remains unpunished when per-formed by a physician with the purpose of avoiding an other-wise unavoidable threat to the life, or a serious and perma-nent damage to the health of the pregnant woman, providedthat the need for abortion is also certified by a second phy-sician.

-108-

Also unpunishable is an abortion performed by a physi-cian, with the approval of the pregnant woman, when, concept-ion took place subsequent to rape, or to violation of a wo-man unable to resist, or of a girl under 16 years of age,or incest.

Whoever, in public, or by circulating pamphlets, pictu-res, or designs, proclaims or advertises, even if subtly,drugs or other objects, as capable of causing abortion, orsimilarly makes available his own or someone else's servicesfor performing or assisting in an abortion, is punishable byimprisonment of one year maximum.

Inspite of the legal definitions and obligations and the

great number of abortions performed (Valaoras,Polychronopoulou

and Trichopoulos,1970) only about 20 to 30 cases are brought

to court every year, and then only if the woman dies or a dis-

agreement arises among the persons involved (Louros, Danezis

and Trichopoulos,1974). This implies that abortions in Greece

are "legally illegal".

1.3. The development of population policy

The rapid population growth has never been considered a

catastrophic threat in Greece. One reason for this relaxed at-

titude is that during the last 150 years the Greeks have been

obliged to fight several wars for their independence -another

that emigration has always been relatively high. Indeed it was

the recent decline, not increase, of the rate of population

growth that has drawn the attention of officials and the public

to the problems of population. Environmental concerns have al-

so been expressed relatively late in Greece and they are United

to the industrialization of the country, and the concentration

of the population in the cities, rather than to the fairly small

rate of population growth.

-109-

Fertility rates began to decline in the 1930s but it was

not until about 1960 that the extent of the reduction was ful-

ly realized. This delay is accounted for by the fact that du-

ring the period 1940-1954 the registration of vital events was

very incomplete and in many areas of the country nonexistent.

A number of field surveys and scientific studies, undertaken

during the next few years, showed that the low birth rate was

achieved mainly through the wide practice of illegal abortions

and to a lesser extent through the general-but inefficient-

practice of contraception (Valaoras, Polychronopoulou and

Trichopoulos,1965, 1970, Polychronopoulou and Trichopoulos,

1969).

Therefore the major demographic issues in Greece after the

mid-1960s were: low fertility rates, high frequency of abortions,

high emigration rates, and uncontrolled urbanization.

The demographic situation in Greece has been extensively

covered during the following years by the mass media, and the

demographic problems have received sufficient attention from

both government officials and the general public. It is not dif-

ficult to account for this expressed interest in view of the very

large number of abortions performed every year (about 75,000 a-

mong married and about as many among unmarried women) and the

huge waves of emigration and internal migration toward the ci-

ties. Furthermore many Greek experts are apparently convinced

that the present fertility rates are too low for a country with

the geopolitical position of Greece (NSSG,1966, Hellenic Euge-

-110-

nic Society,1967, Valaoras,1967., Katsouyiannopoulos,1970, Cen-

ter of Planning and Economic Research,1972b, Valaoras,1973,

1974a).

The interest of the scientific community in the demogra-

phic problems has been expressed in many ways. Besides the

field surveys already mentioned, several theoretical studies

about the population trends and future projections were under-

taken (NSSG,1966, Siampos,1969, Valaoras,1973, 1974a, 1974b,

Louros, Danezis and Trichopoulos,1974, etc). Furthermore, se-

veral Institutions and University Departments' became involved

in scientific activities in the field of Demography (Pressât,

1971, CICRED,1974).

Governmental concern was expressed in 1968 with the appoint-

ment, by the Minister of Coordination, of an ad hoc Committee on

Demographic Policy, consisted mainly by governmental officials

and a few experts from the medical community. The committee was

asked to study the nature, the dimensions, and the probable cau-

ses of the problems of Greek population and to propose ethically,

socially, and economically acceptable corrective measures. The

following were some of the proposals of the committee:

Population Division of the National Statistical Service ofGreece, Hellenic Eugenic Society, National Center of SocialResearch, Department of Hygiene and Epidemiology of the Uni-versity of Athens Medical School, Department of Hygiene ofthe University of Thessaloniki Medical School, Department ofEpidemiology and Biostatistics of the Athens School of Hygiene,Department of Economics of the Technical University of Athens,and several others.

