fasting from monasticism through

8/13/2019 Fasting From Monasticism Through

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Fasting From Monasticism Through

Chapter 4: The Development OfFasting From Monasticism ThroughThe Reformation To The Modern Era

Christian Fasting From Excesses To Decline

As has already been seen, Christian fasting practices began expanding from

their basic biblical roots in the early centuries of the church. While thisdevelopment was not always subversive, it did have the tendency of formalizingthe practice into corporate rituals, with the result that voluntary fasting on the partof the people of the church was largely lost. Voluntary fasting was, however,taken up by those who embraced the submission of monasticism, and theirausterities in asceticism colored the general perception of fasting for laterChristianity. As a result, the rotestant !eformers largely reacted against fastingin Catholicism, divided as it was mainly into the two categories of ritualperformance and monastic asceticism. With the onset of the modern era,Christian society further minimized the role of fasting until the practice wasvirtually forgotten by rotestants, and practiced in formal rituals in Catholicism

that even the Catholic leadership began to "uestion. #his chapter traces thedevelopment of fasting from monasticism through the !eformation androtestant traditions into the modern era, tracing the rise of excesses and thelater decline of the practice. #his will set the stage for an examination of therenewal of a theology of Christian fasting in the next chapter.

The Catholic Backdrop to Fasting Before the Reformation:Fasting as Monastic sceticism and Churchl! Devotion

#he fasting traditions of the church handed down from the fathers and formalizedin church pronouncements formed the basis for fasting practices by Catholics in

the $iddle Ages. #he sacramental and seasonal fasts were observed universallyas a matter of church policy, as discussed in the previous chapter. Adevelopment in the sacramental approach to fasting was to see fasting as apossible application of the sacrament of penance, thereby associating fastingmore closely with the forgiveness of sins.%&'Ascetic fasting also continued to bepracticed, and was developed primarily through the monastic movement,discussed below. #homas A"uinas, the pillar of Christian systematizing andhimself a monk, taught about fasting in the context of Catholicism, and his work
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will be examined in some detail as well. #hese factors of monastic asceticismand churchly devotion provide something of the backdrop for understanding therotestant reactions and developments of their own with regard to fasting, whichwill be examined later.

Fasting in Monasticism:ttempting to Regulate sceticism

#he following section will show how fasting factored into the regulation ofmonastic asceticism, although controlling these behaviors within temperedorthodox theology proved to be a difficult task. $onasticism began as somethingof a grass(roots movement, but astute church leaders brought it into themainstream of church life. )asting played a significant role in the ascetic life ofmonasticism, and examples abound of its use. *owever, doctrinal and practicalhazards related to the abuse of fasting also emerged, whether from heretics orthe gradual corruption of theology within Catholicism.

The Rise of Monasticism: Mainstreaming Asceticism

#he rise of the monastic movement in early Christianity incorporated fasting asan integral component of the rhythms governing the ascetic life. #he word+asceticism derives from the -reek word , which most literally has to dowith the disciplined practice of athletes, but for Christians came to mean the+partial renunciation of bodily needs to obtain spiritual benefits.%&/ts -reek rootoccurs only once in the 0#, inActs %1'&,where aul told )elix, +/ do my best toalwayshave a clear conscience toward -od and toward people. %&23ut theconcept nevertheless came to play a large role in the understanding of theChristian life for many early Christians. #ypical forms of ascetic renunciation thatwere thought to have roots in the 0# included selling one4s possessions andliving in poverty or communally 5as inActs 1%%(%678 dedicating oneself tovirginity or sexual abstinence 5inspired by texts like $att '91', where :esusspeaks of +eunuchs for the sake of the kingdom of heaven, or ' Cor ;12, whereaul says +#he unmarried man is concerned about the things of the


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known as +!ules7 being written, such as those by 3asil and Augustine 5alreadyexamined in the previous chapter7, 3enedict 5discussed in more detail below7,and )rancis.%&6#he goal was to incorporate the nascent para(church movementinto the universal church4s life.%&&While it is outside the scope here to deal withthe many facets of monasticism, it is appropriate to try to understand how fasting

factored into the monastic ideal and try to assess at least some of that impact.%&;

Examples from Monasticism: Idealizing (and Sometimes Moderating A!sterit"

#homas >4


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John Cassian and Latin Monasticism: Fasting to Counter the rincipal !ice o"#luttony.Among the


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treatment is systematically ordered. As will be seen, he advocates fasting in thecontext of church traditions on the grounds that it is a tool for temperate virtuesand therefore helpful against temptations.

