KASAYSAYAN AT KULTURA NG PILIPINAS (PHILIPPINE HISTORY AND CULTURE) Soc Sci 16 AngKasaysayan[atkulturangPilipinas]aySALAYSAYhinggilsa nakaraanonakalipasnamaySAYSAYkahulugan,katuturan,at kabuluhansaSARILINGLIPUNANatKULTURAokabuuang kinabibilangan.Itoayiniuulatgamitangmgakonseptoatkategoryang sariling kultura ZEUS A. SALAZAR Outlined and Compiled by: MR. TECAH C. SAGANDOY Instructor, BSU-CAS-SSD (For Private Use Only) 2006 editionCOURSE OUTLINE FOR PHILIPPINE HISTORY LESSON ONE: Land and People 1.Introduction 2.Geographical Setting 3.The Filipino People: Common and Regional Traits LESSON TWO: Early Filipinostheir environment and culture during the Stone Ages 1.Paleolithic and Neolithic cultures2.Cagayan Man and Tabon ManTheir environment and culture 3.Pottery, weaving and the appearance of metals LESSON THREE: Early Philippine Culture 1.Philippines and the Cultural Traditions of Asia Indianization of Southeast Asia Early Chinese influences in the Philippines Islamization of the Philippines 2.Political life of the early Filipinos Baranganic System The Datu and Sultan Judicial Processes 3.Economic life of the early Filipinos Ecological niches: their implications to the socio-economic life of the early Filipinos Boat-building industry 4.Socio-cultural life of the early Filipinos Social Stratification Clothing and ornaments Writing, literature and time keeping Marriage customs Religious beliefs Reading: The Pre-colonial Filipina LESSON FOUR: The Filipino Communities and the Spanish Colonial System 1.Coming of the Spaniards 2.The Spanish Colonial Administration 3.Reduccion and the Colonial Landscape Reading: The Colonial Townscape 4.Spanish economic institutions: their oppressive impacts 5.Social transformations under the Spanish regime Reading: Pamana ng Simbahang Pilipino The Colonial Filipinas LESSON FIVE: Reactions to Spanish ColonialismRevolts, Resistance, Reform and RevolutionWeaving of national consciousness 1.Filipino Revolts and resistance against Spanish domination 2.Philippine NationalismThe Propaganda Movement Philippine Revolution Philippine-American War: Defending Philippine Independence LESSON SIX: Political Development in the Philippines during the American Occupation 1.Americas Benevolent Assimilation and their Manifest Destiny 2.Filipinization Policy: Its implications to Filipino political participation Philippine Bill of 1902 Philippine Assembly of 1907 Jones Law of 1916 and the Philippine Senate Campaign for Philippine Independence (1919-1935) The Commonwealth Republic 3.Socio-economic transformations and the Americanization of the Filipinos LESSON SEVEN: Philippines under attackWW II and Japanese Imperialism 1.Brief history of WW II: Philippine Setting Reading: Day of Valor 2.Japanese Occupation 3.Political, Economic, and Social Conditions LESSON EIGHT: Independence and Nationhood; Authoritarianism and the EDSA Revolution 1.Independence and The Third Philippine Republic Roxas Administration Quirino Administration Magsaysay Administration Garcia Administration Macapagal Administration Marcos Administration 2.Authoritarianism and Martial Law Reading: Martial Law 3.Aquino Administration Reading: The EDSA Revolution 4.Ramos Administration 5.Estrada Administration 6.Arroyo Administration 1 LESSON ONE: Land and People A.GEOGRAPHICAL SETTING A Visayan myth narrates that, in the beginning, the world was made up of water and the heavens. A bird named Manaul was getting tired of flying that it searched for a resting place.Manaul called on the godsKaptan, god of the sea; and, Magauayan, god of the airto come to his aid. The gods battled it out trying to outfight each other for the right to help the bird. Kaptan sent winds and that created tidal waves and storms. Magauayan whirlwinds threw back Kaptans waves, creating land in the process. For thousands of years, they fought until Manaul got tired of their quarrel.Landing on one of the mountains created by the battle, the bird gathered rocks and dropped them on the two gods thereby ending the fight. These masses of rocks the mythical bird have thrown became the many islands that now form the Philippine Archipelago (Punongbayan, 1998). The preceding myth sheds light to this question: How did the Philippine archipelago emerge? The same question have confronted geologists for so long, so that in the quest for unraveling the processes that shaped the earth that we have today, these geologists have formulated theories that could probably enlighten our minds of a how certain place, an archipelago like the Philippines for example, has taken its present shape, size and topography. Two major theories explain the origin of the Philippines: Pacific and Asiatic Theory. Pacific theory contends that a study of the nature of the rocks