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(a) Foundation of family planning units throughout thecountry. Each unit should be organized as a consultationcenter for marriage, birth, fertility and sterility, and re-lated family conditions and problems.

(b) Education of the public on basic aspects of humanreproduction.

(c) Decentralization of the health services. Creationof .additional units for protection of maternity and childhealth, in the rural areas of the country.

(d) Prevention of migration through decentralization,creation of new job opportunities, and introduction of va-rious economic measures.

(e) New legislation favoring an increase of the birthrate of the Greek population.

In 1968 there was no legislation with explicit demographic

objectives. Before World War II a number of laws for the pro-

tection of maternal and child health (e.g. maternal leave of

about 4 months) were introduced, but they were based on humani-

tarian rather than demographic grounds. These laws provided

for the unmarried pregnant woman or mother and for the unpro-

tected or illegitimate children. They also guaranteed for the

"large" families (families with 5 or more children): (a) free

education of all children at all levels, (b) free medical care,

(c) special tax exemptions, (d) exemption of the first-born

from the obligatory military service, and (e) housing accommo-

dations. After World War II a variety of new family assistance

measures were introduced in Greece. They include marriage pay-

ments (an allowance between 5 to 10% of the salary), maternity

benefits (between $50 and $200 for each delivery irrespectively

of parity), children allowances (between 3 and 6% of salary) and

various tax benefits.

Two additional official studies, undertaken in 1968 and

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1970 by the Ministry of Coordination, have confirmed the findings

of earlier studies and have reached similar conclusions. These

later studies have stressed particularly, however, the decay of

the rural population, brought about by the huge internal migra-

tion and emigration and by the decreasing fertility of; that

segment of the population.

When the statistical data for the year 1970 were assembled

and evaluated, it became apparent that the birth rate had reached

the lowest point in the demographic history of modern Greece and

the emigration rate one of the highest (Tables 2.9 and 2.20).

Furthermore, the 1971 census had plainly demonstrated the un-

controlled growth of the population of Athens and Salónica and

the hopeless shrinkage of the rural population. It was under

these conditions that population policy was formulated in the

fall of 1971. The objectives of the official population policy

were and continue to be: higher birth rates; higher repatriation

and lower emigration rates; decentralization and redistribution

of the population.

Among the measures taken for the decentralization of the

population and the slowing down of internal migration were the

division of the country into areas with high degree of admini-

strative autonomy and the takinç of measures for the decentrali-

zation of the health services and the higher education. Very

few people have argued against the objectives of these measures,

but many were sceptical about their effectiveness.

In order to combat subfertility, a law was enacted in 1972

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according to which for every child born to a family with at

least two other children a monthly allowance of about $20 is

paid.' Additional tax benefits have been introduced for fa-

milies with three or more children. These decisions have

been well received by most concerned parties, and they have

been favorably editorialized in the mass media. Some people

have argued, however, that the population problem in Greece is

mainly a migration problem and that only a migration-oriented

solution can be effective (Louros, Danezis and Trichopoulos,

1974). It should also be noted that in Greece children of

lar¿e families, and particularly those born in birth orders

beyond the third child, fall behind other children of the sa-

me sex, age and socio-economic class v/ith respect to both phy-

sical development and school performance (Papoutsakis, Pimeni-

dou, Kalapothaki et al,1972, Giokas,1974). Nevertheless, the

opinion of most people in Greece was that it was indeed neces-

sary to take some measures, and that those already taken had

to prove their effectiveness before any change should be con-

sidered.

With respect to the two other major population issues,

i.e., emigration and illegal abortions no official action has

been taken as yet. The short-term and long-term consequences

of emigration are now being intensively studied, with particu-

lar emphasis to the resulting sub-fertility and the lack of

sufficient labour force to meet the demands of the expanding

industry.

The average income per capita per year in Greece in 1972 wasabout $1100

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The problem of induced abortions seems more complicated.

On the one hand legalization does not appear feasible; on the

other enforcement of the existing prohibitive legislation

would have serious and unpredictable consequences. The other

visible alternative, that is the establishment of a state-

supported population planning program, involving a national

network of consultation centers, has to overcome the object-

ions of the Greek Orthodox Church and of many conservative

Greek sociologists and physicians.

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