Leadership

When people can see which direction the leaders are going in it becomes easier to

motivate them – (Lakshmi Mittal)

Introduction :

Leadership is the art of influencing people so that they will strive willingly

and enthusiastically towards the achievement of group goals. Leadership is an important

aspect of managing people. People tend to follow those who, in their view, offer them a

means of satisfying their own personal goals. The more managers understand what

motivates their subordinates and how these motivations operate and the more they reflect

this understanding in their managerial actions, the more effective they are likely to be as

leaders.

Definition & Meaning of Leadership :

“Leadership is the process of influencing the behavior of others in the direction of a goal

or set of goals or more broadly, toward a vision of the future” – (Wendell French)

“The art or process of influencing people so that they will strive willingly and

enthusiastically toward the achievement of group goals” – (Harold Koontz and Heinz

Weihrich)

In other words, leadership is the ability to persuade others to seek

defined objectives enthusiastically. It is the human factor, which binds a group together

and motivates it towards goals. Leaders act to help a group attain objectives through the

maximum application of its capabilities.

“If leadership is an art, then surely Jack Welch has proved himself a master painter”-

(Jack Welch)

Jack Welch was the CEO and Chairman of General Electric for over 20

years. During that time he pioneered many critical business initiatives (such as

downsizing and six sigma) that have become standard practice for big business in the 21st

century. His opinion about leadership is:

Change before it's too late!

For Welch, business leaders who treat change as an enemy will fail. They need

to be aware that the very survival of their corporation rests with their ability to change

this is the reality they are working in and to prepare their workers for change. The faster

this can be accomplished the better.

Get out of the way!

Managers need to manage less. Once the vision is established, the right resources

are in place and confidence is on a crest of a wave, managers need to get out of the way

and let the workers get on with it. For Welch leadership is about Vision not

supervision. The Leaders should set a general framework for their team, the vision

should be congruent with the overall goals of the organisation but they should avoid too

detailed (and therefore restrictive) plans this can stifle the ability to change. Trying to

keep tabs on detailed plans is not the best use of time Control slows you down! If an

employee can't live up to the values - get rid of them.

Downsize before it's too late!

Welch's leadership will be forever linked to "downsizing" due to his ruthless

culling of employees and managerial layers. This all started in the early 80s just as US

firms came under tougher competition from the Far East. In fact GE was doing well but

that didn't stop Welch downsizing before it was too late. He was incredibly controversial

back then. But for Welch business leadership wasn't a popularity contest - he did what he

believed was right for the long term health of his company.

Look outside!

Welch developed the reputation for incredible and audacious acquisitions.

Searching for the very best ideas, wherever they come from (including globally), was

a key element of Welch's leadership. Creativity and idea-sharing sessions between

departments and businesses was seen as essential. Speed, Simplicity and Self-

Confidence. The 3 S's built the whole organisation. A simple vision, speedily

implemented by self - confident managers and employees. In a way it was like

creating a small-company feel within a giant multi-national. Welch compared his

company frequently to a small corner grocer's shop. Everyone knew their customer (or

should do), communications within the organisation were simple and everyone was

involved. This turned ordinary workers into productive, passionate "owners" of their part

of the business. Welch put in place feedback models so that everyone could effectively

have their say - any manger who could not deal with his team candidly having their say

was waved bye-bye to! Any practice that no longer made sense was also waved bye-bye

to.

Stretch!

Welch believed in setting goals that stretched employees to the absolute

maximum right on the brink of impossible. This got the best from his people. This

leadership concept of stretching targets is illustrated by GE's embracing of the six Sigma

standards (that is only 3.4 defects per million outputs from a process). At the start of this

programme GE had about 35,000 defects per million, in other words they needed to get

about 10,000 times better! This process had taken quality obsessed Motorola 10 years to

achieve. Welch set the target at 5 years.

Examples of Leadership in Business:

In the 1980s Harley-Davidson was almost knocked out of business by

competition from other firms. To survive, it needed to change dramatically. Rich

Teerlink, the company’s leader, was able to save the firm financially, but with the

pressure off, the challenge of continuing to improve seemed even more daunting.

Could Teerlink get his managers and employees to make the significant, and too many of

them inconvenient, changes necessary?

He did it by building a different company, one driven from the bottom

up by employees rather than from the top down by managers. It’s a story of

successes and failures, advances and setbacks, dead ends and breakthroughs, ending in a

much stronger company than before.

Leadership Vs. Management

"Leaders manage and managers lead, but the two activities are not

synonymous. Management functions can potentially provide leadership; leadership

activities can contribute to managing. Nevertheless, some managers do not lead, and

some leaders do not manage".

Warren Bennis popular writer of leadership resources and business professor at the

University of Southern California shares the same view. "There is a profound difference

between management and leadership, and both are important. To manage means to bring

about, to accomplish, to have charge of or responsibility for, and to conduct. Leading is

influencing, guiding in a direction, course, action, opinion. The distinction is crucial".

One of Bennis’ most quoted phrases is, "Managers are people who do things right and

leaders are people who do the right thing".

Difference between Manager and Leader :

The manager administers; the leader innovates.

The manager maintains; the leader develops.

The manager accepts reality; the leader investigates it.

The manager focuses on systems and structures; the leader focuses on people.

The manager relies on control; the leader inspires trust.

The manager has a short-range view; the leader has a long-range perspective.

The manager asks how and when; the leader asks what and why.

The manager has his or her eye always on the bottom line; the leader has his or her

eye on the horizon.

The manager imitates; the leader originates.

The manager accepts the status quo; the leader challenges it.

The manager is the classic good soldier; the leader is his or her own person.

Leadership and management are both important, but they seek to do

different things. About 40 years ago Kurt Lewin put it this way. Every organization

structures itself to accomplish its goals in a way that is in tune with or responsive to its

environment. Often because of a "management orientation" which is focused more on

"looking in" instead of "looking out". Times like this require organizations to think more

in terms of leadership. Leaders begin to ask questions like, "What is really going on here?

How do we become relevant again? How do we fulfill our goals in these new times?

What will prompt people to think that what we do is meaningful?" Leaders seek to bring

their organization more in line with the realities of their environment, which often

necessitates changing the very structures, resources and relationships of their

organization which they have worked so long and so hard to manage.

Leadership is an important function of management which helps to maximize

efficiency and to achieve organizational goals. The following points justify the

Significance of leadership in a concern.

Few things are more important to human activity than leadership. Effective

leadership helps our nation through times of peril. It makes a business organization

successful. It enables a not-for-profit organization to fulfill its mission. The effective

leadership of parents enables children to grow strong and healthy and become productive

adults. The absence of leadership is equally dramatic in its effects. Without leadership,

organizations move too slowly, stagnate, and lose their way. Much of the literature about

organizations stresses decision-making and implies that if decision-making is timely,

complete, and correct, then things will go well. Yet a decision by itself changes nothing.

After a decision is made, an organization faces the problem of implementation how to get

things done in a timely and effective way.

Initiates action - Leader is a person who starts the work by communicating the

policies and plans to the subordinates from where the work actually starts.

Motivation - A leader proves to be playing an incentive role in the concern’s

working. He motivates the employees with economic and non-economic rewards

and thereby gets the work from the subordinates.

Providing guidance - A leader has to not only supervise but also play a guiding

role for the subordinates. Guidance here means instructing the subordinates the

way they have to perform their work effectively and efficiently.

Creating confidence - Confidence is an important factor which can be achieved

through expressing the work efforts to the subordinates, explaining them clearly

their role and giving them guidelines to achieve the goals effectively. It is also

important to hear the employees with regards to their complaints and problems.

Building morale - Morale denotes willing co-operation of the employees towards

their work and getting them into confidence and winning their trust. A leader can

be a morale booster by achieving full co-operation so that they perform with best

of their abilities as they work to achieve goals.

