the archaeology of monasticism: a survey of recent work in france, 1970-1987

Medieval Academy of America

The Archaeology of Monasticism: A Survey of Recent Work in France, 1970-1987Author(s): Sheila Bonde and Clark MainesSource: Speculum, Vol. 63, No. 4 (Oct., 1988), pp. 794-825Published by: Medieval Academy of AmericaStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2853536 .Accessed: 24/05/2011 06:03

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The Archaeology of Monasticism: A Survey of Recent Work

in France, 1970-1987 By Sheila Bonde and Clark Maines

Recognition of medieval archaeology as a distinct field, worthy of study in its own right, began in France in the 1950s when Michel de Boiiard established the Centre de Recherches Archeologiques Medievales (CRAM) at the Universite de Caen.' Development of the field accelerated in the 1960s with the establishment of the Laboratoire d'Archeologie Medievale under the direction of Gabrielle Demians d'Archimbaud at the Universite de Provence- Aix and with the creation of formal academic programs at Caen, Aix, and several other universities. It is important to note that the development of medieval archaeology in France occurred regionally and that research and study programs were initiated with a strong regional focus. For example, Aix concentrated on deserted villages, early monasteries, and ceramics, while Caen focused on Frankish cemeteries and medieval castles.

The appearance in 1971 of the annual bulletin Archeologie medievale marked a watershed for the field. Archeologie medievale, first published by CRAM, began in 1973 to receive subvention from the Centre National de Recherches

A shorter version of this paper was presented at the annual meeting of the Medieval Academy in Toronto in April 1987. We are indebted to Fredric L. Cheyette, who organized the session and, together with Bailey K. Young, read and commented on earlier versions of this paper. Our work on this topic is now being expanded into an anthology of original articles: Sheila Bonde and Clark Maines, eds., The Archaeology of French Medieval Monasticism (forthcoming).

' There seems to be no single summary which ties together the central events and details of the recent history of French medieval archaeology. The discussion which follows derives from remarks found in: Michel de Bouard, "Le centre de recherches archeologiques medievales de l'Universite de Caen," Revue historique 229 (1963), 427-32, and "L'archeologie medievale en France," in Rotterdam Papers: A Contribution to Medieval Archaeology, ed. Jacques Reynaud (Rot- terham, 1968), pp. 7-14; "L'archeologie medievale dans les universites de France," Archeologie medievale 1 (1971), 262-67; Pierre Leman, "Vingt ans d'archeologie medievale dans le nord de la France," Bulletin de la Societe nationale des antiquaires de France (1980-81), pp. 49-54; "Avant- propos," Archeologie du Midi medievale 1 (1983), n.p.; Jean Chapelot, "Introduction," in La ceramique (Ve-XIXe s.): Fabrication-commercialisation-utiisation, Actes du premier congres international d'archeologie medievale, Paris, 4-6 octobre 1985, ed. Jean Chapelot, Henri Galinie, and Jacqueline Pilet-Lemiere (Caen, 1987), pp. 7-8. Other useful historical/theoretical discus- sions of medieval archaeology in France include Jean-Marie Pesez, "L'archeologie medievale en Europe aujourd'hui," Chantiers d'etudes medievales 13, Hommage a Genevieve Chevrier et Alain Geslan (1975), 33-38; Michel Barrere, "L'archeologie du moyen age en Midi-Pyrenees," Dossiers: Histoire et archeologie no. 120 (1987), 84-85; and H. Gaillard de Semainville and C. Sapin, "L'archeologie medievale en Bourgogne: Origine et evolution des recherches," Bourgogne medievale: La memoire du sol. 20 ans de rechereches archeologzques (1987), pp. 17-22. 794 SPECULUM 63 (1988)

The Archaeology of Monasticism

Scientifiques. From the bulletin's beginning, its editors laid claim to national status as the principal periodical for French medieval archaeology by including a section entitled "Chronique des fouilles medievales." These short, analytic resumes represent the best single source of information about each year's excavations throughout France; they make the results of fieldwork available long before the final reports can be published.

Further expansion of the field occurred in the 1970s and 1980s. The older, long-established antiquarian journals continued to publish archaeological reports and articles, and new regional journals like Cahiers archeologiques de Picardie (from 1974) and Archeologie du Midi medievale (from 1983) were added. Another development was the establishment of departmental or regional archaeological centers like the Centre d'Archeologie Historique des musees de Grenoble et de l'Isere (from 1976) and the Centre Departemental d'Archeologie de l'Aisne in Soissons (from 1983). The centers provide a working base for professionals linked to the universities or the offices of the twenty-one archaeological circonscriptions into which France is divided (Fig. 1).

Of necessity in a new field, much of the effort of the early years was expended gathering new data rather than interpreting evidence. This inev- itable circumstance was exaggerated during the late 1960s and the 1970s by the mass of archaeological salvage work necessitated by the urban growth of these decades.2 Since then, slowed urban growth and the availability of data from more than twenty years of fieldwork have encouraged greater attention to interpretation and theorizing in French medieval archaeology. The creation of the Societe d'Archeologie Medievale in 1983 and the publication of the society's first biennial conference proceedings are evidence of this shift in orientation.

This article is a contribution to the recent emphasis on interpretation and theory in French medieval archaeology. It presents a critical survey and comprehensive bibliography of one aspect of the field, the archaeological study of monasteries, for the benefit not only of archaeologists and art historians but also of other medievalists. Our goal is to provide a summary of what has been learned in French monastic archaeology since 1970, to delineate themes of interest to researchers, and to suggest directions for future research.

The archaeology of monasteries began as and was for years the archaeology of buildings and their decoration, emphasizing ground plans and the recovery of sculptural fragments.3 While this old approach lingers on, a new

2Jean Chapelot, "L'archeologie francaise des annees soixante-dix: La croisee des chemins et la montee des crises," in Table-ronde 'La politique de l'archeologie en Europe' tenue a Paris les 4 et 5 avril 1978, ed. Jean Chapelot and Alain Schnapp (Paris, 1984), pp. 73-94. 3 Notable examples of this approach include Kenneth J. Conant, Cluny: Les eglises et la maison du chef-d'ordre, Mediaeval Academy of America Publication No. 77 (Cambridge, Mass., 1968); Elizabeth R. Sunderland, Charlieu a l'poque medievale (Lyon, 1971); and Sumner McKnight Crosby, The Royal Abbey of Saint-Denis from Its Beginning to the Death of Suger, 475-1151, ed. and completed by Pamela Z. Blum (New Haven 1987).

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ONC0 1*$ ADAPTEDFROM GALLIh

Fig. 1. The twenty-one archaeological circonscriptions, corresponding to French administrative regions

emphasis is found in the work published since 1970. Monasticism rather than the monastery has become the focus of archaeological investigation. This approach treats the monastic complex as an integrated whole rather than a cluster of separate buildings, as the physical expression of spiritual and social motives rather than a construction site. It considers not only the form of buildings and the style of their decoration but also the function of the buildings, the men and women who used them, and the quality of life carried on within and around them. Moreover, it considers these phenomena not as constants but as elements of a monastic history that changed across the centuries of a monastery's existence. The new archaeology of monasticism also considers the monastery and its architecture as part of local and regional (and sometimes interregional) networks of power and influence. In short,

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600

500

400

300

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Civil Ecclesiastical Military Funerary Industrial Laboratory Method

Fig. 2. Sites published in Archeologie medievale, 1971-87

the archaeology of monasteries in France has increasingly become the archaeology of sites rather than the history of buildings. The new approach aims to achieve a separate, archaeological definition of monasticism which forges its chronologies and perspectives from stratified evidence - both monumental and material - and seeks thereby to complement the definitions of monasticism provided by the disciplines of history and architectural history.