beneath the ocean and the volcanic character of the archipelago made Dr. Bailey Willis conclude that the Philippines was formed through the marginal and peripheral eruptions of the Pacific Basin. The eruptions of the submarine volcanoes during the remote geologic past and the piling up of their extrusives caused the emergence of the islands above the sea, giving rise to the Philippine Archipelago (Salita, 1997). Asiatic, on the other hand, holds view that the Philippines was once a part of the continental shelf of Asia. Dr. Leopoldo Faustino (1928) stated that: The present land areas of the Philippines are merely the higher portions of a partly submerged mountain massThe outline of the Archipelago was first marked at the close of the Paleozoic Era during the Permian Revolution when a movement of the Asiatic land mass to the south caused the China Sea depression and crumpled the edge of the continental platform. In other words the Philippine Islands formed the barrier that separated the waters of the Pacific Ocean from the waters of the present China Sea. The present landforms of the Philippines have come about through the complex process of diastrophism, vulcanism and gradation. These landforms are very much interrelated with the origin of the Archipelago itself. The occurrence of tectonic earthquake is an effect of diastrophism. The formation of elongated mountains such as the Sierra Madre and the Cordillera is caused by diastrophism while the conical peaks are the result of vulcanism. Mt. Apo, Mayon Volcano and Kanlaon Volcano are examples of volcanic mountains. The erosion of the highlands and the consequent deposition of the sediments at the oceanic basin comprise the process of gradation. It is gradation that generally causes the formation of minor landforms, such as rivers, valleys, lakes, deltas, hills, rapids, and falls. The deltas formed by Pasig River and Pampanga River as they enter Manila Bay are the results of gradation process (Salita, 1997). 2 The location of Philippines on the western margin of the Pacific Ocean, which is comparatively unstable segment of the earths crust, may help explain the pattern of landform development. The entire margin of the Pacific Basin from Japan to Taiwan, Philippines, Indonesia, and New Zealand owes much of its development to the action of the forces of folding, faulting, and volcanic activity. Geologists call this region as the girdle of fire or ring of fire because it is a region of frequent volcanic activity (Salita, 1997). The geologic processes aforementioned resulted to the Philippines as an inverted Y-shaped archipelago consisting of more than 7,000 islands and islets.These islands are commonly grouped into three major divisions namely: Luzon; Visayas; and Mindanao.Its land surface is crisscrossed by mountains and drained by small river systems. The combined land and water areas of the Philippines are about 1,800,000 km2 of which the water areas comprise about five times the land area.The total land area of the Philippines, excluding Sabah, is 300,000 km2 or 30,000,000 hectares. It is about the size of Italy, slightly larger than the size of United Kingdom, but slightly smaller than Japan. (Salita, 1997) *Boundaries: Being an archipelago, Philippines is bounded by bodies of water: Bashi Channel on the North; Pacific Ocean on the East; South China Sea on the West; and, Celebes Sea on the South. *Mountain Ranges: Caraballo del Sur (has its peak at the intersection of the boundaries of Abra, Ilocos Norte, and Cagayan); Caraballos Occidentales (divide into Cordillera Norte and Cordillera Central); Seirra Madre (a.k.a. the Pacific coast range); Zambales Range (follows the China Sea from Cape Bolinao to the coast ofBataan); Tagaytay Range (passes through Cavite and Batangas, and with Mt. Makiling, form the mountain system of the Southern Tagalog region);Mindoro Range (begins at Mt. Halcon); Negros Mountain Range (dividing Negros into two);Panay Range (separates Antique from Iloilo, Capiz, and Aklan);Surigao Range (follows the contours of the Pacific coast);Butuan Range (forms the watershed of the Agusan River and Pulangui River);Central Western Range ( Mt. Apo is its highest peak); and the Western Range (extending from Iligan Bay to the shore of Basilan Strait). *River Systems: Cagayan River (drains the Cagayan Valley); Agno River (drains Benguet and the Valleys of Nueva Ecija, Pangasinan and Tarlac; Abra River system (drains Bontoc, Lepanto, and Abra); Pampanga river (drains Nueva Ecija, Pampanga, and Bulacan); Rio Grande de Mindanao (largest river system in the Philippines); and Agusan River system (drains the basin of Surigao). *Volcanoes: Iraya (Batanes); Taal (Batangas); Banahaw (Quezon);Mayon(Albay);Hibok-Hibok(Camiguin