Christ&s Fasting: An Example for Defeating Temptation in the Flesh

#homas discusses fasting in relationship to the temptation of Christ in (&2a. %'.Christ was tempted by the devil as the new Adam in order to con"uer death, notby power so much as by righteousness. @ince the world and flesh held no swayover his sinless nature, it was left to the devil to tempt him. 3ut since the devilcould also not succeed against Christ4s impeccable nature, the temptation storyis given not only as a demonstration of Christ4s victory, but also as an example tous, since all of us must know how to face temptation. #homas says that fasting isa weapon against temptation, that those fasting should expect temptation, andthat :esus undertook fasting to become hungry and face temptation to show thatmanhood is capable of withstanding the power of the devil. Citing *ilary, he saysthat +the devil was to be con"uered, not by -od, but by the flesh, and fromChrysostom he draws the conclusion that +in fasting he went no further than$oses and Bli=ah, lest his assumption of our flesh might seem incredible.%9&

Fasting and Sacraments:Solemn $ccasions S!ggest Solemn $%ser'ance

#homas also mentions fasting in regard to the sacraments. /n (&2a. ;, ' heanswers "uestions about the appropriateness of fasting before baptism andconfirmation. @ince these are solemn occasions, and usually performed on oraround Baster, it is most fitting for fasting to accompany them, except in caseswhere this cannot be conveniently observed.%9;/n (& 2a. ?, ? he discusses

fasting and the Bucharist. *e follows Augustine in arguing that no food shouldenter a Christian4s mouth before the sacrament. #his is taken to mean are"uirement of fasting from midnight until the sacrament is taken in the morningof that day, although exceptions for illness are allowed. @uch fasting seems to goagainst the institution of the


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. and of which virtue8

2. whether it is a matter of precept8

%. whether anybody is excused from its observance8

6. on the times of fasting8

&. whether it re"uires no more than one meal in the day8

;. on the hour of the meal8

?. on the foods to be abstained from.%99

Fasting $tsel" +ot a !irtue, but -sed "or !irtues.As to whether it is a virtue,A"uinas says that /saiah 6?makes it clear that fasting by itself is not necessarily

a virtue. 3ut since aul lists it as a virtue in Cor &16, it can be a virtue, provided+it is set on some moral value.6#he chief motives for fasting are to bridle thelusts of the flesh, to free the mind for contemplation of -od, and to makesatisfaction for sin 5and here he cites the call to repentance of :oel 1'7. /naddition to the problems of hypocritical fasting as in /saiah 6?,too much fastingcan negate its very purpose. *ere he cites :erome, who says +it makes nodifference whether you are sapping yourself for a long or for a short time8 byexcessive lack of nourishment and by eating and sleeping too little you areoffering a sacrifice of stolen goods.6')asting re"uires courage to endurehardship, and is an act of the virtue of abstinence. /t can be metaphoricallyunderstood as abstaining from all things harmful, so that +fasting properly

speaking is from all manner of lusts, since any act ceases to be virtuous, as wehave pointed out, when it goes with any vice.6

Fasting is a Matter o" Liberty, but Eeryone +eeds $t.As to whether or not fastingis a precept, it is noted that not fasting is no sin, that it is not a sacrament, and isa matter of liberty. *owever, the fact that it is a matter of liberty suggests that it isintended to be practiced, even if how it is practiced may differ somewhat fromplace to place. @o, in an insightful statement, he defends the practice ofecclesiastical fasting seasons1

/t is not binding under precept in the abstract, but in the concrete to each one

who needs its remedy. And since for the most part we need it, according to @t.:ames, in many things we all o""end, and to @t. aul, the "lesh lusteth against thespirit, the Church is rightly pragmatic in appointing some common fasts to bekept by all. 0ot, however, by turning a work of supererogation into one ofobligation, but by giving a determinate shape to a common duty.62

Eet, liberty should allow for exceptions, and +a person may lawfully follow his own=udgment in not carrying out the command, provided he counsels with =ustly
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constituted authorities.6%Children are exempted from fasting until they aretwenty(one, and "ualifications can be made for labor and pilgrimages, as well asthe poor who live hand to mouth.

Fasting "or the )ridegroom: Choose an $nterpretation, 'egardless, $t romotes

Fasting. #homas then discusses the synoptic reference to the children of thebridegroom not fasting, and offers three interpretations from tradition.Chrysostom said the +children were the weak, and so they were exempt fromfasting, as beginners. :erome saw it as a freedom from observances of the oldlaw, as Christians were to be +breathing the freshness of grace. Augustine saidthat the passage could be divided into two kinds of fasting, that of those whomourn, and that of those who en=oy the presence of Christ and are +caught up byspiritual things, and this fasting is for the righteous.66While A"uinas seems torecommend all three interpretations, there does seem to be an ascendance inthe interpretations from "uestionable, to biblical theology, to grandspiritualization.