Before we look critically at some of the ways in which the new archaeology of monasticism has evolved, we need briefly to consider its place within French medieval archaeology in general and within church archaeology in particular. For this purpose, we rely on statistics derived from Archeologie medievale, which is both the most comprehensive source of information and the most consistent for the period under consideration.

Graphs of the sites published in Archeologie medievale from 1971 through 1987, in articles and in fieldwork abstracts (Chronique des fouilles medievales), reveal that ecclesiastical subjects have held a significant position in medieval archaeology (Figs. 2, 3).4 Within the category of religious sites, monasteries have received the most study, followed closely by parish churches and their cemeteries. One might conclude from this that monasteries have now received sufficient attention, and that excavation priorities should shift to other kinds of sites, among them synagogues, which have received rela-

4 Another useful statistical assessment of nredieval archaeology in France is Jean Chapelot and Gabrielle Demians d'Archimbaud, "Dix ans d'archeologie medievale en France (1970-1980)," Archeologia medievale 10 (1983), 297-316, which treats funding priorities in the field as a whole.

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125

100

75

50

25

Monastic Parish/ Fortified/ Cathedrals Regional Synagogues Funerary Castle studies

chapel

Fig. 3. Religious sites published in Archeologie medievale, 1971-87

tively little attention despite their importance in the medieval townscape.5 What this distribution masks, however, is the number of monastic sites that have simply been cleared or "rescued." Fewer than one-quarter of the more than one hundred sites listed in the graph represent ongoing, systematic research projects. Still fewer are part of truly regional studies. While it would be misleading to suggest that these statistics represent the totality of work on medieval sites in France, supplementary compilations from other national journals, from local and regional periodicals, and from monographs and site reports support the general configurations represented in the graphs.

Within the monastic category there are some revealing statistics. Though a large number of secondary Benedictine abbeys and priories have been cleared or excavated in a limited way, the number of important Cistercian sites excavated exceeds those of any other order. Partly this fact results from the relatively unencumbered, rural nature of most Cistercian sites. However, it is also a reflection of a lifetime of work by the late Father Marie-Anselme Dimier, whose efforts have been recognized in several anthologies published in his honor.6 The recovery of an increasing number of Cistercian sites permits the comparison of features and has allowed researchers to test the

See Gerard Nahon, "L'archeologie juive de la France medievale," Archeologie medievale 5 (1975), 139-60; Bernhard Blumenkranz, "Un ensemble synagogal a Rouen, 1095-1116," Comptes-rendus de I'Academze des n.scr-lptzons et belles-lettres (1975), pp. 663-88; and Noi-man Golb, "The Forgotten Jewish History of Medieval Rouen," Archaeology 30 (1977), 314-25. On the archaeology of medieval Jewry in France more generally, see Bernhard Blumenkranz, ed., Art et archeologze des juifs en France medzivale (Paris, 1980).

e Benoit Chauvin, ed., Melanges a la memozre du Pere Anselme Dimier, 3 vols. (Arbois, 1982); Meredith P. Lillich, ed., Studies in Czstercian Art and Architectuie 2 ("dedicated to Marie Anselme Dimier") (1984).

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hypothesis of strict centralized control within the order. Much more work needs to be done for other orders, however, notably the Augustinians and the Premonstratensians. A comparative study within a region such as the Aisne, with its dense distribution of monasteries of different orders, should clarify the relationship of religious and local influences upon monastic plan- ning and site design.

An interesting feature to emerge from the statistical survey of Archeologie medievale is the large number of nunneries that have been excavated. The convent at Montmartre in Paris (Perin 1977; Young 1978, 1979) seems to be the single Benedictine convent to have been investigated. Research on Cis- tercian convents has been more plentiful. Work is currently underway at the abbey of Saint-Pons de Gemenos (Demians d'Archimbaud 1981), at Mau- buisson (Toupet et al. 1983), at Coyroux near Aubazine (Barriere 1982), and at Fontenelle (Beaussart and Maliet 1983). The concentration of such work has helped to clarify the variations between male and female Cistercian communities. Furthermore, the quantity of programmed research on Cister- cian sites has led to important advances in the study of site evolution.

1. MONASTIC SITES AND THEIR EVOLUTION

The selection of a monastic site and its evolution during the period of its occupation are fundamental questions which the archaeologist is particularly well placed to answer.

One of the central goals in French medieval archaeology over the last eighteen years has been a better understanding of the transitions from late- antique to early-medieval society.7 Within church archaeology, scholarly opinion divides between those who argue principally for continuity of occupation from Roman into early-medieval times and those who argue principally for abandonment and later reoccupation.8 The monastic evidence for France, recently surveyed by James (1981), presents a complex picture of both con-

7For an overview of this question for urban areas, see Noel Duval and Charles Pietri, eds., Topographie chretzenne des cltes de la Gaule: Des origines a la fin du Vile szecle, 4 vols. to date (Paris, 1975-). For northern France in particular, see Patrick Perin, ed., Lutece: Paris de Cesar a Clovzs (Paris, 1984); Francoise Vallet, ed., La Picardie: Berceau de la France (Amiens, 1986); and Patrick Perin and Laure-Charlotte Feffer, eds., La Neustrie: Les pays au nord de la Loire de Dagobert a Charles le Chauve (VIIe-IXe siecles) (Creteil, 1985). The rural situation has been recently sum- marized in Robert Fossier and Jean Chapelot, The Vzllage and House in the Middle Ages, trans. Henry Cleere (Berkeley, 1985).

8 Issues of continuity and discontinuity in site use as these apply to church archaeology are discussed in John Percival, The Roman Villa: An Historical Introduction (London, 1976), especially pp. 183-99: "Villas, Churches and Monasteries"; and Bailey K. Young, "Sacred Topography and the Origins of Christian Architecture in Gaul," in First Millennium Papers: Western Europe in the First Millennium AD, BAR International Series 401, ed. Richard F. J. Jones, J. H. F. Bloemers, Stephen L. Dyson, and Martin Biddle (London, 1988), pp. 219-40. The rural situation has been reviewed recently by Renee and Michel Colardelle, "Archeologie religieuse du haut moyen age en milieu rural: Methodes et problemes," Association fi-anCase d'archeologie merovingienne 4 (1981), 29-33. Most recently, see the concise but illuminating essay by Claude Raynaud, "Les campagnes du Languedoc oriental a la fin de l'antiquite et au debut du haut-moyen-age (IVe-VIIe s.): Continuite, transition ou rupture?" in Landes (1988).