Island); Makaturing (Lanao);Apo (Davao);Pinatubo (Zambales).Of these volcanoes, Taal and Mayon are the most active for these have erupted for more than thirty times. In 1991, Pinatuboeruptedand sincethen, ithas continued to destroy the agricultural and commercial lands of the Central Plain of Luzon. *Natural Resources: Forests produce timber for domestic and international use. The arable land produces rice, corn, root crops, coconut, fruits and vegetables for the local and international market.Mining, which is one of the basic industries, produces minerals worth millions of pesos. The seas and rivers are abundant with various kinds of fish, which are also of export quality. Recently, oil deposits have been discovered but the sites remain to be undeveloped. 3 B.THE PEOPLE The story of man in the Philippine islands that took place before writing was used to record events is about 1500 times longer than the historic period. The larger part of the story of man (of a Filipino), his culture, the manner with which he obtained his daily needs, his beliefs and values, how he progressed through time from the earliest periods, the changes that he and his manner of living underwent as he met with other peoples not only of these islands but the larger region of Southeast Asia and the rest of Asia and the Pacific, lies far beyond living memory and therefore difficult to recall or even to imagine (Peralta, 2002) The Filipino is a mixture of races. For many centuries, Philippines has been the melting pot of cultures, and that the frequent cross-cultural relations between the early Filipino with his Oriental brothers and with the Westerners made him the more sophisticated. In his veins runs the blood of a Negrito, Malay, Indonesian, Indian, Spaniard, American, Chinese, Japanese, etc.Thus, it is difficult to define a genuine Filipino, yet we have to enumerate some traits common to most, if not all Filipinos, regardless of language, ethnic group, or region in order to point out what is Filipino from what is European or American. *Common Traits 1.Hospitality. Of course peoples of other nations have their own way of being hospitable, but the Filipino hospitality is something worth noting. The Filipino will offer the bests he has to anyone (stranger or kin) who arrives at his doorstep, even to the extent of settling for the second best.He wants everyone to feel welcomed, comfortable, and honored even if his family would worry about the next meal, or that a visitation would mean an additional burden to their debt in the sari-sari store. 2.Respect for elders.Parents, Grandparents, Panglakayen (old men), Manong (elder brother), and Manang (elder sister) of the Filipino family and community deserve much respect.These elders decide for the young, initiate the young to adulthood, and their wisdom are much sought for. Among the common ways of showing respect to the elders are: pagmamano (kissing of the hands); the use of the words po andopo; addressing the older brother or sister Kuya or Ate; giving due recognition to the elders of the community during feasts or celebrations; offering ones seat to the elderly in a crowded place, or in an overloaded PUJ or bus; obeying the rules and decisions of the parents unquestionably. 3.Close Family Ties.Just like many other Asians, the family is foremost among other things in the society. Among the Filipinos, the extended family is common. Typically, it is composed of grandparents, parents, and children living in one roof. Endogamy (marrying within ones clan) is observed in many regions of the country. Even at present, this clannish attitude has not disappeared. One reason for such is the idea of preserving the familys wealth and prestige, or of strengthening kinship.It is also observed that when members of a family get married, they are expected to reside, either with their parents, or near their parents and relatives. An extension of this trait is regionalism. A Filipino feels secured if he is with his kailyan, katribo, or kababayan (town mate/countrymen). This breeds discrimination among the Filipinos themselves. In big universities, for example, students organize themselves according to place of origin. Thus, we hear about Samahang Ilocandia, Samahang Bisaya. 4 4.Fatalistic.Filipinos believe that whoever they are and whoever they will be is the dictate of fate. This is commonly known as Bahala Na attitude, which is loosely translated as come what may. At times when one is confronted with a dilemma and he couldnt arrive at a specific solution or decision, he would resign his fortune to fate and just utter, Bahala na. Phrases like: Sinuwerte siya (He was lucky), Gasat na ti bummaknang (He is fortunate to get rich), Kakambal niya ang malas (Misfortune has always been his companion), Nai-anak ka nga pobre, matay ka nga pobre (Once youre born poor, you will die poor), and many others, are all manifestations of fatalism. 