Builds work environment - Management is getting things done from people. An

efficient work environment helps in sound and stable growth. Therefore, human

relations should be kept into mind by a leader. He should have personal contacts

with employees and should listen to their problems and solve them. He should

treat employees on humanitarian terms.

Co-ordination - Co-ordination can be achieved through reconciling personal

interests with organizational goals. This synchronization can be achieved through

proper and effective co-ordination which should be primary motive of a leader.

Leadership Roles:

Leading is a complex activity, so it is not surprising that mintzberg and other researchers

identified nine roles that can be classified as part of the leadership function of the

management.

1. Figurehead: Leaders, particularly high- ranking managers, spend some part pf

their time engaging in ceremonial activities, or acting as a figurehead. Four

specific behaviors fit the figurehead role of a leader:

Entertaining clients or customers as an official representative of the

organization.

Making oneself available to outsiders as a representative of the

organization.

Serving as an official representative of the organization at gatherings

outside the organization.

Escorting official visitors.

2. Spokesperson: When a manager acts as a spokesperson, the emphasis is on

answering letters or inquiries and formally reporting to individuals and groups

outside the manager’s direct organizational unit. As a spokesperson, the

managerial leader keeps five groups of people informed about the unit’s activities,

plans, capabilities, and possibilities (vision).

Upper- level management

Clients or customers

Other important outsiders such as labor unions

Professional colleagues

The general public

Dealing with outside groups and the general public is usually the responsibility of

top- level managers.

3. Negotiator: Part of almost any manager’s job description is trying to make deals

with others for needed resources. Researches have identified three specific

negotiating activities:

Bargaining with other units in the organization for the use of staff,

facilities, equipment, or other forms of support.

Bargaining with superiors for funds, facilities, equipment, or other forms

of support.

Bargaining with suppliers and vendors for services, schedules, and

delivery times.

4. Coach and Motivator: An effective leader takes the time to coach and motivate

team members. This role includes four specific behaviors:

Informally recognizing team members’ achievements

Providing team members with feedback concerning ineffective

performance.

Ensuring that team members are informed of steps that can improve their

performance.

5. Team Builder: A key aspect of a leader’s role is to build an effective team.

Activities contributing to this role include:

Ensuring that team members are recognized for their accomplishments,

such as through letters of appreciation.

Initiating activities that contribute to group morale, such as giving parties

and sponsoring sports teams.

Holding periodic staff meetings to encourage team members to talk about

their accomplishments, problems, and concerns.

6. Team Player: Related to the team- builder role is that of the team player. Three

behaviors of team players are:

Displaying appropriate personal conduct

Cooperating with other units in the organization

Displaying loyalty to superiors by supporting their plans and decisions

fully.

7. Technical Problem Solver: It is particularly important for supervisors and

middle managers to help team members solve technical problems. Two activities

contributing to this role are:

Serving as a technical expert or adviser

Performing individual contributor tasks on a regular basis, such as making

sales calls or repairing machinery.

8. Entrepreneur: Although not self-employed, managers who work in large

organizations have some responsibility for suggesting innovative ideas or

furthering the business aspects of the firm. Three entrepreneurial leadership role

activities are:

Reading trade publications and professional journals to keep up with what

is happening in the industry and profession.

Talking with customers or others in the organization to keep aware of

changing needs and requirements.

Getting involved in situations outside the unit that could suggest ways of

improving the unit’s performance, such as visiting other firms, attending

professional meetings or trade shows, and participating in educational

programs.

9. Strategic Planner: Top- level managers engage in strategic planning, usually

assisted by input from others throughout the organization. Carrying out the

strategic- planner role enables the manager to practice strategic leadership.

Specific activities involved in this role include:

Setting a vision and direction for the organization

Helping the firm deal with the external environment

Helping develop organizational policies.

10. Change Master: While many people will find that they can perform one or two

of the agent roles with ease, a change master would be able to perform all the

change roles.

The ideal change master would have the following qualities:

Common sense. And the courage to use it.

Credibility and trust - the ability to work at all levels in the organization.

A wide range of business knowledge - preferably someone with experience in 3-4

different areas, or an MBA, or a general management experience.

Knowledge of change management.

The ability to work with teams of people both inside and outside the organization.

This includes the ability to work with people across all departments.

The ability to do much unstructured work.

Creativity: The ability custom design processes to meet the goals of the

organisation.

Self confidence balanced by humility.

Facilitation skills

Design skills.

Coaching skills.

A love of innovation and new ways of doing things.

A sense of humour and a sense of fun.

A spirit of caring.

The ability to inspire people. To bring out the magic within every individual and

every team.

Major Leadership Theories

Definition:

“The process in which a leader influences the thoughts and actions of others towards a mutual goal"

Interest in leadership increased during the early part of the twentieth century. Early leadership theories focused on what qualities distinguished between leaders and followers, while subsequent theories looked at other variables such as situational factors and skill level. While many different leadership theories have emerged, most can be classified as one of eight major types:

Great Man Theories

Based on the belief that leaders are exceptional people, born with innate qualities, destined to lead. The use of the term 'man' was intentional since until the latter part of the twentieth century leadership was thought of as a concept which is primarily male, military and Western. This led to the next school of Trait Theories

Trait Theories

The lists of traits or qualities associated with leadership exist in abundance and continue to be produced. They draw on virtually all the adjectives in the dictionary which describe some positive or virtuous human attribute, from ambition to zest for life

Behaviorist Theories

These concentrate on what leaders actually do rather than on their qualities. Different patterns of behavior are observed and categorized as 'styles of leadership'. This area has probably attracted most attention from practicing managers

Situational Leadership

This approach sees leadership as specific to the situation in which it is being exercised. For example, whilst some situations may require an autocratic style, others may need a more participative approach. It also proposes that there may be differences in required leadership styles at different levels in the same organization

Contingency Theory

This is a refinement of the situational viewpoint and focuses on identifying the situational variables which best predict the most appropriate or effective leadership style to fit the particular circumstances

Transactional Theory

This approach emphasizes the importance of the relationship between leader and followers, focusing on the mutual benefits derived from a form of 'contract' through which the leader delivers such things as rewards or recognition in return for the commitment or loyalty of the followers

Transformational Theory

The central concept here is change and the role of leadership in envisioning and implementing the transformation of organizational performance

1. “ Great Man” Theories:

Assumptions

Leaders are born and not made. Great leaders will arise when there is a great need.

Description

Early research on leadership was based on the study of people who were already great leaders. These people were often from the aristocracy, as few from lower classes had the opportunity to lead. This contributed to the notion that leadership had something to do with breeding.

The idea of the Great Man also strayed into the mythic domain, with notions that in times of need, a Great Man would arise, almost by magic. This was easy to verify, by pointing to people such as Eisenhower and Churchill, let alone those further back along the timeline, even to Jesus, Moses, Mohammed and the Buddha.

Discussion

Gender issues were not on the table when the 'Great Man' theory was proposed. Most leaders were male and the thought of a Great Woman was generally in areas other than leadership. Most researchers were also male, and concerns about androcentric bias were a long way from being realized.

2. Trait Theories: The trait theory is based on the Greatman theory, but it is more systematic in its analysis. This theory assumes that the leaders personal traits are the key to leadership.

Assumptions

People are born with inherited traits. Some traits are particularly suited to leadership.

People who make good leaders have the right (or sufficient) combination of traits.

Description

Early research on leadership was based on the psychological focus of the day, which was of people having inherited characteristics or traits. Attention was thus put on discovering these traits, often by studying successful leaders, but with the underlying assumption that if other people could also be found with these traits, then they, too, could also become great leaders.

Stogdill (1974) identified the following traits and skills as critical to leaders.