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tinuous and discontinuous site use. Le Maho's (1985) excavations in the cloister of the abbey of Saint-Georges at Saint-Martin-de-Boscherville have revealed successive fana (Gallo-Roman sacred places), the last of which was converted into a Christian funerary chapel after perhaps three centuries of abandonment. The work of Giot (1979-80, 1986) at Ile-Lavret has revealed the establishment of an early Celtic monastery (5th/6th c.) within a late Roman (3rd/4th c.) villa, with no indication that the site was abandoned between the two phases. Similar work at the villa site of Arnesp near the Pyrenees (Fouet 1978, 1980, 1983, 1987), at Saint-Victor in Marseille (Demians d'Archimbaud 1971, 1974, 1977), and at other sites has contributed to our understanding of the complexities of this transition. The combined evidence suggests a greater continuity of cult function (if not of actual continuous use) than has been supposed for nonurban areas.

For Cistercian monasteries, Courtois's work at Vauclair (Stas 1971; Litt 1969; Courtois 1982) demonstrates a pattern of at least recurrent, if not continuous, use and occupation from the late La Tene period to the French Revolution. Lapart's (1982, 1985) work on Cistercian grange sites in the Gers yields similar results. The traditional view of Cistercian monastic foundations, so often described in contemporary texts, presents the monks retreating from the secular world to an isolated "desert site." Lately, however, historians have shown that Cistercians often took over sites with a near-contemporary history of occupation.9 Archaeological results thus provide a long-term context for and a material confirmation of recent historical investigations.

Barriere's (1981, 1982) study of site history at the convent of Coyroux takes a comparative approach. The contemporaneous foundation of the nearby monastery of Aubazine has allowed her to compare site selection and site management of a Cistercian convent and monastery. The choice of a more isolated site for the convent at Coyroux dramatically affected the quality of life there. The stratigraphy of the site reveals repetitive sequences of terracing and flooding, the consequences of which seem to have absorbed most of the convent's resources. This fact is amply reflected in the mediocre quality of the buildings in comparison with nearby Aubazine.

2. ARCHITECTURAL ANALYSIS

Location of the plan and analysis of standing architectural remains is an essential component of the archaeological investigation of a monastery. While clearing of the plan alone cannot fulfill archaeological objectives, its recovery is a necessary prelude to fuller site analysis. The plan of the abbey church

9 Recent considerations of early foundations include Henrietta Leyser, Hermits and the New Monasticism: A Study of Religious Communities in Western Europe, 1000-1150 (New York, 1984); Jean Schaefer, "The Earliest Churches of the Cistercian Order," Studies in Cistercian Art and Architecture 1 (1982), 1-12; Giles Constable, "The Study of Monastic History Today," in Essays on the Reconstruction of Medieval History, ed. Vaclav Mudroch and G. S. Couse (Montreal, 1974), pp. 21-51, and Constance Hoffman Berman, Medieval Agriculture, the Southern French Countryside, and the Early Cistercians, Transactions of the American Philosophical Society 76/5 (Philadelphia, 1986).

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and the arrangement of conventual buildings reflect, in permanent form, evanescent aspects of daily monastic life such as liturgy and prayer and patterns of use and movement. In this way the recovery of a monastic plan goes beyond purely architectural concerns toward the reconstruction of daily life.

The so-called "vertical archaeology" of standing structures, pioneered by Harold Taylor and by Warwick Rodwell,'1 among others, is an essential component of the archaeological investigation of a monastery with extant architectural remains. Vertical archaeology has as its aim the identification of sequences of construction. Careful observation of the sequences of features which cut or are cut by others permits the recognition of newer and older fabric. The analysis of this "stratigraphy above ground" is best facilitated by detailed stone-for-stone recording, with precise measurement and scale draw- ing of every block and mortar joint. This requires the investigator's immediate physical proximity to the wall itself, not only for the recording process but also for the analysis of coursing and interpenetration patterns.

Photogrammetric recording (scaled transfer drawings made from serial photographs taken at a constant distance and a fixed angle of ninety degrees) can be substituted for measured drawings for extensive surfaces, such as precinct walls, and for areas which are difficult to access, such as vaults. Work of this kind has been undertaken for the vaults of the nave of La Madeleine in Vezelay and for much of the early fabric of Saint-Denis."

Although archaeological analysis of standing fabric and foundations has great potential for the study of construction campaigns, there are limitations in its application. An archaeological reading of a wall provides a relative stratigraphic sequence. This chronology may be rendered more precise by compositional analysis of mortar, as has been done at the deserted village site of Rougiers (Demians d'Archimbaud 1980). Carbon-14 analysis of medieval lime mortars was pioneered at Saint-Benigne in Dijon (Malone et al. 1980).12

Greater precision can also be gained by observing patterns of stone use and by the identification of the quarry sources for the building stone, as Demians d'Archimbaud (1977) has done for Saint-Victor in Marseille. The projects on medieval quarries under way in Paris, Burgundy, and the south of France are reported in the Chronique des fouilles medievales of Archeologie medievale and form part of a larger C.N.R.S. study of mines, quarries, and metallurgy.'3 These research projects are relatively new but promise immense returns.

10 Harold Taylor, "The Foundations of Architectural History," in The Archaeological Study of Churches, ed. Peter Addyman and Richard Morris, Council of British Archaeology Research Report 13 (London, 1976), pp. 3-9, and Warwick Rodwell, The Archaeology of the English Church: The Study of Historic Churches and Churchyards (London, 1981).

11 For Vezelay see Robert Vassas, "Travaux a la Madeleine de Vezelay," Les monuments historiques de la France, new series 14/1 (1968), 56-61. For Saint-Denis see Crosby, Royal Abbey of Saint- Denis.

12 The technique was first applied at Roman Stobi, in Yugoslavia. See Robert Folk and Salvatore Valastro, Jr., "Successful Techniques for Dating of Lime Mortar by Carbon-14," Journal of Field Archaeology 3 (1976), 203-8.

13 For quarries, see Francois Ellenberger, J. Marvy, and Marc Vire, "Les anciennes carrieres

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Construction chronologies such as these cease to be archaeological, however, when they begin to rely too heavily upon predetermined stylistic sequences, which are themselves too often pinned unconvincingly to dates derived from written sources. The application of absolute dates to building fabric based on capital styles and molding profiles must also be approached with extreme caution. The reuse of elements bedevils chronology, as does the deliberate use of archaizing forms. Both of these phenomena of medieval construction are especially relevant to the study of reform monasteries, where we often find a conservative approach to decoration. In short, archaeological sequences must remain autonomous from art history if they are to retain their ability to test chronological hypotheses.'4 With these preliminary remarks in mind, we turn now to important results in the study of the church, the cloister, and other monastic buildings.