5.Loyalty.The Filipinos idea of loyalty is an unending support for a friend or for somebody who has rendered him help for to a Filipino friendship is sacred. Even the little favor you gave will be remembered for life. This kind of loyalty is exemplified by the phrase, utang na loob (sense of gratitude). This act of Filipino loyalty is associated with his pakikisama attitude a sense of camaraderie, justice, honesty, and spirit of comradeship. It could also extend to the so-called bayanihan and pakikiramay attitudes a sense of mutual help and sympathy for others predicament. 6.Tendency to be indolent. This is the predisposition to not to exert much effort in work.Jose Rizal explained some of the reasons behind such attitude: (a) warm climate; and (b) abundant natural resources. Added to these is due to close family ties.A Filipino is assured that his family and relatives would always be there to feed him when he has nothing to eat.

This indolence, with no doubt, is the main reason why a Filipino lacks initiative.A student, for example, is satisfied with a grade of 3 or 75 no matter how hard the teacher would encourage him to exert more effort. And in another instance, indolence could be the reason why Filipinos are so dependent on the government. Once government officials are elected into office, they are expected to provide every need and want of their subordinates. Finally, indolence may be the main culprit behind the proliferation ofistambays (stand bye). The aforementioned common traits are just a partial list of the many attitudes of an average Filipino, although they might give the reader a glimpse of who a Filipino is in general (take note though that there are exceptions to generalizations). *Regional Traits It is also best to identify the common attitudes of each of the major regions of the Philippines in order to understand the cultural diversity (different cultural traits) among the countrys peoples. 1.Igorots (Cordillera Region). These people, as described by Spaniards are generally very agile, bold, well-built, and feared by their neighboring tribes (Scott). Just like the Muslims, the Igorots were not conquered by the Spaniards. Moreover, the Ifugao rice terraces are a living legacy, which shows the engineering skill of these mountain people. 2.Ilocanos/Samtoy (Ilocos Region). The Ilocanos are frugal, industrious, hardy, patient, and adventurous mainly because of the natural environment they are in. The steep mountains and turbulent sea bounding their land limit economic opportunities. We would then expect that they would be frugal and would go out of their region for greener pastures. 5 3.Tagalog (Tagalog Region). The Tagalog is a born lover, poet and musician, is strongly attached to his family and kin, and feels superior over other Filipinos (esp. Manilenos). The latter description is due to the fact that the Manila is the center of cultural and commercial life, the heart of the region. 4.Bicolano (Bicol Region). The Bicolano is known for his even temper and religiosity. He is also fond of spicy food. The Bicolano is said to be calm and seldom shows his rudeness. The religiosity of the Bicolanos is somewhat justified by the numerous priests that hail from the region. 5.Bisaya (Visayas Region). He is a hedonista happy-go-lucky man, and extravagant. The Visayan is also self-reliant and adventurous. He, too, is a lover and expresses his emotions through music.It is said that when a Visayan is afflicted with problems, give him wine and a musical instrument (usually stringed-instrument) and he would eat, drink, and be merry then forgets his troubles. 6.Muslim (Muslim Region). The Muslim is the fiercest lover of freedom, a man of honor, hardy, and adventurous. His love for his land made him formidable to subjugate. This is the reason why the Spaniards were not able to conquer the Muslims. And this makes the Muslim proud. His fierce love of his culture and religion makes it difficult for him to be integrated into the Philippine body politic. For many centuries, up to these days, there has been this suspicion of betrayal that the Muslim feels against his Christian brother. *Major Filipino Languages. Although the Filipino language is traced from the Malayo-Polynesian language, it has many variations and that even the Filipinos themselves do not understand each other.This makes the more the difficult to define what a Filipino is. The Philippines has more than a hundred languages and dialects. Here are the major ones: Tagalog (basis of our National Language), Ilocano, Pampango, Pangasinense, Bicolano, Cebuano, Samarnon, and Magindanao. ____________________ *These are excerpts (with few personal notes) from Agoncillos History of the Filipino People, 8th ed., 1990. 