Church Fasting (easons /e"ended. #homas defends the church4s seasonal fastsas the common custom of church tradition. /n preparation for Baster, the churchinverts the se"uence of Christ4s baptism and fasting, in order to be buried withhim in death before being raised again to life. @everal imaginative numerologicalexplanations of the number forty are offered from -regory and Augustine, but inthe end, it is Christ4s fasting that is the reason for the forty days. #homas showsgreat awareness of :ewish fasting practices, and although the church keepssimilar times throughout the year, in echoing the /idache, she is careful not toobserve the same days as the :ews, who are still observing the old covenant,and not breathing the newness of the @pirit.6&

'easons "or recise Fasting 'egulations.A"uinas goes on to discuss whatmeals are allowed and what constitutes breaking a fast. *e distinguishes twokinds of fasts, the first being absolute 5allowing no food or drink at all7, whichshould precede the Bucharist. #he second kind, the +faster4s fast, is broken onlyby partaking in what is not allowed, hence there is some latitude involved in thedefinition. @o during church fasts, one s"uare meal per day is allowed, but smallamounts of +comfits 5basically snacks7 or medicines do not violate a fast, +unlessof course people cheat and wolf a lot or make a meal of them. 6;Christianfasting should last until the ninth hour 52 .$.7, because that echoes the timeChrist gave up the ghost, although exactness of time is no great matter. )astingfrom meat, milk and eggs may seem inconsistent, since fish and other foodsmight be made =ust as tasty and filling. *owever, #homas believes that for thema=ority of people and times, meat and animal foods are considered moredesirable, and so they are appropriate as the content of foods to be fasted from.3esides, he believes, they produce substances in the body that build up seminalmatter and increase the pressure of lust, making abstinence from these foodsparticularly relevant to the purposes of fasting against temptation. *owever, localcustoms may prevail.6?
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Developments in Fasting in &rotestant Traditions:Reacting gainst Catholicism# 'ut llo$ing for (ts &ractice

/n the section below, fasting in the rotestant tradition will be examined bylooking at statements by key leaders in the !eformation, as well as leaders in the

Anabaptists, the Church of Bngland and $ethodism. /t will be seen that the!eformers strongly criticized several aspects of Catholic fasting in their polemics,but they still allowed for certain forms of fasting. #here is little evidence that the

Anabaptists paid much attention to fasting at all. #he Church of Bngland soughtits middle way between Catholic fasts and the rotestant emphasis on freedomof the conscience. Wesley urged fasting as a form of personal spiritual disciplineand churchly devotion for the sake of the ministry, as perhaps the strongestadvocate and practitioner of fasting among the main rotestant figures. Eet takenas a whole, it will be seen that the tra=ectory of moving away from perceivedCatholic excesses in fasting likely led to something of a decline in fasting ingeneral in rotestantism, especially as it progressed into the modern era.

The Reformers: Fasting Cannot )arner Merit# 'ut Can *ave ppropriate+ses

#he rotestant !eformation reacted negatively against the Catholicism of thetime, especially those doctrines and practices that seemed to highlight humanmerit with regard to salvation. /n such a context, one might expect the !eformersto look dimly on fasting, as it had come to be associated with penance andforgiveness of sins, as well as church rituals that they were beginning to re=ectwholesale. While this negative theme certainly does emerge in their specificdiscussions of fasting, what is perhaps more surprising is how the !eformers all

acknowledge the positive role fasting can and should play in the life of theChristian and the church. #he following discussion will show that despite strongwarnings against the negative use of fasting, the !eformers consistentlyadvocated fasting as a positive Christian behavior, when guided by what theybelieved to be biblically based theological norms.

Martin )!ther: Fasting is Too Associated *ith Merit+ %!t ,erhaps It Co!ld #a'e a Role

$artin


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Fasting is &oo Associated with Merit.


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@ome refrained from certain foods like meat, eggs or butter, or scheduled fastingon certain special days according to the calendar and saints4 days1 +All thesepeople seek nothing beyond the work itself in their fasting.6'&Bchoing

Augustine4s pet peeve of substituting one food for another, he says, +@ome fastso richly with fish and other foods that they would come much nearer to fasting if

they ate meat, eggs, and butter. 3y doing this they would obtain far better resultsfrom their fasting. )or such fasting is not fasting, but a mockery of fasting as wellas of -od.6';

Fasting Could 0ae a ossible 'ole. )or


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roper fasting, for Calvin, has its three central ob=ectives as weakening andsubduing the flesh, aiding in prayer, and testimony of self(abasement before-od. While subduing the flesh is a private discipline, fasting as an aid in prayeror sign of repentance can be either private or corporate in nature, and in$nstitutes%.'.'6 he suggests that pastors ought to call for such as occasions

arise. *e cites the biblical examples of the apostles in Acts, Anna, 0ehemiah,and aul, to show fasting is an aid to prayer, and experience teaches that +with afull stomach our mind is not so lifted up to -od that it can be drawn to prayer witha serious and ardent affection and persevere in it.62*e applies ># examples offasting as a sign of corporate penitence in the face of disaster, reasoning thatthey could be applied rather directly to the church in times of crisis. #his kind offasting is not a ceremony that has been done away in Christ, but rather +anexcellent aid for believers today.