Church Analysis A number of excavations have recently contributed new evidence to the

corpus of monastic church plans. Among the most important discoveries are Renimel's (1976, 1982) first church at Cluniac La Charite-sur-Loire, Bru's (1982) foundation church at Cistercian Saint-Sulpice-en-Bugey, and Stoddard and Dodds's Carolingian church at Benedictine Psalmodi (W. Stoddard 1977; B. Stoddard et al. 1983; Dodds 1973-74). Not surprisingly, the number of new Cistercian plans or partial plans recovered has been considerable; the most complete of these result from Courtois's (1982) work at Vauclair, which presents not only the Bernardine plan of the first church but also that of its Gothic successor. Little work has been done for the regular canons apart

souterraines de Paris," Bulletin d'information geologiques du bassin de Paris (1980); Marc Vire, "Les anciennes carrieres de pierre a Paris au moyen-age," in Mines, carrieres et metallurgze dans la France medzivale, ed. P. Benoit and P. Braunstein (Paris, 1983), pp. 395-406; Joelle Bruno-Dupraz and Marie-Christine Bailly-Maitre, "Premiers travaux de recherche et de prospection destine a 1'e- tablissement d'un inventaire des mines et carrieres et centres metallurgiques dans les Alpes occidentales au moyen-age (Ve-XVIe siecles)," Archeologze medievale 12 (1982), 384-85; Joelle Bruno-Dupraz and Marie-Christine Bailly-Maitre, "Inventaire des mines et carrieres et centres metallurgiques dans les Alpes occidentales au moyen-age (Ve-XVIe siecles)," Archeologze medzivale 13 (1983), 349-52. For an application of quarry evidence to the study of an ecclesiastical site, see Annie Blanc, Pierre Lebouteux, Jacqueline Lorenz, and Serge Debrand-Passard, "Les pierres de la cathedrale de Bourges," Archeologza no. 171 (1982), 22-32. On the identihcation of sculpture from specific quarries, see Jean M. French, Edward V. Sayre, and L. van Zelst, "Nine Medieval French Limestone Reliefs: The Search for Provenance," Proceedings of the Fifth Seminar on the Application of Science in the Examination of Works of Art, September, 1982 (Boston, 1987); and Lore Holmes, Charles Little, and Edward Sayre, "Elemental Characterization of Medieval Limestone Sculpture from Parisian and Burgundian Sources," Journal of Field Archaeology 13 (1986), 419- 38.

14 The power of archaeological method to address stylistic chronology is currently recognized in the literature of architectural history. Traditional formal analysis of building fabric is increasingly styled "archaeological" without including either systematic, precise recording or scientific mortar and masonry analysis. It is these two elements, however, which distinguish an archaeological approach to monuments.

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from our own work at Saint-Jean-des-Vignes, where plans for both the Ro- manesque and Gothic abbey churches are now available (Bonde et al. 1987).

Several monastic projects have applied the principles of vertical archaeology to the recording and analysis of standing fabric. At the priory of Saint- Lubin at Chateaudun, Robreau (1984, 1985) has distinguished early Christian (6th c.?), Carolingian, and tenth-, eleventh-, and twelfth-century phases in elevation. Sapin (1982) has also distinguished multiple phases from the Ro- man to the Romanesque periods at Saint-Pierre-l'Estrier in Autun. Recording and analysis of this type have also been accomplished at Saint-Victor in Marseille (Demians d'Archimbaud 1971, 1977), Saint-Benigne in Dijon (Ma- lone 1980), and Saint-Jean-des-Vignes in Soissons (Bonde and Maines 1988b).15

The Cloister and Conventual Buildings Next to the church, the chapter room and other spaces of the east range

have received the most attention in recent excavations. At least twelve chapter rooms have been excavated or are currently in process. Of these, six are Benedictine, three are Cistercian, two are Premonstratensian, and one is Augustinian.16 Comparative study of this growing sample of chapter rooms should provide insights into the various ways in which different orders used those spaces. 7

The entire cloister is under excavation or is projected at a Benedictine monastery, a Cistercian monastery, two Cistercian convents, a Grandmontaine community, a Premonstratensian house, and an Augustinian abbey.18

Levalet's (1978) survey of medieval kitchens in France and England suggested that no monastic kitchen was at that time under excavation in France. However, Barriere (1984) has now begun investigation of the kitchen at Coyroux, where the refectory and the warming room are also under study. At Notre-Dame-du-Pinel, Falco (1987) has recovered the entire south range, including the kitchen and refectory.

15 Vertical archaeology in France is hardly limited to monastic sites. See, for example, Rollins Guild, Jean Guyon, and Lucien Rivet, "Recherches archeologiques dans le cloitre Saint-Sauveur d'Aix-en-Provence: Bilan de quatre campaignes de fouilles (1976-1979)," Revue archeologique de Narbonnaise 13 (1980), 115-64.

16 Benedictine chapter rooms excavated or under excavation include Saint-Georges at Saint- Martin-de-Boscherville; Saint-Victor in Marseille; Saint-Austremoine, Issoire; Saint-Sauveur in Saint-Macaire; Saint-Nicolas-d'Acy in Courteuil; Chelles; and Landevennec. The Cistercian sites include Vauclair and Clairlieu. Three Premonstratensian chapter rooms have been excavated: La Lucerne, Dommartin, and Ardenne. The sole Augustinian site under excavation to our knowledge is our own at Saint-Jean-des-Vignes in Soissons.

17 Bernard Beck, "Les salles capitulaires des abbayes de Normandie: Elements originaux de l'architecture monastique medievale," L'information d'histoire de l'art 8 (1973), 204-15, is a useful comparative study, but it is primarily architectural and cannot address the full range of evidence offered by an archaeological approach.

18 Among the abbeys where complete excavation of the claustral complex is under way or projected are Saint-Pere in Chartres (Benedictine); Saint-Sulpice-en-Bugey (Cistercian monastery); Maubuisson and Coyroux (Cistercian convents); Notre-Dame-du-Pinel (Grandmontain); Ardenne (Premonstratensian); and Saint-Jean-des-Vignes (Augustinian).

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3. MONASTIC WATER MANAGEMENT AND INDUSTRY

Relatively little work has been devoted to the "peripheral" areas which lie outside the church and claustral ranges, although .this important work is beginning at monasteries of various orders. For example, associated with a monastery's conventual buildings were underground systems which carried fresh water to the well and kitchen and which continued beyond to flush the monastic drains. The conduit system has been studied at Benedictine Saint- Sauveur in Saint-Macaire (Billa 1976-78). The most complete results on this subject, however, have been produced at Cistercian sites, such as Saint-Sul- pice-en-Bugey (Bru 1982) and Coyroux (Barriere 1982, 1984), where basins, conduits, and a cistern have been traced. At Vauclair, Courtois (1982) has located the water source as well as the system of conduits leading to the south range. Benoit's (1986, 1988) area survey and selective sampling have established the importance of ironworking at Cistercian Fontenay and identified the role of water power for that industry there. Over all, Vauclair has been our richest source for information about the larger picture of Cistercian water management and industry, with excavation of a thirteenth-century fish pond, a mill, and a number of other artisans' ateliers which relied upon waterpower for production.

The question of monastic industry has also been confronted at Cluniac La Charite, where domestic and artisanal installations have been located near the perimeters of the monastery (Renimel 1981, 1982). A number of sites have produced information on various sorts of industrial activity: at Mague- lone (Foy and Vallauri 1985), where evidence for glass manufacture was recovered; at Monastier (Laforgue 1972-75, 1978) and La Charite, where evidence of bell casting was found; and at Vauclair, where a chalk furnace, two pottery kilns, and three tileries have been excavated (Courtois 1982).

In addition to the investigation of tileries themselves, recent archaeological results have stimulated a renewal of tile studies in which older discoveries are being reassessed in comparison with newly formed ensembles (Carette and Deroeux 1985; Pinette 1981). Norton (1986a) has reviewed the archaeological record as it applies to the invention and spread of two-color tile production in the later twelfth and thirteenth centuries and has clarified the role of monasteries in that process. His exhaustive bibliography of French tile studies (Norton 1986b) contains a considerable amount of monastic material and will be the standard reference for years to come.