6 LESSON TWO: Early Filipinos; their environment and culture during the Stone Ages In the same Visayan myth, which involved the bird Manaul, it is told that after ending the fight of Kaplan and Magauayan, the mythical bird flew to a grove of bamboos. As he was resting, Manaul heard a sad voice asking him to free the beings trapped within the bamboo.Telling Manaul that if they were liberated, those trapped would help him keep peace in your new earth, the bird pecked at the bamboo until it split in two. Out came Si-Kalao, the first man; and Si-Kalay, the first woman. Manaul got frightened by the new creatures; hence, he immediately flew away and never returned (Punongbayan, 1998). Myths of the origin of the first man and woman in the Philippines have varied versions depending on what ethnic groups account is to be heard.Apparently, these stories at least provide answer to the questions: Who were the first people in the Philippines? How did they emerge? The emergence of man has been a battle between the Creationists (contend that God is the maker of man) and the Evolutionists (contend that man is a product of gradual transformations from one specie to another, all of which trace their origin from a single cell).The debate on this matter persists until today.Both creationism and evolutionism provide answers to how people emerged in this world. PALEOLITHIC AND NEOLITHIC CULTURES IN THE PHILIPPINES * The story of man in the Philippines goes back to the Pleistocene Epoch (a.k.a. Ice Age), which has been dated from 1 to 3 million years. This period was marked by climatic changes that dramatically re-shaped the earths surface.During the height of this cold period, the level of the surface of the oceans of the world went down. Huge expanses of land previously covered by water became dry land.

The continental shelf of Asia or the Sunda Shelf was exposed. Land bridges appeared between the northern Philippines and Taiwan. Mindanao Island was connected to Borneo, which in turn was connected to Celebes (Lucero, 1998). It was during this tumultuous period when nature appears to have gone on the rampage, that man made his first appearance evident. Cagayan Man. The earliest evidence for the presence of people in the Philippine archipelago appeared in Cagayan Valley. These were in the form of stone tools found in the same rock formation as fossils of an extinct elephas (dwarf elephant). These date back to between 9 to 7 million years or roughly some 750,000 years ago. Elsewhere in the world as in Indonesia and China the Homo erectus species were dated to at about this age and older. Later population genetics studies suggested that about 50,000 years ago some Proto-malay populations appeared in the country: the Mamanua of Lake Mainit; and between 30,000 to 20,000 years ago the Negrito made their appearance. Evidences point to two streams, one - probably older, is a movement along the eastern side of the archipelago and going farther north along the coast, while the later one coming through Borneo and Palawan affected the western side of the Philippines including Luzon. The Austronesian (from South China) populations of the archipelago showed their presence between 6,000 to 7,000 years B.C. 7 The reported presence of fossils of stegodon (an elephant larger than the elephas), elephas and rhinoceros in Cagayan Valley, Pangasinan, Rizal, Novaliches, Quezon City, Iloilo, Zamboanga, and Sulu led to the theory that during the height of the last Ice Age when the level of the surface of the sea went down, underwater ridges were exposed to connect these islands to the continent of Asia. And over these land bridges, these large animals moved in search of food into this area. Later when the ice in the Polar Regions melted with the resulting rise of the level of the sea, the land bridges became submerged once more cutting off the connections to the continent and forming the chain of islands known now as the Philippines. In Cagayan Valley where fossils of those animals mentioned were found, scientists have uncovered fragments of stones that appeared to be like those used by ancient men as tools in other parts of the world, as in Indonesia (Java Man) and China (Peking Man). If indeed these stone fragments were tools, then this is a proof that man inhabited the Philippines when such animals above-stated roamed Cagayan. This species is known as Homo Erectus (erect man). Up to the present, however, no remains of the Cagayan Man have been found and the only proofs of his presence are the stone tools that he made and used, and the remains of the animals that he butchered.