While Christ excused the apostles for not fasting, Calvin reminds us that Christalso said days would come when Christ is taken away. *e defines fasting as

more than restraint and abstemiousness, and not only the general mark ofsobriety and frugality of life that should constantly be a Christian4s experience.@pecifically, there are temporary fasts that consist of definite times and purposesfor fasting, and abstention from foods in both "uality and "uantity.622

0ow that Calvin has clearly laid out proper kinds of fasting, he goes aftermisconceptions related to it. *e says that +it would be much more satisfactory iffasting were not practiced at all, than diligently observed and at the same timecorrupted with false and pernicious opinions.62%/n line with :oel and /saiah 6?,fasting must accompany true humility from the heart and not be merely anoutward expression. Also, the idea that fasting is a work of merit or worship

should be avoided, because it is rather a means to an end 5and here he citesAugustine4s refutation of the $anichees in support7. Also, fasting should not betoo rigidly enforced, lest seeds of superstition are sown and fasting itself comesto be praised as virtuous.

Calvin believes that the general observance of


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@ome of his comments on the synoptic gospels also reflect this distancing offasting from merit or true worship in itself, while still allowing for its proper place./n commenting on the fasting of Anna in


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an example of works done for wrong motives. /n discussing almsgiving andfasting in relation to $atthew &, he criticizes the use of fasting that would be forshow, or would substitute different delicacies, or for weight loss, or savingmoney, or as a good work in itself. 3ut he does say that, in contrast, fasting+ought to be done simply for the purpose of hearing of the voice and bidding of

the @pirit.6%'

)asting is listed as a possible pretence before -od along withmurmuring prayers and feeding the hungry, if done without faith.6%/n arguing forhis symbolic understanding of the Bucharist, he cites >rigen, who places theBucharist in a category with fasting as something which enhances one4s religiousexperience, and *ilary, who said that those who were without Christ were fastingin his absence, while true believers had the resurrected Christ in their hearts. 6%2


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to defend his positions before certain church delegations, and clarified that he didnot forbid people to observe


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!eformation, and ordered by the assembly due to the extreme need for ministersand gathering of strength for the churches amidst Catholic persecution. #his tractwas published on several later fasting occasions as well.66%Lnox was concernedthat the apists understand that he was not advocating what he had previouslycondemned in them, and that on the other hand, people ignorant of the practice

of fasting might understand its purposes.666

*e maintained his belief that theCatholic fasts were hypocritical and not true fasting before -od. *e cited familiarand obscure biblical examples of fasting and hypocrisy, urging a genuine fastthat includes repentance of the heart. #he message includes liturgicalinstructions, beginning with a confession to be read, followed by reading thepreacher4s own chosen @cripture text on which the sermon will be founded,followed by certain prayers, psalms, and @criptures. #he abstinence would startfrom @aturday night and extend through @unday afternoon, broken only by breadand water, and include abstaining from other pleasures like games. #his routinewould last a week.66&

/t is clear, then, that Lnox and his fellow @cottish !eformers believed in creatinga positive role for fasting in both their individual and community lives. Whilere=ecting Catholic fasts as hypocrisy, Lnox took pains to teach and encouragethe kind of fasting that Calvin had also advocated in his $nstitutes. #he !eformedtradition encouraged fasting, especially for special, solemn, corporateassemblies, as evidenced in the discussion +>f !eligious Worship, and the@abbath(ay in the 1estminster Con"ession o" Faith'.61

#he reading of the @criptures with godly fear, the sound preaching andconscionable hearing of the Word, in obedience unto -od, with understanding,faith, and reverence, singing of psalms with grace in the heart8 as also, the due

administration and worthy receiving of the sacraments instituted by Christ, are allparts of the ordinary religious worship of -od1 beside religious oaths, vowssolemn fastings, and thanksgivings upon special occasions, which are, in theirseveral times and seasons, to be used in an holy and religious manner. 66;

na'aptists and Mennonites:n scetic Tradition That ,a!s -ittle 'out Fasting

$oving forward to the heirs of the +!adical !eformation, one discoverssomething of an anomaly. /nterestingly, fasting receives little to no attention inthe Anabaptist tradition. Considering their emphasis on personal piety, sobriety incustoms, and renunciation of worldliness, fasting would seem to be a natural fit.Lenneth avis has described Anabaptists as having a basically ascetic structureto their theology of holiness.66?Considering this, it is remarkable that fasting doesnot seem to factor into that theology or practice in any large way. #here are noreferences to fasting in the writings of $enno @imons or their other ma=orleaders, although there are references to sober eating and drinking. 669Van derKi=pp mentions only the -nadenfeld(Alexanderwohl communities4 =oint confessionof faith of ';?; apparently contained a statement about +right evangelical fasting
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according to the teaching of the *oly @criptures, but little else is said.6hereare a few records of special days of fasting and prayer being called in certainassemblies, and a handful of references to $ennonite and Amish communitieswho fasted occasionally in connection with seasonal communion services, or-ood )riday. @ome of these practices have died out, while some communities

still observe them.6&'

erhaps the primitivist approach to religion of Anabaptists, which often led to are=ection of established church tradition, led to a disinterest in fasting, which theymight have associated with the traditions that persecuted them. Whatever thereason, it seems that fasting did not play much of a role in the shaping of the

Anabaptist tradition, and certainly this tradition has been influential in modernevangelicalism. While it would be difficult to document, it seems reasonable tocon=ecture that this is one strand in the reasons for a relative lack of explicitreferences to fasting in modern evangelical thought and practice. Eet the basictheology of Anabaptist tradition would suggest at least the possibility of a

welcome place for fasting, and perhaps that too could factor into an evangelicalresurgence of interest in the practice.