The excavation of such "peripheral" areas and the analysis of materials produced within the monastic complex are crucial, as they provide insight into monastic industry and the functional aspects of site management for which other sources of information are severely limited.

4. MATERIAL EVIDENCE FOR MONASTIC DAILY LIFE

The quality of daily life in the Middle Ages is an elusive topic.19 Liturgical texts, monastic legislation, and monastic art provide useful but limited information about daily life in monasteries. For example, the impact of monastic

19Joan Evans, Life in Medieval France (London, 1925; 3rd ed., 1969) remains a standard of

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spirituality has been sought in the form and decoration of a monastery's structures, but austerity in monastic churches and conventual buildings does not necessarily reflect a parallel restraint in daily life.20 Because the textual and visual evidence regarding daily life is difficult to interpret, archaeology has a particularly important contribution to make, although few French monastic projects have confronted this question as a research problem.

The study of all ceramic recovered from a given monastery (and not only that manufactured at the site) may prove to be the most productive avenue for charting shifts in standards of monastic life. The process of assembly and analysis has begun for Vauclair (Sautai-Dossin 1975), for Saint-Etienne in Caen (Burnouf et al. 1982), and for Maubuisson (Durey 1985). With widely separated sites and communities of different religious orders, however, close comparative analysis remains difficult.

More analytic publication of ceramic material, combined with regional study, is urgently needed. Only then will we be able to appreciate how life at the table changed at a particular site across time, how diet and dietary practice compared at various houses within an order, or how the monastic table compared with the secular one.

What is encouraging is the quantity of ceramic material recovered from secular sites in France. The ongoing programmed urban excavations in Or- leans, Saint-Denis, Tours, and Paris and the structured salvage work in towns like Chalons-sur-Marne, Laon, and Noyon (to name only some northern centers) mean that good sequences of stratified ceramics from secular sites already exist for comparison with monastic evidence as it becomes available.21

Glassware is less frequently present in the monastic archaeological record, but it can be equally indicative of daily life, as the rich ensemble of high- quality ware from the abbey of Psalmodi reveals. As with ceramics, the

the literature which attempts to reconstruct medieval daily life from textual and visual evidence. More recently, see Georges Duby, ed., Histoire de la vie privee, 2: De lEuropefeodale a la Renaissance (Paris, 1985), which takes a similar approach but includes more archaeological material. By contrast, Gabrielle Demians d'Archimbaud, ed., Aujourd'hui le moyen age: Archeologie et vie quotidienne en France meridionale (Senanque, 1981), considers the issue of daily life from an archaeological perspective.

20 This opinion is particularly prevalent in work on Cistercian houses. See, generally, Marcel Aubert and G. de Maille, L'architecture cistercienne en France, 2 vols. (Paris, 1943), and Caroline Bruzelius, "Cistercian High Gothic: The Abbey Church of Longpont and the Architecture of the Cistercians in the Thirteenth Century," Analecta Cisterciana 35 (1979), 3-204. Work on other reform orders is only beginning. See, for example, Sheila Bonde and Clark Maines, "Saint-Jean- des-Vignes, Soissons, and the Evidence for Augustinian Style in the Thirteenth Century," presented at the Augustinian Historical Institute at Villanova University, October 1986, and now in preparation for publication.

21 For the ceramic material at Orleans, see Orssaud (1985). At Saint-Denis, see Olivier Meyer, Laurent Bourgeau, David Coxhall, Nicole Meyer, and Caroline Relier, 1981: Bilan d'une annee d Saint-Denis (Saint-Denis, 1982), and Olivier Meyer and Michael Wiss with David Coxhall and Nicole Meyer, Saint-Denis: Recherche urbaine 1983-1985, bilan desfouilles (Saint-Denis, 1985). For salvage work at Chalons-sur-Marne, see Hubert Cabart, "Materiel archeologique trouve dans le fosse P-24, rue Saint-Dominique a Chalons-sur-Marne," Memoires de la Societe d'agriculture de la Marne, 2nd ser. 101 (1986), 117-44, and Jean-Marie Derouard, "Fouille de la fosse P-58, rue Saint-Dominique a Chalons-sur-Marne," Memoires de la Societe d'agriculture de la Marne, 2nd ser. 101 (1986), 145-60.

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quantity of glassware recovered from urban excavations such as those in Avignon, Strasbourg, Colmar, and Paris assures that well-stratified material from secular sites is available for comparison with monastic finds in the future.22

Faunal and botanical materials are the most direct records of environment and diet. Studies of the bone material from a monastic well at Saint-Avit- Senieur (Gauthier 1972) and the floral and faunal material from La Charite- sur-Loire (Renimel 1981, 1982; Audoin 1984, 1986) are two of the very few published synthetic analyses of such material from monastic sites.23 Also important is Blanc's (1983) study of the agricultural economy of the Bene- dictine convent of Lagrasse (Aude), which takes a textual approach to these same archaeological questions.

5. MONASTIC BURIAL

The archaeology of Merovingian France has been almost exclusively the archaeology of cemeteries and burial goods. Until quite recently, projects with a different focus, including excavations of monasteries of Merovingian date, were very rare (James 1981). Conversely, the archaeology of the central and high Middle Ages, with its concentration on the analysis of monasteries, has largely ignored monastic burial zones, perhaps because of the general lack of grave goods. While skeletal material is regularly included in published site reports, and references to excavated burials on medieval monastic sites are frequent in the Chronique des fouilles medievales of Archeologie medievale, the analyzed sample remains small, and consideration of burial material is generally appended to the site report rather than integrated with it.

At the outset, it must be noted that burials occur in different zones within any one monastery. Abbots, donors, and other elite are often interred in

22 For the glassware from southern sites generally, see Daniele Foy (1988) and "L'artisanat du verre creux en Provence medievale," Archeologie medievale 5 (1975), 103-38, and Demians d'Ar- chimbaud (1981). On Psalmodi in particular, see Foy's entries in Landes (1986). For Strasbourg and Colmar, see Jean-Pierre Rieb, "Verrerie," in J. Schweitzer et al., Objets de la vie quotidienne au moyen age et a la Renaissance en Alsace, Cahier du Groupe d'archeologie medievale d'Alsace (Stras- bourg, 1987), pp. 586-95. For Paris, see Jorge Barrera, "Le verre," in Pierre-Jean Trombetta et al., Grand Louvre: Fouilles archeologiques cour Napoleon (Paris, 1985), pp. 65-69, which was published in conjunction with a temporary exhibit held during the meeting of the Premier Congres International d'Archeologie Medievale in 1985. In fact, much archaeological material is first made available in local and regional exhibitions which often appear without catalogues or with catalogues of limited distribution. Lists of exhibitions, with mention of catalogues, appear regularly in Nouvelles de l'archeologie, published quarterly by the Fondation de la Maison des sciences de l'homme in Paris.