Traits Skills

Adaptable to situations Alert to social environment Ambitious and

achievement-orientated Assertive Cooperative Decisive Dependable Dominant (desire to

influence others) Energetic (high activity

level) Persistent Self-confident Tolerant of stress

Willing to assume responsibility

Clever (intelligent) Conceptually skilled Creative Diplomatic and tactful Fluent in speaking Knowledgeable about

group task Organized (administrative

ability) Persuasive Socially skilled

 

 

Keith Davis has pulled together the following four traits that are shared by most successful leaders

1. Intelligent: Leaders tend to have somewhat higher intelligent than the followers.2. Social maturity and breadth: leaders tend to be emotionally matured and have

broad interest range.3. Inner motivation and achievement drive: Leader wants to achieve things, when

they achieve one thing, they seek out another.4. Human relations attitudes: Leaders develop a healthy respect for people and,

realize that to accomplish tasks, they be considerate of others.

Discussion

There have been many different studies of leadership traits and they agree only in the general saintly qualities needed to be a leader. For a long period, inherited traits were sidelined as learned and situational factors were considered to be far more realistic as reasons for people acquiring leadership positions.

Paradoxically, the research into twins who were separated at birth along with new sciences such as Behavioral Genetics have shown that far more is inherited than was previously supposed. Perhaps one day they will find a 'leadership gene'.

Criticism1. Over hundred personality attributes of successful leaders have been indentified,

no consistent pattern is found.2. There is no universal lists of traits for successful leaders3. Leaders cannot be markedly different from their followers.4. It is difficult to measure traits5. It is difficult to define traits6. How much of a traits a person should have, remains a puzzling question.7. Effective leadership is not a function of traits alone.8. Leadership skill vary according o he type of work a person performs in the

organization.

3. Contingency Theories: Contingency theories of leadership focus on particular variables related to the

environment that might determine which particular style of leadership is best suited for the situation. According to this theory, no leadership style is best in all situations. Success depends upon a number of variables, including the leadership style, qualities of the followers, and aspects of the situation.

Assumptions

The leader's ability to lead is contingent upon various situational factors, including the leader's preferred style, the capabilities and behaviors of followers and also various other situational factors.

Description

Contingency theories are a class of behavioral theory that contends that there is no one best way of leading and that a leadership style that is effective in some situations may not be successful in others. An effect of this is that leaders who are very effective at one place and time may become unsuccessful either when transplanted to another situation or when the factors around them change. This helps to explain how some leaders who seem for a while to have the 'Midas touch' suddenly appear to go off the boil and make very unsuccessful decisions.

Discussion

Contingency theory is similar to situational theory in that there is an assumption of no simple one right way. The main difference is that situational theory tends to focus more on the behaviors that the leader should adopt, given situational factors (often about follower behavior), whereas contingency theory takes a broader view that includes contingent factors about leader capability and other variables within the situation

4. Behavioral Theories:

Behavioral theories of leadership are based upon the belief that great leaders are made, not born. Rooted in behaviorism, this leadership theory focuses on the actions of leaders, not on mental qualities or internal states. According to this theory, people can learn to become leaders through teaching and observation.

University of Michigan Research Studies carried at the university revealed two similar aspects of leadership style

that correlate with effectiveness:Employee Orientation – (the human-relations aspect, in which employees are viewed as human beings with individual, personal needs)Production Orientation – (Stress on production and the technical aspects of the job, with employees viewed as the means of getting the work done.

 Employee centered leader Production centered leaderTreats subordinates ass human being.Shows concern for their well being.Encourages and involves them in goal setting.

Emphasis’s technical aspects of job.Focus on work standards. Close supervision.Employee seen as a tool in the production process

They prescribed employee orientation style of leadership to increase productivity. They contended that supervisory controls and production centred leadership style will be frustrating to the employees affecting their morale and leading to unsatisfactory performance on the job.

Ohio State University ResearchThe Ohio State University studies indentified two leadership behaviors  

Consideration – The degree to which a leader builds the mutual trust with subordinates and respect their ideas, and shows concern to their feelings.(friendship, mutual trust, respect and warmth) Initiating Structure – The degree to which a leader defines his own role and the role of the subordinates, in terms of achieving unit goals (organizes and defines relationships or roles, establishes well-defined patterns of organization, channels of communication, and ways of getting jobs done.)

The belief is that high IS and C mix leads to better performance is also questioned. According to Korman Cand IS are not such significant leader behaviors as previously assumed. There is no significant relationship between leader behavior and such measures like productivity.

The leader behavior model suggested by the Ohio Scholars is an oversimplification of reality. The impact of environment variables on specific leader behaviours is completely ignored.

The Managerial Grid

The concept is developed by R. R Blake and Jaane S. Mouton. The Managerial Grid is more than adjust a theory in human behavior. The exciting aspect of the managerial gird is its effectiveness in improving people’s attitude and behavior thought-out an entire origination to be benefited by the organization.

Behavioral scientists have, for a painfully long time, separated, isolated and frequently misconstructed the two concerns

1. Concern for task. Here leaders emphasize the achievement of concrete objectives. They look for high levels of productivity, and ways to organize people and activities in order to meet those objectives.

2. Concern for people. In this style, leaders look upon their followers as people - their needs, interests, problems, development and so on. They are not simply units of production or means to an end.

1. "Concern for people" is plotted using the vertical axis 2. "Concern for task" is along the horizontal axis.

They both have a range of 0 to 9. The notion that just two dimensions can describe a managerial behavior has the attraction of simplicity. These two dimensions can be drawn as a graph or grid:

Most people fall somewhere near the middle of the two axes. But, by going to the extremes, that is, people who score on the far end of the scales, we come up with four types of leaders:

Authoritarian (9 on task, 1 on people) Team Leader (9 on task, 9 on people) Country Club (1 on task, 9 on people) Impoverished (1 on task, 1 on people). Middle Road (5 on task, 5 on people)

Authoritarian Leader (high task, low relationship) There is little or no allowance for cooperation or collaboration. Heavily task oriented people display these characteristics: they are very strong on schedules; they expect people to do what they are told without question or debate; when something goes wrong they tend to focus on who is to blame rather than concentrate on exactly what is wrong and how to prevent it.

Team Leader (high task, high relationship) This type of person leads by positive example and endeavors to foster a team environment in which all team members can reach their highest potential, both as team members and as people. They encourage the team to reach team goals as effectively as possible, while also working tirelessly to strengthen the bonds among the various members. They normally form and lead some of the most productive teams.

Country Club Leader (low task, high relationship) This person uses predominantly reward power to maintain discipline and to encourage the team to accomplish its goals. Conversely, they are almost incapable of employing the more punitive coercive and legitimate powers. This inability results from fear that using such powers could jeopardize relationships with the other team members.

Impoverished Leader (low task, low relationship) A leader who uses a "delegate and disappear" management style. Since they are not committed to either task accomplishment or maintenance; they essentially allow their team to do whatever it wishes and prefer to detach themselves from the team process by allowing the team to suffer from a series of power struggles.

Middle Road

Style 5,5 is middle of the road management (adequate organization performance is possible though balancing the necessity to get out work with maintaining morale of people at a satisfactory level) � an intermediate amount of concern for both production and employee satisfaction.

The most desirable place for a leader to be along the two axes at most times would be a 9 on task and a 9 on people -- the Team Leader. However, do not entirely dismiss the other three. Certain situations might call for one of the other three to be used at times. For example, by playing the Impoverished Leader, you allow your team to gain self-reliance. Be an Authoritarian Leader to instill a sense of discipline in an unmotivated worker. By carefully studying the situation and the forces affecting it, you will know at what points along the axes you need to be in order to achieve the desired result.

4. Situational Theories:

Situational theories propose that leaders choose the best course of action based upon situational variable. Different styles of leadership may be more appropriate for certain types of decision-making.

The Fiedler contingency model 

Assumptions

Leaders prioritize between task-focus and people-focus.