The nglicans and Methodists:Balancing Traditional Fasting and ,piritual Discipline in &rotestantism

#he Church of Bngland sought to promote fasting as spiritual discipline. #heyretained fasting traditions that had been handed down from Catholicism, whiledoing so in the context of the rotestant ideal of a free conscience. While thisattempt at balance may not always have been met with general enthusiasm,:ohn Wesley and the early $ethodists provide an example of this virtuous

balance in practice.The Ch!rch of England: Fasting Traditions ,romoted to a Free Conscience

#he nature of the !eformation in Bngland had the effect of retaining similar formsfor fasting as traditionally practiced in Catholicism, even though some currents ofthought led to more rotestant distinctions. @pecifically, the liberty of individualChristians is valued highly, so that the traditional fasts are encouraged, but seenas voluntary.

#his noble desire to uphold ancient church traditions on the one hand, while notoverly binding conscience on the other, can be seen in #homas 3econ4s+#reatise of )asting. 3econ was chaplain to Archbishop Cranmer during thereign of Bdward V/ and author of the first ma=or Bnglish catechism. *is fastingtreatise purports to be the first discussion of religious fasting in the Bnglishlanguage.6&3econ defines true Christian fasting as being done freely andwillingly, and it is not only abstaining from food and drink, but other pleasures aswell, in contrition of heart with a mind bent toward godliness.6&2/n support offasting, he examines dozens of the typical biblical examples. *e contrasts truefasting with the +popish and superstitious fast that is done for mere custom, or
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even worse, to earn forgiveness and everlasting life.6&%3econ chastises theCatholics for substituting better tasting fish for a little meat, or eating large"uantities at night, and compared them to the hypocrites :esus condemned. 6&63econ follows Chrysostom4s comments on $atthew in saying that true fastingre"uires anointing the head, washing the face, and doing it in secret. #he

anointing is spiritually interpreted as mercy for the poor, and the washing as apure conscience.6&&)asting reminds us that possessions are to be shared, as noteating will make us appreciate those who go hungry. #he purity of heart in fastingis in line with /saiah 6?and freedom from hypocrisy. And secrecy is not so muchthat no one else knows, as it is that the true heart motive is that the actions aredone for -od alone. As for the ends of fasting, the first is that of mortifying theflesh, so that it will obey the spirit, +as an hand(maid her mistress, or an horse hiskeeper.6&;#he second reason to fast is to learn to give liberally to the poor.#hird, fasting makes one +more apt to pray, and the biblical examples are onceagain reviewed.6&?)ourth and finally, fasting makes one more receptive tohearing the word of -od in humility.

#he desire to uphold tradition in fasting while freeing the conscience can againbe seen in a pronouncement on fasting communion adopted in '?99. 6&9ains aretaken to affirm that fasting is a healthy self(discipline and the reception of theBucharist a very solemn occasion. 0evertheless, the n this particular matter, the Church of Bngland desired toapply aul4s teaching not to let matters of eating or not eating be a matter of

=udgment, as in !om '%12and '%16.@o while the Church of Bngland in theory seeks to free the conscience, and to agreat extent does so in general practice, it still advocates the seasonal fastingrituals of the !oman Catholic Church.6;'A comparison of the canon law of thetwo bodies on fasting shows that beyond similar


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fasting that it officially advocated, at least not in accord with biblical truth or vitalhabits of the disciplined life. #he many statements by Wesley in his =ournal aboutfasting, discussed below, show that he and the early $ethodists associated withhim regularly practiced fasting. Additionally, his sermons and other writingsadvocate a balanced, but passionate, approach to fasting as a spiritual discipline.

1esley2s and the Early Methodists2 Experience: Fasting as a Liing /iscipline.With regard to his personal practice, Wesley recorded in his =ournal in ecember', ';6, how he resolved to fast every Wednesday in a month when he felt hewas struggling with careless sins during his >xford days. 6;%*e came to regularlypractice this Wednesday fast, and in a letter of >ct. '', ';2, said he had beenpracticing this for six months.6;6*e said that his *oly Club of >xford $ethodistsbegan observing the fasts of the church, +the general neglect of which we can byno means apprehend to be a lawful excuse for neglecting them. 6;his suggeststhat the early $ethodists felt their fasting practices were both traditional, andbecause of the lack of common practice, revivalist.