23 In France, the archaeological study of faunal and botanical remains has been more devel- oped for prehistoric periods than for the Middle Ages. See the various articles collected under the rubrics "Dossier: Archeozoologie," "Dossier: Archeobotanique, lere partie - Les differents disciplines mis en jeu," and "Dossier: Archeobotanique, 2eme partie - Consequences et implications," which appeared in Nouvelles de 'archeologie no. 11 (1983), 7-56; 18 (1984/85), 7-66, and 19 (1985), 7-49, respectively, and which make reference to medieval material. An interesting assessment of Eastern and Western diets based entirely on textual evidence is Maria Dembinska, "Diet: A Comparison between Some Eastern and Western Monasteries in the 4th-12th Centu- ries," Byzantion 55 (1985), 431-62.

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privileged zones: the church, the chapter room, and the cloister alleys. Ordi- nary members of the community and others such as conversi are buried in cemeteries outside the church and claustral area. To our knowledge, systematic excavation of all burial zones has not occurred at any French monastic site.

Several projects have made significant contributions to the study of monastic burial zones, demonstrating the potential of this kind of work. The questions asked of the cemetery material at each site, however, vary widely and reflect fundamental differences of approach and analysis. These varying approaches include osteological and cranial analysis, anthropological and demographic study, formal analysis of sarcophagi and tombstones, and examination of the orientation and placement of burials as they relate to the larger issue of site evolution.

The phased evolution of burials has been traced for a number of urban and rural monastic sites. Demians d'Archimbaud (1977) has identified the chronology of changing burial placement, orientation, and custom as these relate to the growth of Saint-Victor in Marseille from a memorial chapel to an abbey. A similar evolution has been identified by Le Maho (1985) at Saint- Martin-de-Boscherville. In contrast, at Saint-Symphorien-de-Buoux, Fixot and Barbier (1983) have suggested that the establishment of a priory within a preexisting necropolis markedly diminished the funerary function of the site.

Identification of individual members of a monastic community has been suggested, on the basis of grave goods and texts, at Saint-Pierre-de-Mont- martre (Young 1978), Saint-Denis (Fleury and France-Lanord 1979), and Saint-Martin-de-Boscherville (Le Maho 1980). At Saint-Evre in Toul two burials ad sanctos in the now-destroyed Merovingian abbey church have been convincingly identified as those of the thirteenth bishop of Toul (Endulus t622) and a contemporaneous patroness of local churches (Praetoria) on the basis of texts and monograms found on seal rings recovered from their tombs (Lieger et al. 1984). At the Augustinian convent of Schwartzenhann (Alsace), a number of carved tombstones bear inscriptions, including the names of two women: Ellenta and Gertrude. A positive identification of the individuals remains problematic, however, since the necrology for the convent is incom- plete and since frequent exchanges between convents make it difficult to determine the conventual population at any given time (Bronner 1973). At Toussaint d'Angers, an Augustinian abbey, more than two hundred burials have been explored in the original church and its thirteenth-century successor, as well as in the monastic cemetery zone (Prigent et al. 1986). Among others, the burial of the fourteenth-century abbot Guillaume II Godard has been identified.

Another large sample of skeletal material from a single monastic site comes from Saint-Martial in Limoges. There, Billy (1976) has examined remains of more than 128 burials from three distinct chronological phases of the site's history. Anthropological analysis of skull types and stature is used by Billy to differentiate ethnic groups, and by extension to understand the monastic community and its supporting population. An osteological study of a smaller sample from the priory and village of Saint-Jean-le-Froid (Aveyron) also poses

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questions of cultural anthropology (Bucaille 1973) and concludes that a demographic shift is perceptible in the monastic period (eleventh through thirteenth centuries).

Important synthetic studies which assess burial practice in relation to architectural and other chronologies and which include monastic material have been completed for two regions: the northern French Alps region (M. Co- lardelle 1983) and the larger Oise area (M. Durand 1987). In his examination of the funerary traditions of the northern Alps, Colardelle discusses two priory churches (Viuz and Sainte-Croix). Phased architectural plans for both churches have been successfully related to evolving burial distribution and chronology; changing patterns in grave goods have been traced; and age, sex, and stature tabulations have been compiled for each individual site as well as for the larger region.

These studies demonstrate ways in which the archaeology of monasticism can incorporate burial evidence more fully within its purview. The approaches that may profitably be applied to such information are many and should be combined for the study of the cemetery material at a single site. Like the floral, faunal, and ceramic material discussed above, skeletal remains can also reveal vital information about diet and illness, and by extension about the nature and quality of monastic daily life.

Excavation and analysis of all cemetery zones within a monastery remains the ideal. This complete approach promises to illuminate the chronological evolution of the site. In the best cases, it may also provide a separate archaeological chronology based on burial sequence. This sequence may confirm, deny, or elaborate other site chronologies based on ceramic, textual, or architectural evidence. As the burials from Montmartre, Marmoutier, and Toussaint d'Angers make clear, monastic hierarchy and social status can be revealed by burial placement or grave goods. Even the more anonymous monastic cemetery may reflect similar hierarchical rankings and social divi- sions. It would be useful to know whether separate areas were set aside for monks and conversi, for men and women, and for religious and seculars. These larger objectives clearly hold the greatest potential for expanding the role of cemetery analysis in the archaeology of monasticism.

6. REGIONAL ANALYSIS

Most excavations and analyses in French medieval archaeology have been limited to individual sites, but questions of regional context are beginning to be posed for both ecclesiastical and secular sites.

The most ambitious projects elucidating the evolution of a region concen- trate on Provence and have been undertaken by the Laboratoire d'arch6o- logie medievale of the Universit6 de Provence at Aix.24 Especially notable

24 For a r6sum6 of university-sponsored archaeological projects focusing on medieval France, see the article on the subject cited in n. 1 above. The journal Archeologie du Midi mediterraneen periodically publishes lists of university-sponsored courses and excavations in the Midi. See, for example, "L'enseignement de l'archeologie dans les facultes," Archeologie du Midi mediterraneen 2 (1982), 5-15.

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have been the excavation of the deserted village at Rougiers (D6mians d'Ar- chimbaud 1980) and the survey and excavation of ecclesiastical and domestic sites which include the abbey of Saint-Victor at Marseille (Demians d'Archim- baud 1971, 1974). Another of these studies examines the relationship between religious foundations, secular settlements, and military fortifications throughout the region at Lambesc (Heck 1975).

Several projects have recently begun to examine church sites as evidence for the diocesan organization of medieval settlement. Marc Durand's (1977) study of the monastic parish church of Noel-Saint-Martin, nominally a single- site study, is in fact distinguished by its attention to questions of context and settlement as they are expressed in the church plan, fabric, and burials. Two other studies, both based in Burgundy, examine a wider range of church implantations in the context of settlement, regional patterns, and ecclesiastical organization. Sapin, Young, and Berry have begun an ambitious project to survey the archaeological evidence for the Christianization of the diocese of Autun.25 Initiated at the Paleochristian site of Saint-Pierre-l'Estrier near Au- tun, the study has expanded to include two other churches, Saint-Leger at Triey and Saint-Clement in Macon, which lie at greater distances from the center of the diocese. Crumley's related survey of parishes and burials poses settlement questions for the Burgundian region of Mont-Dardon, using the techniques of excavation together with field walking, systematic satellite and air photography, and geologic survey (Berry 1984, Crumley 1984).