Relationships, power and task structure are the three key factors that drive effective styles

The theory defined two types of leader: those who tend to accomplish the task by developing good-relationships with the group (relationship-oriented), and those who have as their prime concern carrying out the task itself (task-oriented). According to Fiedler, there is no ideal leader. Both task-oriented and relationship-oriented leaders can be effective if their leadership orientation fits the situation. When there is a good leader-member relation, a highly structured task, and high leader position power, the situation is considered a "favorable situation". Fiedler found that task-oriented leaders are more effective in extremely favorable or unfavorable situations, whereas relationship-oriented leaders perform best in situations with intermediate favorability.

The central idea was that effective leadership was dependent on a mix of factors.

The relationship between the leaders and followers. If leaders are liked and respected they are more likely to have the support of others.

The structure of the task. If the task is clearly spelled out as to goals, methods and standards of performance then it are more likely that leaders will be able to exert influence.

Position power. If an organization or group confers powers on the leader for the purpose of getting the job done, then this may well increase the influence of the leader.

Favorableness of the situation. Thus depending upon the High and Low categories of these situational variables, Fiedler developed eight possible combinations ranging from highly favorable to unfavorable situations.

A favourable situation is where the leader member relations are good, the task is highly structured and the leader has enormous power to exert influence on the subordinates. The first cell in the table is identified with a high degree of favourableness. At the other extreme, an unfavourable situation is, where the leader’s power is weak , the relationship withh meberss are poor and the task is unstructured and unpedictable. The last cell represents the situation. Between two extrems lies the situationof intermediate difficulty.

Fiedler states that permissive, relaionship orientd style is the best when thee situaion is moderately favourable or moderately unfavourable. When situation is highly favouable or highly unfavourable a task oriented style producs the desired peformance.

Criticism

1. LPC is a confusing concept2. Fiedler’s model is criticized on the ground that it is unidimenstional. He

suggested that leader can be either task oriented or relation oriented.

3. Contingency model lacks a theoretical orientation.

4. There is fundamental deficiency in the model

5. Fiedler considers only some situational factors

6. The models are highly complex and the procedures and statistical analysis that support the validity of the model are both brainstorming and frightening.

Success of this theory is because

1. It conveniently accommodates number of personal and situational factors in the study of leadership.

2. It operationalises he model into a set of actions that can be used improve one’s leadership effectiveness.

The Path Goal Theory

The path-goal theory of leadership was developed by Robert House (1971) and was based on the expectancy theory of Victor Vroom. It suggests that the primary activity of a leader should be to make desirable and achievable rewards available to organization members as a result of attaining organization goals and to clarify the kinds of behavior that must be performed to earn those rewards. The theory identifies four leader behaviors, achievement-oriented, directive, participative, and supportive, that is contingent to the environment factors and follower characteristics.

Evans and House suggest that the performance, satisfaction and motivation of a group can be affected by the leader in a number of ways:

Offering rewards for the achievement of performance goals. Clarifying paths towards these goals. Removing performance obstacles.

A person may do these by adopting a certain leadership style, according to the situation: Directive leadership - Specific advice is given to the group and ground rules are

established. Supportive leadership - Good relations exist with the group and sensitivity to

subordinates' needs is shown. Participative leadership - Decision making is based on group consultation and

information is shared with the group. Achievement-oriented leadership - Challenging goals are set and high

performance is encouraged while showing confidence in the groups' ability.

Supportive behavior increases group satisfaction, particularly in stressful situations, while directive behavior is suited to ambiguous situations. It is also suggested that leaders who have influence upon their superiors can increase group satisfaction and performance. 

Description

The Path-Goal Theory of Leadership was developed to describe the way that leaders encourage and support their followers in achieving the goals they have been set by making the path that they should take clear and easy.

In particular, leaders:

Clarify the path so subordinates know which way to go. Remove roadblocks that are stopping them going there. Increasing the rewards along the route.

Leaders can take a strong or limited approach in these. In clarifying the path, they may be directive or give vague hints. In removing roadblocks, they may scour the path or help the follower move the bigger blocks. In increasing rewards, they may give occasional encouragement or pave the way with gold.

This variation in approach will depend on the situation, including the follower's capability and motivation, as well as the difficulty of the job and other contextual factors.

Life cycle theory of Leadership/ Hersey and Blanchard's Situational Leadership 

The life cycle theory of Paul Hersey and Kenneth Blanchard a systemtic conceptualization of situational factors as related to leadership behavior. A model suggesting that appropriate leader behavior depends on the maturity of the follower.

Task Behaviour: It is seen in terms of the amount of guidance and direction a leader gives.

Relationship behavior: It determined by socio-emotional support provided by the leader.

Maturity of followers: It is reflected by the readiness level exhibited by subordinates in performing a given task

Assumptions

Leaders should adapt their style to follower development style (or 'maturity'); based on how ready and willing the follower is to perform required tasks (that is, their competence and motivation).

There are four leadership styles (S1 to S4) that match the development levels (D1 to D4) of the followers.

The four styles suggest that leaders should put greater or less focus on the task in question and/or the relationship between the leader and the follower, depending on the development level of the follower.

Style

   

S1: Telling / Directing

Follower: R1: Low competence, low commitment / Unable and unwilling or insecure

Leader: High task focus, low relationship focus

When the follower cannot do the job and is unwilling or afraid to try, then the leader takes a highly directive role, telling them what to do but without a great deal of concern for the relationship. The leader may also provide a working structure, both for the job and in terms of how the person is controlled.

The leader may first find out why the person is not motivated and if there are any limitations in ability. These two factors may be linked, for example where a person believes they are less capable than they should be may be in some form of denial or other coping. They follower may also lack self-confidence as a result.

If the leader focused more on the relationship, the follower may become confused about what must be done and what is optional. The leader thus maintains a clear 'does this' position to ensure all required actions are clear.

S2: Selling / Coaching

Follower: R2: Some competence, variable commitment / Unable but willing or motivated

Leader: High task focus, high relationship focus

When the follower can do the job, at least to some extent, and perhaps is over-confident about their ability in this, then 'telling' them what to do may demotivate them or lead to resistance. The leader thus needs to 'sell' another way of working, explaining and clarifying decisions.

The leader thus spends time listening and advising and, where appropriate, helping the follower to gain necessary skills through coaching methods.

S3: Participating / Supporting

Follower: R3: High competence, variable commitment / Able but unwilling or insecure

Leader: Low task focus, high relationship focus

When the follower can do the job, but is refusing to do it or otherwise showing insufficient commitment, the leader need not worry about showing them what to do, and instead is concerned with finding out why the person is refusing and thence persuading them to cooperate.

There is less excuse here for followers to be reticent about their ability, and the key is very much around motivation. If the causes are found then they can be addressed by the leader. The leader thus spends time listening, praising and otherwise making the follower feel good when they show the necessary commitment.

S4: Delegating / Observing

Follower: R4: High competence, high commitment / Able and willing or motivated

Leader: Low task focus, low relationship focus

When the follower can do the job and is motivated to do it, then the leader can basically leave them to it, largely trusting them to get on with the job although they also may need to keep a relatively distant eye on things to ensure everything is going to plan.

Followers at this level have less need for support or frequent praise, although as with anyone, occasional recognition is always welcome.

Discussion

Hersey and Blanchard have written a short and very readable book on the approach. It is simple and easy to understand, which makes it particularly attractive for practicing managers who do not want to get into heavier material. It also is accepted in wider spheres and often appears in college courses.It is limited, however, and is based on assumptions that can be challenged, for example the assumption that at the 'telling' level, the relationship is of lower importance.

Vroom and Yetton's Normative Model

Leadership is all about making decisions, conceiving vision, setting goals, laying paths to reach the goal, and making all efforts with followers in achieving it. Effective Leadership requires taking situation based decisions. An individual will be accepted as Leader when his ideas, suggestions and advice are more appropriate to the situation. Decision taken under particular situation may not hold good for all situations & it may give different results in different situations.