Wesley recorded on $arch 2(2', ';2&, how he and his companions in@avannah were experimenting with a diet that consisted only of bread and +werenever more vigorous than while we tasted nothing else. While every kind of foodis a good gift from -od, those who need help in purity should +use every help,and remove every hindrance.6;;>n )riday, August ';, ';29, Wesley recordsthat many of his society agreed to +obey the Church to which we belong byobserving all )ridays in the year as days of fasting or abstinence. 6;?Wesley andhis companions practiced their Wednesday and )riday fasts regularly throughouttheir ministry, patterned after the early church, and his diaries suggest a greatlevel of self(denial in relation to food, sleep, and other things.6;9

/n Wesley4sAppealshe makes it clear that there were those who wrongly feltthey were righteous for going to church, taking the sacraments, and observingcertain fasts, like that of the Anglican memorial to the execution of Ling Charleson :anuary 2'. @uch religion could prove vain, if done without love, a form ofgodliness without the power, since an inwardly motivated religion of the heartwas necessary.6?*e defended his $ethodists when they were accused ofundermining church law by pointing out that they were actually keeping churchlaw more scrupulously than others, as evidenced by their attention to the fastdays.6?'

#here are dozens of passing references to fasting in his =ournals, giving evidencethat he and his companions observed national, church and personal fasts at avery dedicated level.6?Wesley commended the duty of fasting in a letter, writingthat +>ur


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Eet later in his life, Wesley would note that few of his $ethodists were practicingthe regular fasts. A sermon from ';9, +Causes of the /nefficacy of Christianity,notes the decline. *e decries the lack of self(denial evidenced by theabandonment of their previous fasting habits, including even ministers on days ofgiving the sacraments. *e strongly asserts here that according to @cripture, +the

man that never fasts is no more in the way to heaven than the man that neverprays.6?6/n the ';9; Form o" /iscipline, he wrote1

#he neglect of this is sufficient to account for our feebleness and faintness ofspirit. We are continually grieving the *oly @pirit by the habitual neglect of a plaindutyM


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find a single book that had been published on the topic of Christian fastingbetween '?&' and '96%.692While there are minor exceptions to )oster4sstatement, the substance seems basically accurate.69%Additionally, examples ofthe decline of attention being paid to fasting can be seen below in monasticpractice, rotestant practice, and the gradual elimination of national fast days.

#he points discussed below suggest a decline in these specific aspects of fastingpractice, and this relative lack of attention might suggest a more general declinein interest in Christian fasting.696@ome possible reasons for this decline will beoffered below.

The Decline of Fasting in Monasticism

Adalbert de VogOP, a great )rench scholar of the history of asceticism andhimself a 3enedictine monk, notes the decline of fasting in monastic tradition andseeks to trace the reasons. #he decline from strict observance of ancient rules isobvious, but the reasons remain elusive. *e re=ects some suggestions offered by

his brethren, such as the notion that modern men are more feeble than theirancient counterparts, the need for more fre"uent food because more work isbeing done in monastic communities, and the need to eat fre"uently forfellowship in the common life. /nstead, he finds the decline most in evidence intracing the evolution of eating practices in Burope, arguing that the sole eveningmeal of anti"uity encroached earlier into the day until there was a noon meal,and finally breakfast was added.69&

#his historical reconstruction may apply in a general way to the practices ofmonastic life, but lacks evidence for a more general understanding of eatingpractices in general society, and so it is less than entirely convincing. @till, it is

interesting to note that an astute observer of asceticism in history and modernpractitioner sees the fact of the decline of fasting as rather general and obvious.e VogOP criticizes the commentaries on @t. 3enedict4s 'ulethat praise thelatitude offered the community1 +3y praising 3enedict for having mitigated theobservances of his predecessors, the monks absolve themselves implicitly fornot being faithful to his.69;#here is evidence that despite monastic vows ofpoverty and commitments to self(discipline, typical monks often partook of dietsthat were anything but austere. Bnglish !eformer #homas 3econ caricatured amonk who was especially known for fasting, who in his regular meal ate whatcould have served +six godly fasters.69?/n


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doneIthese things were in fact a challenge which was no doubt more keenly feltthan the twin burdens of chastity and obedience.699

Jnder such circumstances, it is not surprising that observers both inside andoutside the monasteries might criticize monastic fasting practices. >ne might

also speculate that the sharp !eformation criti"ue of Catholic fasting could havefound some resonance even within the walls of the monasteries, creating asensitivity that could prompt changes in behavior.

The Decline of Fasting in &rotestantism

As examined above, the controversies of the !eformation clearly put Catholicfasting practices in a dim light. While the !eformers themselves may have kept aplace for fasting in their minds, they certainly put the rotestant churches on ageneral tra=ectory away from the ritualized, formalized and often trivializedapproaches to fasting in Catholicism. When the !eformed churches "uit

practicing


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prayer and self(examination in secret, accompanied with fasting.&@o here is anexample of fasting being promoted as a spiritual discipline by a ma=or rotestantinstitution, although one wonders how much of this older Calvinist piety wasactually being practiced, and how much or it survived the school4s reorganizationof its charter in '99.