The definition of a monastery's region is related to diocesan organization, but several other factors are also important. On the most obvious level, the immediate situation of the monastery - rural, suburban, or urban - must be considered, as Racinet's (1982) catalogue of the implantation of Cluniac priories in Picardy has done.

The siting of an individual monastery was no accident of geography, nor was it determined solely by density of population, as the siting of a parish church was likely to be (Desbordes 1978). Monastic sites were sometimes chosen for their proximity to urban centers (often the case with Augustinians) and sometimes for their remoteness (Cistercian or Premonstratensian sites). In other cases, the site was dictated by a founder's donation of land.

A monastery's region is not restricted to its immediate area, for successful monasteries such as Fontfroide near Narbonne attracted donations of nu- merous outlying lands and possessions. In this sense a monastery defined its own larger region in dynamic relationship with its landed supporters. This region changed through time as properties and parishes were lost or ac- quired, reduced or expanded.

A number of historically oriented studies have recently examined the regional distribution and impact of monastic implantation. Tracing the urban foundation of mendicant orders in Alsace, Recht (1971) finds a density of certain orders within regions and a marked preference on the part of par-

25 Personal communication from the investigators: Bailey Young, Christian Sapin, and Walter Berry. Although work has already begun on several sites, no theoretical statement has yet appeared in print.

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ticular orders for specific locations within cities. For the region of La Cadiere, Broecker (1983) combines careful study of textual evidence for politics, lord- ship, and economy with a program of systematic archaeological soundings designed to recover architectural and burial information, in order to present a history of the implantation of southern Victorine monasticism. Using textual evidence exclusively, Grezes-Rueff (1979) plots the donations and agricultural holdings of the abbey of Fontfroide. He defines two phases for the abbey's relationship with its region. In the first, Fontfroide kept a local profile, while in the second, the abbey took on a larger, panregional role.

The diocese of Soissons has also recently attracted the interest of historians studying the implantation of reform monasticism. Duval-Arnould (1977) gathers much basic information about the arrival of the new orders in the region. Brunel (1987) combines place-name and charter evidence with geologic and geographic information to suggest that the new houses established themselves in the southern part of the diocese (around Villers-Cotterets) in response to new needs: partly economic pressures, partly the spiritual desires of the nobility and their pursuit of prestige.

At Saint-Jean-des-Vignes we have identified the parish and farm holdings for the abbey during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries.26 Their distribution demonstrates that Saint-Jean wielded much more influence to the south of Soissons than to the north. That an abbey did not necessarily lie at the center of its sphere of influence raises the question of regional competition among religious houses. The pattern of Saint-Jean's holdings may be explained by the availability of land in a region dense with old and powerful monastic foundations which seem to have dominated areas north of Soissons.27

The introduction of such historical strategies into archaeological projects allows them to define the larger regional relationships of the monastic foundations they study. Conversely, archaeology has an important contribution to add to the full historical study of monastic regions. It can investigate farms and granges to define the economic interdependence of an abbey and its region. By exploring the sources of ceramic, building stone, and other aspects of material culture it can trace patterns of trade and the movement of artisans and generally provide a picture of the quality of daily life in a regional context.

7. AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY

The use of aerial photography for archaeology has yielded important results in France, particularly in the work of Roger Agache (1971, 1978).28 His systematic study of Picardy has transformed our understanding of Gallia

26 The discussion which follows summarizes our research, which is in preparation for publication.

27 Problems of center and periphery in archaeological theory have been reviewed recently by Michael Rowlands, "Center and Periphery: A Review of a Concept," in Center and Periphery in the Ancient World, ed. Michael Rowlands, Mogens Larsen, and Kristian Kristiansen (Cambridge, Eng., 1987), pp. 1-11.

28 A recent overview of the state of aerial photography in relation to archaeology in France is

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The Archaeology of Monasticism 811

Belgica and has important implications for the medieval topography of that region. Nevertheless, there is no work for medieval monasteries in France comparable to St. Joseph's aerial survey of English monastic sites.29 Resources exist at the Institut Geographique National for vertical photographs, as is evidenced in their publication with excavation studies for Vauclair (Courtois 1982) and Grandselve (Cazes 1982). However, a research project cannot depend solely on IGN's resources, which include few oblique views.

A number of factors explain the slower pace of France relative to England in the archaeological use of aerial photography for medieval monasteries. The size of the country is only the most obvious obstacle to the fuller coverage that England enjoys. Because aerial photography is less effective under certain geological conditions, some areas of France cannot profitably be pros- pected from the air.30 Moreover, it is important for medievalists to realize that successful aerial photography requires systematic overflying in different seasons and, ideally, over a number of years.

With rare exceptions, the severe drought of 1976 seems not to have been exploited for monastic archaeology, although the opportunity was grasped in other medieval areas.31 Chauvin and Francey (1982) discuss the identification of Balerne abbey during the drought but provide no photographs with the publication of the soundings.

The Aisne region has been systematically overflown and photographed for a period of years by Michel Boureux (1978), whose work includes, as does Agache's, a number of medieval sites. Boureux's (1985) recent partial survey of the department of the Aisne by stereometric aerial photography includes several abbeys and monastic farms. His photographs reveal not only destroyed buildings but also buried water systems, defenses, functional and ornamental terracing, and general land management. Agache's discovery of a completely unknown and impressive monastic grange site near Vironchaux (Somme) reveals that the potential for aerial photography is considerable indeed. The aerial photograph of the town of Sauxillanges (Puy-de-Dome), which reveals the monastic precinct clearly in the modern street patterns, makes evident the utility of the technique for urban sites as well (Fossier 1980). Miguet's (1986) combined use of old maps and aerial photography to reconstruct the parcellaire of a Norman commandery and to trace its impact

given by Francoise Passard, "La prospection aerienne," Nouvelles de l'archeologie no. 28 (1987), 20-27.

29 David Knowles and J. K. S. Saint-Joseph, Monastic Sites from the Air (Cambridge, Eng., 1952). 30 The general handbooks by David R. Wilson, Air Photo Interpretation for Archaeologists (New

York, 1982), and Derrick N. Riley, Air Photography and Archaeology (Philadelphia, 1987), provide useful introductions to other technical publications and include some French material. The state of research on techniques and methods has been gathered twice in the Council for British Archaeology Research Reports. See David R. Wilson, ed., Aerial Reconnaissance for Archaeologists, Council of British Archaeology Research Report 12 (London, 1975), and G. S. Maxwell, ed., The Impact of Aerial Reconnaissance on Archaeology, Council of British Archaeology Research Report 49 (London, 1983).

31 The drought of 1976 is the subject of an entire fascicle of Dossiers de l'archeologie 22 (1977) entitled "Special: Archeologie aerienne, les grandes decouvertes de l'ete 1976."


on the modern landscape shows clearly how rich the yield can be in an integrated study. It is essential, then, that aerial photography receive greater attention among monastic archaeologists working in France, not simply to locate sites and structures, but also to aid in defining regions and regional relationships among sites and between sites and natural features.

The archaeology of medieval monasticism in France over the last eighteen years has produced significant results in the areas of site recognition and plan recovery, the analysis of water systems, and the collection of ceramic, floral, and faunal material. More attention needs to be given, however, to non-Cistercian sites and to areas outside the church and chapter room.