Vroom-Yetton-Jago Normative Decision Model help us to answer above questions. This model identifies five different styles (ranging from autocratic to consultative to group-based decisions) on the situation & level of involvement. They are:

1. Autocratic Type 1 (AI) – Leader makes own decision using information that is readily available to you at the time. This type is completely autocratic.

2. Autocratic Type 2 (AII) – Leader collects required information from followers, then makes decision alone. Problem or decision may or may not be informed to followers. Here, follower’s involvement is just providing information.

3. Consultative Type 1 (CI) – Leader shares problem to relevant followers individually and seeks their ideas & suggestions and makes decision alone. Here followers’ do not meet each other & leader’s decision may or may not have followers influence. So, here follower’s involvement is at the level of providing alternatives individually.

4. Consultative Type 2 (CII) – Leader shares problem to relevant followers as a group and seeks their ideas & suggestions and makes decision alone. Here followers’ meet each other and through discussions they understand other alternatives. But leader’s decision may or may not have followers influence. So, here follower’s involvement is at the level of helping as a group in decision-making.

5. Group-based Type 2(GII) – Leader discuss problem & situation with followers as a group and seeks their ideas & suggestions through brainstorming. Leader accepts any decision & do not try to force his idea. Decision accepted by the group is the final one.

Vroom & Yetton formulated following seven questions on decision quality, commitment, problem information and decision acceptance, with which leaders can determine level of follower’s involvement in decision. Answer to the following questions must be either ‘Yes’ or ‘No’ with the current scenario.

1. Is there a quality requirement? Is the nature of the solution critical? Are there technical or rational grounds for selecting among possible solutions?

2. Do I have sufficient information to make a high quality decision?

3. Is the problem structured? Are the alternative courses of action and methods for their evaluation known?

4. Is acceptance of the decision by subordinates critical to its implementation?

5. If I were to make the decision by myself, is it reasonably certain that it would be accepted by my subordinates? Do subordinates share the organizational goals to be obtained in solving this problem?

6. Is conflict among subordinates likely in obtaining the preferred solution?

Based on the answers one can find out the styles from the graph.

Choice of leadership styles

1. Decision quality and rationality

2. Decision acceptance

3. Amount of time required to make the decisions

5. Participative Theories:

Participative leadership theories suggest that the ideal leadership style is one that takes the input of others into account. These leaders encourage participation and contributions from group members and help group members feel more relevant and committed to the decision-making process. In participative theories, however, the leader retains the right to allow the input of others. 

Assumptions

Involvement in decision-making improves the understanding of the issues involved by those who must carry out the decisions.

People are more committed to actions where they have involved in the relevant decision-making.

People are less competitive and more collaborative when they are working on joint goals.

When people make decisions together, the social commitment to one another is greater and thus increases their commitment to the decision.

Several people deciding together make better decisions than one person alone.

Style

A Participative Leader, rather than taking autocratic decisions, seeks to involve other people in the process, possibly including subordinates, peers, superiors and other stakeholders. Often, however, as it is within the managers' whim to give or deny control to his or her subordinates, most participative activity is within the immediate team. The question of how much influence others are given thus may vary on the manager's preferences and beliefs, and a whole spectrum of participation is possible, as in the table below.

< Not participative Highly participative >

Autocratic Leader proposes Team Joint decision Full

decision by leader

decision, listens to feedback, then decides

proposes decision, leader has final decision

with team as equals

delegation of decision to team

 

There are many varieties on this spectrum, including stages where the leader sells the idea to the team. Another variant is for the leader to describe the 'what' of objectives or goals and let the team or individuals decide the 'how' of the process by which the 'how' will be achieved ('Management by Objectives').

The level of participation may also depend on the type of decision being made. Decisions on how to implement goals may be highly participative, whilst decisions during subordinate performance evaluations are more likely to be taken by the manager.

Discussion

There are many potential benefits of participative leadership, as indicated in the assumptions, above. This approach is also known as consultation, empowerment, joint decision-making, democratic leadership, Management By Objective and power-sharing. Participative Leadership can be a sham when managers ask for opinions and then ignore them. This is likely to lead to cynicism and feelings of betrayal.

6. Management Theories:

Management theories (also known as “Transactional theories”) focus on the role of supervision, organization, and group performance. These theories base leadership on a system of reward and punishment. Managerial theories are often used in business; when employees are successful, they are rewarded; when they fail, they are reprimanded or punished.

7. Relationship Theories:

Relationship theories (also known as “Transformational theories”) focus upon the connections formed between leaders and followers. These leaders motivate and inspire people by helping group members see the importance and higher good of the task. Transformational leaders are focused on the performance of group members, but also want each person to fulfill his or her potential. These leaders often have high ethical and moral standards.

8.Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) Theory 

Description

Leader-Member Exchange Theory, also called LMX or Vertical Dyad Linkage Theory, describes how leaders in groups maintain their position through a series of tacit exchange agreements with their members.

In-group and out-group

In particular, leaders often have a special relationship with an inner circle of trusted lieutenants, assistants and advisors, to whom they give high levels of responsibility, decision influence, and access to resources. This in-group pay for their position. They work harder, are more committed to task objectives, and share more administrative duties. They are also expected to be fully committed and loyal to their leader. The out-group, on the other hand, are given low levels of choice or influence.

This also puts constraints upon the leader. They have to nurture the relationship with their inner circle whilst balancing giving them power with ensuring they do not have enough to strike out on their own.

The LMX process

These relationships, if they are going to happen, start very soon after a person joins the group and follow three stages.

1. Role taking

The member joins the team and the leader assesses their abilities and talents. Based on this, the leader may offer them opportunities to demonstrate their capabilities. Another key factor in this stage is the discovery by both parties of how the other likes to be respected.

2. Role making

In the second phase, the leader and member take part in an unstructured and informal negotiation whereby a role is created for the member and the often-tacit promise of benefit and power in return for dedication and loyalty takes place.

Trust-building is very important in this stage, and any felt betrayal, especially by the leader, can result in the member being relegated to the out-group.

This negotiation includes relationship factors as well as pure work-related ones, and a member who is similar to the leader in various ways is more likely to succeed. This perhaps explains why mixed gender relationships regularly are less successful than same-gender ones (it also affects the seeking of respect in the first stage). The same effect also applies to cultural and racial differences.

3. Routinization

In this phase, a pattern of ongoing social exchange between the leader and the member becomes established.

Success factors

Successful members are thus similar in many ways to the leader (which perhaps explains why many senior teams are all white, male, middle-class and middle-aged). They work hard at building and sustaining trust and respect.

To help this, they are empathetic, patient, reasonable, sensitive, and are good at seeing the viewpoint of other people (especially the leader). Aggression, sarcasm and an egocentric view are keys to the out-group wash-room.

The overall quality of the LMX relationship varies with several factors. Curiously, it is better when the challenge of the job is extremely high or extremely low. The size of the group, financial resource availability and the overall workload are also important.

Onwards and upwards

The principle works upwards as well. The leader also gains power by being a member of their manager's inner circle, which then can then share on downwards. People at the bottom of an organization with unusual power may get it from an unbroken chain of circles up to the hierarchy.

Conclusion

The effective integration of leadership theory and practice needs to be grounded in an ongoing dialogue between researchers and practitioners that respects the values, perspectives, and agendas of each constituency. Such dialogue is often difficult to achieve because researchers and practitioners do not engage each other all that often. And when they do engage, members of each group can rarely put aside their own frames of reference to view leadership from the frame of the other group. Thus, dialogue needed for an effective symbiosis founders at its inception. If such interaction and dialogue can begin to be effective, then we suspect that the leadership community (as a whole) will begin to experience more problems that are informed by concepts, and more theories that molded by contextual realities. The gap between leadership theory and practice should, in turn, begin to narrow to a close.