As already noted, the lacuna in literature related specifically to fasting makes itdifficult to assess rotestant attitudes toward fasting as the modern eraprogressed. As will be seen in the following chapter, there was a mushrooming ofbooks related to fasting as a spiritual discipline by rotestant evangelicalsbeginning in the latter half of the twentieth century. #his change in the publishedliterature suggests in a general way that a lack of attention was being then beingaddressed. 3ut one further point is yet to be addressed, and that is thephenomenon of the decline of national or societal fast days.

/ational Fasts and Their Modern Decline

/t was only natural in politically Christian nations, as in the /sraelite kingdom thatserved to some extent as their ancient model, for government and religion tocoordinate social structures, especially as responses to disasters or wars. #heseresponses often included official, national proclamations of fast days, withattendant moral re"uirements of special liturgies for corporate worship in prayerand fasting, as well as social re"uirements of shutting down of commerce. #hesepractices began to decline in the modern era, apparently corresponding with thesecularization and pluralization of Western nations.

3e* England ,!ritan Comm!nit" Fasts

#he modern decline in community fasting practices stands in sharp contrast tothe early days of uritan 0ew Bngland, when some of Calvin4s staunchestfollowers apparently took to heart his admonitions to pastors to call for days offasting in the face of difficulty and for repentance1

!ecords indicate that lymouth called for at least sixty(nine fast days between'& and '&9;, a figure that does not include the +fre"uent fasts that wereobserved between '&6% and '&&; due to their lack of a pastor, and undoubtedlynumerous other fasts that were simply not recorded.&2

ifficult days prompted calls for prayer and fasting, while times of feasting andthanksgiving helped the community maintain a cyclical relationship betweenfasting and normal eating without the trappings of the more detailed churchyear.&%/n a fast day sermon first preached :anuary ;, ';%? in hiladelphia,-ilbert #ennent stated that fasting was abused by the Catholics, and neglectedby rotestants1

/ndeed the apists do sometimes make a pretence of fasting, but ity may be trulysaid that many of their fasts are mock(fasts, feasts instead of fasts. /t must also
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be confessed that many rotestants sadly neglect this duty of fasting to theirgreat pre=udice in religion. All those who would have their corruptions mortifiedmust take pains and use proper means for that end. )asting is among the mostuselful means for it has a noble tendency to keep the body in sub=ection to themind. 3ut this duty is so contrary to people4s keen appetites that they can

scarcely be brought to believe in it, and it is still more difficult for the to practiceit.&6

/t appears that these kinds of fasts took place into the nineteenth century, thoughthey were practiced less and less over time. 0ational fasts were observed in theJnited @tates through the Civil War period, but there is no record of any after'?&6.&&

4ritish 3ational Fasts

!ichard :. :anet has provided a thorough historical examination of the nature ofand responses to general fasts proclaimed during the Victorian era in Bngland.Jp until this time, these specifically occasional, general fasts were a fairly regularpart of civic life in Bngland, as well as the American colonies. /n the periodexamined five general fasts were proclaimed, in response to a cholera epidemic,the /rish potato famine, the Crimean war 5two occasions7, and the /ndian mutiny.

After these, however, the 3ritish government ceased calling for general fast days,though there were national observances of days of prayer, carrying less solemnre"uirements and legal overtones.

With incidents like the cholera epidemic and potato famine, it is easy to seecontinuity between biblical fasts in times of national threat or disaster beyondhuman control. As such, the fast functions as a time of repentance, solemnreflection on the wisdom of providence and seeking of guidance for a course ofaction. 3ut war can be a trickier application, as the Crimean example suggests.)inding occasion for repentance and immediate danger in this occasion wasdifficult for the 3ritish, as their homeland was not threatened and it was an act offlexing military muscle abroad. #he picture of 3ritain as a pious knight keeping asolemn vigil before going out on a noble crusade harked back to an era ofChristian aggression that was disappearing, and the irony that !ussian>rthodoxy also prayed for victory for their presumably despotic czar heightensthe feeling of incongruity. #he mixed results of the campaign stirred debate aboutthe appropriateness of a second general fast day that was called, and one cansee the erosion of 3ritain4s moral certainty coupled with its growing confusionover it global position and national identity.&;#he /ndian mutiny of '?6; likewiseconfronted 3ritain with a national military problem far from the homeland. Whilemoral outrage seemed to prevail when +pagans attacked the Christiangovernment in /ndia, it is interesting that this marks the last occasion for ageneral fast. #o some it seemed that the fast was more utilitarian as a commonexpression of sympathy grief rather than as national repentance, though somestill called for that in con=unction.&?
http://bible.org/print/book/export/html/5175#P1335_483159http://bible.org/print/book/export/html/5175#P1337_483472http://bible.org/print/book/export/html/5175#P1341_485456http://bible.org/print/book/export/html/5175#P1342_485930http://bible.org/print/book/export/html/5175#P1335_483159http://bible.org/print/book/export/html/5175#P1337_483472http://bible.org/print/book/export/html/5175#P1341_485456http://bible.org/print/book/export/html/5175#P1342_485930