Beyond the necessity for more work, there is also the need for fuller analysis, for more comparative study, and for larger regional approaches. It is essential that we begin to ask broader questions and that we devise more ambitious strategies for monastic archaeology. We must change our perspective from the study of single sites to the analysis of regions. It was the larger regional community, after all, which created the medieval monastery and which imbued it with power, patronage, and significance.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

This bibliography includes articles and monographs concerning monastic archaeology in France published since 1970. It contains general works on medieval archaeology, single-site and comparative studies, and abstracts of field reports which treat some aspect of the subject. We have aimed at comprehensiveness. Many of the works included here are not referred to in the article.

Abbreviations AduMM AeB AIBL-CR AM BAR BM CAAAH CAP DHetA

FSHAA-M

JFA Melanges Dimier

La Neustrie

RANEO

Archeologie du Midi medigvale Archeologie en Bretagne Academie des inscriptions et belles-lettres. Comptes rendus des seances Archeologie medievale British Archaeological Reports Bulletin monumental Cahiers alsaciens d'archeologie, d'art et d'histoire Cahiers archeologiques de Picardie Dossiers: Histoire et archeologie (= Dossiers d'archeologie to Nov. 1980) Memoires de la Federation des Socie'ts d'histoire et d'archeologie de l'Aisne Journal of Field Archaeology Benoit Chauvin, ed. Melanges a la memoire du Pere Anselme Dimier. Vol. 3, parts 5 and 6. Arbois, 1982. Patrick Perin and Laure-Charlotte Feffer, eds. La Neustrie: Les pays au nord de la Loire de Dagobert a Charles le Chauve (VIIe-IXe siecles). Creteil, 1985. Revue archeologique du nord-est de l'Oise

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The Archaeology of Monasticism RAO Revue archeologique de l'Oise RAP Revue archeologique de Picardie RduN Revue du Nord SAF-B Bulletin de la Societe archeologique du Finistere SAHL-B Bulletin de la Societe archeologique et historique du Limousin Saint-Gery Michel Rouche, ed. Saint-Gery et la christianisation dans le nord de

la Gaule, Ve-IXe siecle. Actes du Colloque de Cambrai, 5-7 octobre 1984. (= Revue du Nord 68 [1986])

SAT-B Bulletin trimestriel de la Societe archeologique de Touraine SHAS-B Bulletin de la Socidte historique et archeologique de Soissons SNAF-B Bulletin de la Societe nationale des antiquaires de France

Agache, Roger. 1971. Detections aeriennes des vestiges protohistoriques, gallo-romains et medievaux dans le bassin de la Somme et ses abords. Bulletin de la Societe prehistorique du Nord Amiens, special no. 7. Amiens.

. 1978. La Somme pre-romaine et romaine. Amiens. Especially pp. 452-56: "Per- spectives de recherches aeriennes en archeologie medievale."

Ajot, Jose, and Nadine Berthelier-Ajot. 1985. "Chelles durant le haut moyen age: Bilan des recherches en cours." In La Neustrie, pp. 160-64.

. 1988. "Les fouilles de l'abbaye royale Notre Dame de Chelles." Archeologia no. 234, pp. 56-66.

Ajot, Jose, and A. Bulard. 1977. L'archeologie a Chelles. Chelles. Ancien, Bernard. 1979. "Le cimetiere merovingien de la colline Saint-Jean et l'eglise

Saint-Jacques." FSHAA-M 24:138-45. Antignac, Jean-Louis, and Roland Lombard. 1985. "La ceramique medievale en Bas-

Limousin du XIIe au XVIe siecles." Aquitania 3. . 1987. "Correze: Uzerche, abbaye Saint-Pierre." AM 17:221-22.

Audoin, Frederique. 1984. "Les ossements animaux dans les fouilles medievales de La Charite-sur-Loire: Conclusions relatives ' lalimentation du XIe au XVIe siecle." AIBL-CR, pp. 199-217.

. 1986. Ossements animaux du moyen-dge au monastere de La-Charite-sur-Loire. Paris. Avril, P. Joseph. 1976-80. "Recherches sur la politique paroissiale des etablissements

monastiques et canoniaux XIe-XIIe siecle." Revue Mabillon 59:453-517. Barbieux,Jose. 1978. "Ceramiques post-medievales (XVIIIe siecle) de l'ancien couvent

des capuchins a Douai." Les amis de Douai 7:31-33. Barbieux, Jose, and Jacques Guillouet. 1979. "Ceramiques du XVIIIe siecle a Douai

(Nord)." Septentrion 9:1-14. Bardel, Annie. 1985-87. "Finistere: Landevennec, l'abbaye." AM 15:241, 16:188-89,

17:201-2. Bardel, Annie, and J.-P. Bardel. 1980. "L'abbaye de Landevennec: Etat des re-

cherches." Arts de l'ouest: Etudes et documents, pp. 5-18. Bardel, Annie, Xavier Barral i Altet, and Isabelle Caziot. 1984. "L'abbaye medievale

de Landevennec." Archeologia no. 192-93, pp. 76-84. Bardel, J.-P. 1979. "Landevennec, ancienne abbaye: Fouilles dans un edifice pre-

roman." AeB no. 21, pp. 46-49; no. 24, p. 26. . 1980. "L'abbaye de Landevennec: Campagne 1980." AeB no. 28.

Barral i Altet, Xavier, ed. 1987. Le paysage monumental de la France autour de l'an mil. Paris.

Barriere, Bernadette. 1977. L'abbaye cistercienne d'Obazine en Bas-Limousin: Les origines, le patrimoine. Tulle.

.1978. "Les sepultures medievales d'Obazine." Revue archeologique du Centre no. 67-68, pp. 179-86.

1981. "Obazine, monastere double en Limousin," Archeologia no. 155, pp. 19- 33.

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The Archaeology of Monasticism . 1982. "Les cloitres des monasteres d'Obazine et de Coyroux en Bas-Limousin."

In Melanges Dimier, 3, part 5:177-93. . 1984-87. "Correze: Aubazine, Monastere de Coyroux." AM 14:311-12,

17:188-89. Bavoillot, Richard. 1977. "Sepultures vicomtales d'Orthe en abbatiale Notre-Dame de

Corleta." Bulletin de la Societe de Borda no. 366, pp. 159-94. Beaussart, Pierre, and Vincent Maliet. 1983. "Les pavements de l'abbatiale de Fon-

tenelle a Maing." RduN 65:123-47. Benoit, Paul. 1986. "La forge de l'abbaye de Fontenay." DHetA no. 107, pp. 50-52.

1988 forthcoming. "Un site industriel medieval: L'abbaye de Fontenay." Me- moires de la Commission des antiquites de la Cote d'Or.

Berland, dom Jean-Marie. 1971. "Un carrelage de terre-cuite decouvert a Saint- Benoit-sur-Loire." SNAF-B, pp. 60-64.

. 1975. "Les enseignements des fouilles executees recemmement dans deux eglises relevant autrefois de Fleury: Lonlay l'Abbaye (Orne) et Dye (en Tonnerois)." In Etudes ligeriennes d'histoire et d'archeologie medievales, pp. 35-44. Auxerre.

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