LEADERSHIP STYLE

Meaning: Leadership style is the manner and approach of providing direction,

implementing plans, and motivating people. Kurt Lewin (1939) led a group of researchers

to identify different styles of leadership.

Leadership has been described as the “process of social influence in which one person

can enlist the aid and support of others in the accomplishment of a common task” . A

definition more inclusive of followers comes from Alan Keith of Genentech who said

"Leadership is ultimately about creating a way for people to contribute to making

something extraordinary happen."

Leadership is one of the most relevant aspects of the organizational context. However,

defining leadership has been challenging. The following sections discuss several

important aspects of leadership including a description of what leadership is and a

description of several popular theories and styles of leadership.

Forces

A good leader uses all three styles, depending on what forces are involved between the

followers, the leader, and the situation. Some examples include:

Using an authoritarian style on a new employee who is just learning the job. The

leader is competent and a good coach. The employee is motivated to learn a new

skill. The situation is a new environment for the employee.

Using a participative style with a team of workers who know their job. The leader

knows the problem, but does not have all the information. The employees know

their jobs and want to become part of the team.

Using a delegative style with a worker who knows more about the job than you.

You cannot do everything! The employee needs to take ownership of her job.

Also, the situation might call for you to be at other places, doing other things.

Using all three: Telling your employees that a procedure is not working correctly

and a new one must be established (authoritarian). Asking for their ideas and

input on creating a new procedure (participative). Delegating tasks in order to

implement the new procedure (delegative).

Forces that influence the style to be used included:

How much time is available.

Are relationships based on respect and trust or on disrespect?

Who has the information - you, your employees, or both?

How well your employees are trained and how well you know the task.

Internal conflicts.

Stress levels.

Type of task. Is it structured, unstructured, complicated, or simple?

Laws or established procedures such as OSHA or training plans.

This early study has been very influential and established three major leadership

styles. The three major styles of leadership are (U.S. Army Handbook, 1973):

Authoritarian or autocratic

Participative or democratic

Delegative or Free Reign

Although good leaders use all three styles, with one of them normally dominant, bad

leaders tend to stick with one style.

Authoritarian (autocratic)

This style is used when leaders tell their employees what they want done and how they

want it accompished, without getting the advice of their followers. Some of the

appropriate conditions to use it is when you have all the information to solve the problem,

you are short on time, and your employees are well motivated.

Some people tend to think of this style as a vehicle for yelling, using demeaning

language, and leading by threats and abusing their power. This is not the authoritarian

style, rather it is an abusive, unprofessional style called bossing people around. It has no

place in a leader's repertoire.

The authoritarian style should normally only be used on rare occasions. If you have the

time and want to gain more commitment and motivation from your employees, then you

should use the participative style.

Advantages

In the military and other urgent circumstances, people may prefer the ability to be told

what do next. According to Money Zine, "In fact, in times of stress or emergency some

subordinates may actually prefer an autocratic style - they prefer to be told exactly what

to do. So to summarize - the autocratic leadership style is very effective when times are

stressful . . ." On a less serious note, Martha Stewart is considered an autocratic leader

who has been very successful in her methods. For instance, she has created a competitive

advantage by controlling her employees effectively. The fact remains, lengthy debate has

no place in many work environments, so this form of leadership limits arguments. It

allows employees to have one task, and that is to work. There is very little thinking

involved, and it can become mundane. Therefore, it could mean that the employees

master their tasks and become proficient enough to help grow the company.

Disadvantages

According to Money Zine, "The communication style of an autocratic leader is usually

described as one way. They tell you exactly what they want done." This can be frustrating

because your boss will only tell you when you made a mistake, and very little praise may

be provided. In addition, it can generate a company full of zombies with no fresh ideas.

This autocratic style can create an environment of fear and resentment. Furthermore,

there could high turnover and absenteeism, which can ultimately hinder progress.

Case 1: Anthem Steel is a large producer, based in Wheeling West Virginia. Anthem

Steel is highly autocratic, having had major tensions over the years, as employees

unionized, becoming members of the United Steel Workers Union. Due to these

conditions, as well as the issues of safety, the management has instituted a highly

structured environment, where every job and duty has written policies that must be

strictly adhere to. This autocratic style is the norm for the steel industry and is accepted

as such by the steel workers employed by Anthem. However, the union contract

negotiations have not gone well and the workers have decided to go on strike. The

management is faced with the possibility of having to shut down all operations, which

could be catastrophic for the company. The management has decided to scale back

production, but keep the plant running while negotiations continue. 90% of the

management, including foremen and office personnel alike, will be required to work on

the flour of the plant, as they are non-union employees and are not involved in the strike.

Participative (democratic)

This style involves the leader including one or more employees in the decision making

process (determining what to do and how to do it). However, the leader maintains the

final decision making authority. Using this style is not a sign of weakness, rather it is a

sign of strength that your employees will respect.

This is normally used when you have part of the information, and your employees have

other parts. Note that a leader is not expected to know everything -- this is why you

employ knowledgeable and skillful employees. Using this style is of mutual benefit -- it

allows them to become part of the team and allows you to make better decisions.

Advantages

The advantages of democratic leadership include that everybody gets a say, it transfers

power away from the leader to those they are working with, and it gives a feeling of

power and control which in turn motivates and develops team members.

Disadvantages

The disadvantages include the intervention necessary - which can be the wrong thing to

do, and the slightly overused techniques that can turn some team members off.

Case 2: Accion Oil Production manages 75 oil platforms in the Gulf of Mexico, serving

several oil companies. As with most oil platform workers, employees are tough and

independent and work extremely long hours in tough conditions. The typical platform

that Accion manages has 20 employees working two 12 hour shifts for 21 straight days,

taking 21 days shore leave, while another crew mans the platform. The management of

the platform is performed on shore through computer connections, making leadership on

the platform very participatory as everyone is the part of the work crew to some degree.

This leadership style works well as platform workers pride themselves on the hard work

and performance and require very little management on daily activities.

Delegative (free reign)

In this style, the leader allows the employees to make the decisions. However, the leader

is still responsible for the decisions that are made. This is used when employees are able

to analyze the situation and determine what needs to be done and how to do it. You

cannot do everything! You must set priorities and delegate certain tasks.

This is not a style to use so that you can blame others when things go wrong, rather this is

a style to be used when you fully trust and confidence in the people below you. Do not be

afraid to use it, however, use it wisely!

NOTE: This is also known as lais…sez faire (or lais…ser faire), which is the

noninterference in the affairs of others. [French: laissez, second person pl. imperative of

laisser, to let, allow + faire, to do.]

Advantages

The advantages of the laissez-faire model are that it can allow a chance to bond in a less

formal way, and that leaving team members to make their own decisions can be very

successful if they work well together in terms of the ownership and responsibility it gives

to team members.

Disadvantages

The disadvantages are that often this model leaves team members doing the wrong thing

without realizing it, that some individuals can simply dominate, and that if a group

disappoints and is reprimanded the effect can be very negative.

Case 3: Consolidated Consulting Services (CCS) is a small national consulting firm,

focusing primarily on custom IT solutions. CCS employees 250 consultants, who work

from their home based offices, reporting to the corporate head quarters in Cincinnati,

Ohio. Consultants live in 40 different states and rarely work in team of more than two or

three on site at any one time. CCS finds a delegative style of leadership necessary for

nearly all levels of the company. Geographical separation makes structured, autocratic

leadership impossible and participative leadership equally unlikely, as employees and

supervisors rarely, if ever, work together in close proximity. CCS has been presented an

opportunity to consult on a short term project with the US Government that will require

50 consultants on site for 6 weeks. Any extension of deadlines carries substantial

financial penalties. This major, yet temporary change in the ‘norm’ for the consultants

will not allow the employees autonomy, as time constraints are considerable and working

conditions requires several consultants working together. Upper management is faced

with temporarily changing the way, the company normally operates. Further more even

though a new style of leadership is needed temporarily, managers do not want to change

permanently and want consultants to feel respected and continue to be autonomous in the

future.