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Christians from a general willingness to follow in the way of the cross anddiscipline. )ourth, the development of naturalism has affected people so that theysee fasting as a mystical element from an ancient worldview. )inally, theupheavals in the structures of modern life militate against cultural fastingpractices on a wide scale. #ogether, he believes these factors have led to a

practically complete neglect of authentic fasting practices in modern church life.erhaps it is not surprising in light of history, theology and human nature thatfasting declined in the modern era. When one considers Catholicism, one isreminded of the excesses of ancient and medieval ascetics, the cumbersomeintricacies and exceptions of canon law, and the popular redefinition of thepractice.&'6Considering rotestantism, one is sent on a theological tra=ectoryagainst Catholicism that reduces the importance of fasting, severs it fromchurchly and governmental authority, and marches into a modernity that standsin a largely antithetical climate to its practice. While there appears to be nosubstantial voice in the leadership streams of Christian thought that has decided

definitively against fasting, relatively little specific, substantial attention has beenpaid to fasting as a practice.

@o it appears that Catholic Christian communities largely obscured theunderlying biblical theology of fasting over the centuries, and the rotestant!eformation tried to recapture biblical emphases. 3ut in practice, the pendulumswung away from actually practicing fasting. -overnments in Christian nations,like Bngland that was examined in some detail, gradually saw their role movefrom promoting clear spiritual functions in society to more pluralized functions. @owith churches and society promoting fasting less and less, with the excesses ofmonasticism in the background and modern materialism in the foreground, it

would be more surprising if fasting had somehow continued to have a robustChristian expression. /f there is to be some kind of renewal of fasting practices incontemporary times, Christians will need to sense a defensible underlyingtheology of fasting, and something of the possible spiritual effects of the practice./n the latter part of the thcentury such a renewal appears to have begun. Anexamination of that renewal, with attendant theological "uestions, will beundertaken in the final chapter.

%&' aniel Callam, +)asting, Christian, in /ictionary o" the Middle Ages, ed.:oseph !. @trayer 50ew Eork1 Charles @cribner4s @ons, '9?67, 61 '?.

%& @amuel !ubenson, +Asceticism1 Christian erspectives, Encycopedia o"Monasticism, ed. William $. :ohnston 5Chicago1 )itzroy earborn, 7, '1 9.

%&2AujtoV"ajskw'ajprovskoponsuneivdhsine[ceinproV"toVnqeoVnkaiVtouV"ajnqrwvpou"diaVpantov".

%&% Callam, 61 '9.
http://bible.org/print/book/export/html/5175#P1355_490293http://bible.org/print/book/export/html/5175#P1061_397992http://bible.org/print/book/export/html/5175#P1066_399747http://bible.org/print/book/export/html/5175#P1067_400058http://bible.org/print/book/export/html/5175#P1068_401142http://bible.org/print/book/export/html/5175#P1355_490293http://bible.org/print/book/export/html/5175#P1061_397992http://bible.org/print/book/export/html/5175#P1066_399747http://bible.org/print/book/export/html/5175#P1067_400058http://bible.org/print/book/export/html/5175#P1068_401142


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%&6 )or a detailed treatment of )ranciscan fasting rules, which are not examinedhere, see :ordan :oseph @ullivan, Fast and Abstinence in the First Order o"(aint Francis: A 0istorical (ynopsis and a Commentary, #he Catholic Jniversityof America Canon rientale &9 5$aine(Q(4


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%? Con". 6.%(6,AC16;1 '?2(?6.

%?' Conrad xford @tudies in *istorical #heology 5>xford1 >xfordJniversity ress, '99?7, &(;&.

%?% (t. Maximus the Con"essor: &he Ascetic Li"e,and &he Four Centuries on

Charity, trans. olycarp @herwood,AC1' 5


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%9% -iles Constable,Attitudes &oward (el"3$n"licted (u""ering in the Middle Ages,@tephen :. 3rademas, @r.,


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6'6 /bid., ?1 22.

6'&


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69 :ohn Calvin, Calin: $nstitutes o" the Christian 'eligion, ed. :ohn #. $c0eill,trans. )ord


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6%? /bid., '1 ''.

6%9 /bid., '1 '2.

66 Jlrich Kwingli, 0uldrych 7wingli 1ritings, trans. B. :. )urcha, 6th

Anniversary Volume ed., vol. ' 5Allison ark, enn.1 ickwick, '9?%71 ;, ;.66' /bid., '1 .

66 :ohn Lnox, &he 1or4s o" John 8nox, ed. avid


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6&& /bid., 62;(2?.

6&; /bid., 6%6.

6&? /bid., 6%;.

6&9 )rancis :ohn :ayne, ed.,Anglican ronouncements -pon AuricularCon"ession, Fasting Communion5


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&; /bid., 2;(%?.

&? /bid., 66(6&.

&9 /bid., 9, '2, citing . C.

fasting from monasticism through

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