It is theorized that the Cagayan Man lived with a small group. Moreover, the Cagayan men must have lived as foragershunter-gatherersdepending largely on wild animals, clams and fishes, wild fruits and tubers.At this stage, the Cagayan man did not know how to raise crops for food; however, it is probable that he already had some idea of how plants grow and increase from observing nature. When he digs out a tuber, for example, he would notice later that the vine from which he got it would again grow after some time and produce other tubers. He then helps nature by putting back to the soil the end of the vine from which he got the tuber for it to grow other tubers again. This is a simple kind of plant cultivation that must have been practiced by the early peoples to add more to their food sources. From practices like these after thousands of years would lead at last to the domestication of different plants and the planting of entire fields with many kinds of crops.

Regarding clothing, it is believed that the Cagayan mans dress consisted of the simplest materials obtained from their environment, which could be from plants. While a group would be occupying one large territory where they move about through a season. It is probable that they used one place as a more or less permanent home from which they move about in their daily activities, and to which they return for the night. In some places the convenient sites would be rock shelters and ledges, or mouths of caves where it is dry and receive enough light. A rock overhang that can give protection from the rain and direct sunlight, and near some water sources would be ideal. In places where there are no caves, living areas are made between buttress roots of large trees with large leaves for roofing or something similar. The family members of each group would be settling down near each other. Where ever the living area is made, a water source is always nearby for this is needed not only for drinking or washing, but water sources are also places where food can be gathered easily like fish, snails, frogs, tadpoles, crabs, shrimps, and where other animals go to drink. During certain times of the year when food resources become available in places farther on, the group may leave their place of living to other campsites where they spend a few days before again returning to their chosen home area. This home place is where much of the social activities are held, since the daily food gathering work is largely family action. Tabon Man. The earliest evidence of Homo Sapien (modern man) in the Philippines is that of the Tabon Man of Palawan.8 Dr. Robert B. Fox, heading the National Museum team, discovered the human fossil in a cave in Lipuun Point in the municipality of Quezon, Palawan. The cave was named Tabon after the large-footed bird that lays eggs in huge holes it digs into cave floors, many of which have been found in the cave. The fossil is composed of a skullcap or the frontal skull bone, two fragments of jawbones and some teeth. The set of fossils suggest that there are at least three individuals. The skullcap is that of a young individual, probably female. The layer where the fossils of the Tabon Man were found has been dated to 16,000 years old, which also gives the age of the fossils. A fossilized tibia has been dated to 47,000 years old--the oldest Homo sapiens to date, at least, in Southeast Asia. The Tabon Cave, in fact, was populated by peoples earlier than Tabon Man, since stone tools were there again to prove this. The deepest soil deposit of the cave was dated to approximately 50,000 years old, and the youngest to about 10,000 years. This shows that the cave was used continuously for about 40,000 years by peoples that used the same kind of tools. The earliest carbon 14 date obtained for the Tabon Cave was about 30,000 years B.C. from charcoal sample, which among others suggest the earliest date for the use of the fire in the Philippines. The way the tools were made was exactly the same as those found in the Cagayan Valley about 700,000 years earlier: the smaller flake tools and the larger pebble-cobble tools. There was however, one difference. In Cagayan Valley, there were more of the large kinds of stone tools. In the Tabon Cave, there were less than one percent of the pebble-cobble tools compared to the flake tools. This has been taken to mean that the larger number of large stone tools in Cagayan was due to the different needs in that place as compared to Palawan. In the Tabon Caves, the archeological remains tend to show that the early peoples here were catching more of small animals, bats and birds that live in the cave itself, hence there was less need for larger kinds of tools.Other Stone Age Sites. In Cagayan Valley, archaeological digs continued on the eastern side in the municipality of Peablanca. Here many caves were found to contain prehistoric materials. Among the more important of these was the Laurente Cave. In the second layer of the cave floor were flaked stone tools, waste flakes, burned and unburned