Positive and Negative Approaches

There is a difference in ways leaders approach their employee. Positive leaders use

rewards, such as education, independence, etc. to motivate employees. While negative

employers emphasize penalties. While the negative approach has a place in a leader's

repertoire of tools, it must be used carefully due to its high cost on the human spirit.

Negative leaders act domineering and superior with people. They believe the only way to

get things done is through penalties, such as loss of job, days off without pay, reprimand

employees in front of others, etc. They believe their authority is increased by frightening

everyone into higher lever of productivity. Yet what always happens when this approach

is used wrongly is that morale falls; which of course leads to lower productivity.

Use of Consideration and Structure

Two other approaches that leaders use are:

Consideration (employee orientation) - Leaders are concerned about the human needs of

their employees. They build teamwork, help employees with their problems, and provide

psychological support.

Structure (task orientation) - Leaders believe that they get results by consistently

keeping people busy and urging them to produce.

There is evidence that leaders who are considerate in their leadership style are higher

performers and are more satisfied with their job (Schriesheim, 1982).

Also notice that consideration and structure are independent of each other, thus they

should not be viewed on opposite ends of a continuum. For example, a leader who

becomes more considerate does not necessarily mean that she has become less structured.

See Blake and Mouton's Managerial Grid as it is also based on this concept.

Paternalism

Paternalism has at times been equated with leadership styles. Yet most definitions of

leadership normally state or imply that one of the actions within leadership is that of

influencing. For example, the Army uses the following definition:

Keeping the above in mind, it seems that some picture paternalistic behavior as almost a

barbaric way of getting things accomplished. Yet, leadership is all about getting things

done for the organization. And in some situations, a paternalistic style of decision-making

might be required; indeed, in some cultures and individuals, it may also be expected by

not only those in charge, but also the followers. That is what makes leadership styles

quite interesting -- they basically run along the same continuum as Hofstede's PDI,

ranging from paternalistic to consultive styles of decision making. This allows a wide

range of individual behaviors to be dealt with, ranging from beginners to peak

performers. In addition, it accounts for the fact that not everyone is the same.

However, when paternalistic or autocratic styles are relied upon too much and the

employees are ready and/or willing to react to a more consultive type of leadership style,

then it normally becomes quite damaging to the performance of the organization.

CHARISMATIC LEADERSHIP

INTRODUCTION

John E Kennedy, Martin Luther King, J r., Bill Clinton, Mary Kay Ash (founder of Mary Kay Cosmetics), Steve

Jobs (co-founder of Apple Computer ) and former New York mayor Rudy Giuliani are individuals frequently cited

as being charismatic leaders.

What Is Charismatic Leadership? According to charismatic leadership theory, followers make attributions of heroic

or extraordinary leadership abilities when they observe certain behaviors. Although there have been a number of

studies that have attempted to identify personal characteristics of the charismatic leader, the best documented has

isolated five such characteristics that differentiate charismatic leaders from non charismatic ones—they have a vision,

are willing to take risks to achieve that vision, are sensitive to both environmental constraints and follower needs, and

exhibit behaviors that are out of the ordinary.

How do charismatic leaders actually influence followers? The evidence suggests a four-step process. It begins by the

leader articulating an appealing vision. This vision provides a sense of continuity for followers by- linking the present

with a better future for the organization. The leader then communicates high performance expectations and expresses

confidence that followers can attain them. This enhances follower self-esteem and self-confidence. Next, the leader

conveys, through words and actions, a new set of values and, by his or her behavior, sets an example for followers to

Meaning

Charisma is a form of interpersonal attraction that inspires support and acceptance

from others.

Charismatic leadership is a type of influence based on the leader’s personal

charisma.

imitate. Finally; the charismatic leader makes self-sacrifices and engages in unconventional behavior to demonstrate

courage and convictions about the vision.

Key Characteristics of Charismatic Leaders

1. Vision and articulation: Has a vision—expressed as an idealized goal—that proposes a future better than

the status quo; and is able to clarify the importance of the vision in terms that are understandable to others.

2. Personal risk: Willing to take on high personal risk, incur high costs and engage in self-sacrifice to achieve

the vision.

3. Environmental sensitivity: Able to make realistic assessments of the environmental constraints and resources

needed.

4. Sensitivity to follower needs: Perceptive of others' abilities and responsive to the needs and feelings.

5. Unconventional behavior: Engages in behaviors that are perceived as novel and counter to norms.

Since the vision is such a critical component of charismatic leadership, we should clarify exactly what

we mean by the term, identify specific effective vision, and offer some examples.

A review of various definitions finds that a vision differs from other forms of direction setting in several ways: "A

vision has clear and compelling imagery that offers an innovative way to improve, which recognizes and draws on

traditions, and connects to actions that people can take to realize change. Vision taps people's emotions and energy.

Properly articulated, a vision creates the enthusiasm that people have for sporting events and other leisure-time activi-

ties, bringing this energy and commitment to the workplace."

What are some examples of visions? Rupert Murdoch had a vision of the future of the communication industry by

combining entertainment and media. Through his News Corporation, Murdoch has successfully integrated a broadcast

network, TV stations, movie studio, publishing, and global satellite distribution. The late Mary Kay Ash's vision of

women as entrepreneurs selling products that improved their self-image gave impetus to her cosmetics company. And

Michael Dell has created a vision of a business that allows Dell Computer to sell and deliver a finished PC directly to a

customer in fewer than eight days.

The Charismatic Leader

The Charismatic Leader

Envisioning Energizing Enabling

Articulating a Compeling vision, Setting high expections Modeling ,consistent behaviours

Demonstrating personal excitement ,expressing personal confidence, seeking,finding, and using success

Expressing personal support, empathizing, expressing confidence in people

TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP

INTRODUCTION

Another stream of research has been focused on differentiating transformational

leaders from transactional leaders, because transformational leader are also

charismatic. Some kinds of leaders guide or motivate their followers in the direction of

established goal by clarifying role and task requirements. There is also another type of

leader who inspires followers to transcend their own self-interests for the good of the

organization, and who is capable of having a profound and extraordinary effect on his

or her followers. These are transformational leaden like Andrea Jung at Avon and

Richard Branson of the Virgin Group. They pay attention to the concerns and

developmental needs of individual followers; they change followers; awareness of

issues by helping them to look at old problems in new ways; and they are able to

excite, arouse, and inspire followers to put out extra effort to achieve group goals.

Transactional leadership and transformational leadership shouldn't be viewed as

opposing approaches to getting things done. Transformational leadership is built on top

of transactional leadership - it produces levels of follower effort and performance that

go beyond what would occur with a transactional approach alone. Moreover,

transformational leadership is more than charisma. "The purely charismatic [leader]

may want followers to adopt the charismatic’s world view and go no further; the

transformational leader will attempt to instill in followers the ability to question not

only established views but eventually those established by the leader."

Features of Transformational Leaders

Meaning

It is the set of abilities that allow the leader to recognize the need for change, to create a vision to guide that

change, and to execute that change effectively.

It occurs when leaders broaden and elevate follower’s interest and stir followers to look beyond their own

interests for the good of others

ASSUMPTIONS

People will follow a person who inspires them. A person with vision and passion can

achieve great things. The way to get things done is by injecting enthusiasm and energy.

STYLE

Working for a Transformational Leader can be a wonderful and uplifting experience

They put passion and energy into everything They care about you and want you to

succeed.

DEVELOPING THE VISION

Transformational Leadership starts with the development of a vision, a view of the future

that will excite and convert potential followers. This vision may be developed by the

leader, by the senior team or may emerge from a broad series of discussions. The

important factor is the leader buys into it, hook, fine and sinker.