bone fragments and shells. The date obtained from the charcoal materials was about 16,000 years B.C. The most important find here is the proof of the earliest use of fire in Northern Luzon. Another site is the Musang Cave, which again contained flake tools, shells and animal bones, all of which were dated to about 11,000 years B.C. Other Old Stone Age sites have been uncovered in the Philippines showing that early in time, the islands were already peopled. In Central Philippines, an archeological site in Samar with small stone flake and bone tools was dated to 10,000 years. Farther south, in the island of Sanga-sanga where there were apparently scarce stone materials, the shell of the giant clam was used to form flake tools, which have been dated to about 6,000 years old. This tool tradition continued in use even in later times and have been found together with pottery, polished stone adzes and other later materials in many other archeological sites. At about this time between 11,000 to 7,000 years or a little earlier, the level of the sea reached the present stage, and new and different culture traits began to appear, showing changes in the life of the people.9 Pottery.One of the markers of the Neolithic period was the first proof that earthenware was in use early during this age. About 6,000 years B.C. pottery appeared to be already present in northern and southern Philippines. Evidence of this was found in the Laurente Cave in the province of Cagayan, and the Sanga-sanga Cave in the Sulu archipelago. These evidences were further backed up by more Carbon 14 dating showing that by 5,000 years B.C. the making and use of pottery were already widespread all over the Philippines, including the provinces of Isabela, Palawan and the Masbate. Pottery during the New Stone Age was quite unique. Each single piece did not have any copy and was very imaginative and beautiful. The most famous of this early pottery was the now world-renown burial jar from the Manunggul Cave of Quezon, Palawan known as Manunggul Jar. The jar had a bulbous body that tapers down. The shoulder was decorated with scrolls painted using red iron oxide. Between the scrolls the spaces were textured with dots. The jar had a rounded cover also decorated with painted red iron oxide scrolls and dots. On the top of the cover was a boat the bow of which was decorated with a human face. In the boat towards the rear was a boatman holding a paddle and in front was another individual with arms crossed across the breast. It was thought that the crown ornament of the cover showed the soul of the dead being ferried into the next world. What does this pottery suggest? From the making to the utilization of pots, processes of life could be gleaned. Firstly, it implies that the Neolithic Filipinos were familiar with their environment for they knew where to get the best materials for pottery. They had an idea of land chemistry, including the lands minerals and elements. They knew physics, too, for they made effective kilns (Kasaysayang Bayan). Secondly, we could infer that the Filipinos were creative. They were able to make plates, cups, spoons, pans and even large jars. The designs of these pots/jars also suggest the kind of tools used in the etching, shaping and painting of these artifacts. Thirdly, on the status of the society, it could be said that there is already specialization of labor and that there were experts in this field of work (pottery). Moreover, potters could have also been given due respect and admiration in their community. And fourthly, as to how the pots were used, we could see a kind of society that is organizedone points to agriculture, for these jars were used for keeping palay/rice. The second points to religion as implied by the rituals involved in the use of the jars in burials (Kasaysayang Bayan). Weaving Another new activity was also shown by earthen spindle whorlslarge beads of clay placed on the lower part of sticks to serve as counter-weights in the making of thread. These spindle whorls found in Cagayan Valley suggests the weaving of cloth, in addition to the earlier use of the polished stone beater in the making of bark cloth. It is probable that the products of pot-making and weaving were used by the people who made them, although it is also probable that some of these were also exchanged for some other goods. Beyond the quest for food, the New Stone Age revealed for the first time an aspect that shows mans humanity. The best example of this is Duyong Cave of Palawan. In this site the earliest intact burial ever discovered in the Philippines was found. With the flexed skeleton were lime containers made of shellthe first evidence of the betel-chewing complex that included the use of lime, a social habit widespread in Southeast Asia. Another striking find with this burial were discs ground from the base of cone shells, some with holes near the edge while others with the holes in the center of the discs. These were the earliest body ornaments ever found, showing for the first time in this