SELLING THE VISION

IndependentInspirationalInitiativesActive and achievingChange orientedForward thinkingCharismatic

The next step, which in fact never constantly sell the vision. This takes energy and

commitment, as few people will immediately buy into a radical vision, and some will join

the show much more slowly than others. The Transformational Leader thus takes every

opportunity and will use whatever works to convince others to climb on board the

bandwagon.

In order to create followers, the Transformational Leader has to be very careful in

creating trust, and their personal integrity is a critical part of the package that they are

selling. In effect, they are selling themselves as well as the vision. Finding the way

forwards.

In parallel with the selling activity is seeking the way forward. Some Transformational

Leaders know the way, and simply want others to follow them. Others do not have a

ready strategy, but will happily lead the exploration of possible routes to the promised

land. The route forwards may not be obvious and may not be plotted in details, but with a

clear vision, the direction will always be known. Thus finding the way forward can be an

ongoing process of course correction and the Transformational Leader will accept that

there will be failures and blind canyons along the way. As long as they feel progress is

being made, they will be happy.

LEADING THE CHANGE

The final stage is to remain up-front and central during the action. Transformational

Leaders are always visible and will stand up to be counted rather than hide behind their

troops. They show by their attitudes and actions how everyone else should behave. They

also make continued efforts to motivate and rally their followers, constantly doing the

rounds, listening, soothing and enthusing. It is their unswerving commitment as much as

anything else that keeps people going, particularly through the darker times when some

may question whether the vision can ever be achieved. If the people do not believe that

they can succeed, then their efforts will flag. The Transformational Leader seeks to infect

and re-infect their followers with a high level of commitment to the vision.

One of the methods the Transformational Leader uses to sustain motivation is in the use

of ceremonies, rituals and other cultural symbolism. Small changes get big hurrahs,

pumping up their significance as indicators of real progress. Overall, they balance their

attention between action that creates progress and the mental state of their followers.

Perhaps more than other approaches, they are people-oriented and believe that success

comes first and last through deep and sustained commitment.

DISCUSSION

Whilst the Transformational Leader seeks overtly to transform the organization, there is

also a tacit promise to followers that they also will be transformed in some way, perhaps

to be more like this amazing leader. In some respects, then, the followers are the product

of the transformation. Transformational Leaders are often charismatic, but are not as

narcissistic as pure Charismatic Leaders, who succeed and believe in themselves rather

than a believe in others. One of the traps of Transformational Leadership is that passion

and confidence can easily be mistaken for truth and reality. Whilst it is true that great

things have been achieved through enthusiastic leadership, it is also true that many

passionate people have led the charge right over the cliff and into a bottomless chasm.

Just because someone believes they are right, it does not mean they are right.

Paradoxically, the energy that gets people going can also cause them to give up.

Transformational Leaders often have large amounts of enthusiasm which, if relentlessly

applied, can wear out their followers. Transformational Leaders also tend to see the big

picture, but not the details, where the devil often lurks. If they do not have people to take

care of this level of information, then they are usually doomed to fail Finally,

Transformational Leaders, by definition, seek to transform. When the organization does

not need transforming and people are happy as they are, then such a leader will be

frustrated. Like wartime leaders, however, given the right situation they come into their

own and can be personally responsible or saving entire companies.

TRANSACTIONAL LEADERSHIP

INTRODUCTION

People are motivated by reward and punishment. Social systems work best with a clear chain of command. When

people have agreed to do a job a part of the deal is that they cede all authority to their manager. The prime purpose of a

subordinate is to do what their manager tells them to do.

STYLE

The Transactional leader works through creating clear structures whereby it is clear what is required of their

subordinates, and the rewards that they get for following orders. Punishments are not always mentioned, but they are

also well-understood and formal systems of discipline are usually in place. Here, when the leader allocates the work to

a subordinate, they are considered to be fully responsible for it, whether or not they have the resources or capability to

carry it out. When things go wrong, then the subordinate is considered to be personally at fault, and is punished for

their failure (just as they reward for succeeding).

The transactional leader often uses management by exception, working on the principle that if something is operating

is to be defined (and hence expected) performance then it does not need attention. Exceptions to expectation require

praise and reward for exceeding expectation, whilst some kind of corrective action is applied for performance below

expectation. Whereas Transformational Leadership has more of a ‘selling’ style, Transactional Leadership, once the

contract is in place, takes a 'telling' Style.

Features of Transactional Leaders

DISCUSSION

Transactional leadership is based in contingency, in that reward or punishment is contingent upon performance. Despite

much research that highlights its limitations, Transactional Leadership is still a popular approach with many managers.

Indeed, in the Leadership vs. Management spectrum, it is very much towards the management end of the scale. The

MeaningIt occurs when leaders clarify subordinate’s role and task requirements, initiate structure, provide rewards and display consideration for subordinates.

Task control Short – term Planners Practical Passive Maintain Stability Concrete Tangible

main limitation is .the assumption “rational man” , a person who is largely motivated by money and simple reward, and

hence whose behavior is predictable. The underlying psychology is Behaviorism, including the Classical Conditioning

of Pavlov and Skinner's Operant Conditioning. These theories are largely based on controlled laboratory experiments

(often with animals) and ignore complex emotional factors and social values. In practice, there is sufficient truth in

Behaviorism to sustain Transactional approaches. This is reinforced by the supply -and-demand situation of much

employment, coupled with the effects of deeper needs, as in Maslow's Hierarchy. When the demand for a skill

outstrips the supply, then Transactional Leadership often is insufficient, and other approaches are more effective.

TRANSITIONAL LEADERSHIP

INTRODUCTION

Effective Transitional Leadership Steps

1. Current Leaders’ Role

2. Attract Emerging Leaders

3. Setting your timeline

4. Position Recruitment

1. Current Leaders’ Role

Pave the way for successful transition with your passion, organizational skills and interpersonal skills.

Enthusiasm- show passion for the position and write reflections on your experience as a leader

Job descriptions- with clearly defined expectations, duties, and responsibilities.

Trainings- for future leaders. New coordinators should feel confident about the training they

receive. An experiential training session can be very helpful. Instead of simply telling coordinators

what to do, show them and then let them try it for themselves!

Archival binder- Include essential information and responsibilities for successful implementation of

your project’s goals and activities. It will serve as a check-off list for the coordinator and

organization so that they do not have to “reinvent the wheel” each time an activity is organized.

Examples of timelines, meeting minutes, letters, fliers, etc., are also helpful. For example: History

of your group/organization/project, with a 3-year Strategic Plan Re-visit your current timeline and

include recommendations. Faculty Sponsor Information, Cal Corps Information, Community

Contacts

Funding Sources, Statistics

Calendar of Events, Assessment of your events

What could have gone better and how? Collect information from evaluations

Make a digital copy of the archival binder (Save on Cal Corps shared files and create a CD)

Contact Information – Provide a list of important contacts that the new coordinator can use as a resource.

Contacts play an ongoing role in providing assistance and feedback when coordinators are planning activities.

If possible, introduce incoming leader to key contacts. Welcome/Exit Meeting- with incoming officer and

allow time for mentorship and appreciation.

2. Attracting Emerging Leaders

Offering opportunities to emerging leaders already in your organization may lead you to the best candidate.

Include them in committees

Delegate duties to show/share your trust

Highlight their strengths

Provide them with feedback-constructive

Challenge your members

Share your own experiences and provide candid honest responses

Encourage them to shadow some of the current leaders

3. Setting your timeline for transition

Why is planning ahead extremely important?

More feasible and less stressful on you

To allow opportunities to shadow current leaders.

To compete with other priorities: academics, jobs, volunteer and research opportunities

4. Position Recruitment

Ensure the most qualified, enthusiastic hopefuls considered for the positions

Remember: This it is not a popularity contest, but rather who can carry one the work etc.

Ask who will have the dedication and energy to ensure that your group is thriving

The most important thing you can do is making their experience one where potential leaders will want to stay

involved.