country, mans awareness of beauty.10 The other forms of ornament during this early time were jade beads dated as early as about 3,000 years before Christ coming from the Dimolit site near Palanan Bay in Isabela, which also yielded decorated pottery stone grinders and mortars and more important, flake tools with the so-called "silica gloss". This gloss on the edge of the stone tools usually suggested use in the reaping of plantsagain probable proof of plant cultivation by man. There were also ornaments like ear pendants made from fired clay with the surfaces decorated with lines. All these items recovered from burials also suggest that the early peoples of these islands have a set of beliefs and values that guide different aspects of daily living. Much of knowledge about these beliefs comes from the way they treated their dead. There are a number of ways they bury the dead as: with the body flexed and placed directly into the ground; buried first in the ground or left until only the bones remained and then placed in burial jars. Also in later times the remains were burned and the bones placed in small pots inside caves. It is likely that many more other practices existed in different places, but the above alone shows that there are different ways people treated the dead depending on the culture of the place. It indicates that not just one culture existed in the islands but many, and many variations of each one. The way they treated their dead also gives an idea of their belief in an after-life. The flexed skeleton uncovered in the Duyong Cave in Palawan was found together with polished quadrangular adzes made of stone and adzes made from the hinge of the giant clam, shell disc ornament and a bivalve containing lime used in betel-nut chewing, among others. In the other end of the island, in the Arku Cave of Peablanca, Cagayan, buried with the human remains were pottery, jade earrings, spindle whorls, bone tools, bark cloth beater and others. These show that there was a widespread practice of putting things used in daily life with the dead, probably the personal belongings of the person. Considering that these things during those times must have been valuable, these would not have been left buried unless there is a greater need for them by the dead rather than by the living. The practice suggests a deep belief in life after death, and the burying of grave goods was for the purpose of providing the loved one with things to use in the after-life. There are a number of other ideas that can be learned from the grave goods. One of these is that by this time there were already differences in the number and quality of the material belongings of people. This can only mean that in producing daily needs some households were able to make more than what they could consume. This surplus could then be exchanged with other things that they themselves did not produce like pottery, ornaments, tools and the like. It can be surmised that apart from food exchanges there now existed trade that has to do with non-food goods, some which are wanted for their beauty and the prestige that these bring. From the nature of some of the goods, it was clear that some of these traveled long distance even over large bodies of water, as the beads made of semi-precious stones like jade, onyx and jasper. Trade of this kind is added proof that people by this time lived in more or less permanent places using structures that are largely man-made. Traces of two structures dating to this period were found in Dimolit, Isabela. Portions of two other structures were also found. The forms were suggested by the presence of round postholes in two rows forming a more or less square enclosure with a gap in the north wall suggesting the entrance. The area within the enclosure was littered with potsherds and flakes, and the soil was compact. Each of the structure had the remains of fireplace in the southwestern corner. The living area is the ground level itself. The age of one of the structure was between 1,220 to 3,390 years before Christ, the earliest evidence for a man-made structure in this country. 11 The difference between the culture of the previous age (Paleolithic) and the life in the New Stone Age is that whereas man was before only a food procurer, that is, he only gathers food from nature, now he has become a producer. He achieved this great leap by the simple fact that he learned how to domesticate plants and animals as food bases. And more visible proofs of this became clear during this period. The process took a long timehundreds and even thousands of years. It begun, perhaps, from the early "incipient" kind of plant domestication by replanting the vine from which a tuber has been taken. It is also probable that the seeds of edible plants were dispersed by man himself about the areas where he lived when he eats these, thus helping in the growth of these plants. * THE APPEARANCE OF METAL While things of the New Stone Age were unearthed like the polished stone tools, pottery pieces, shell and some stone ornaments, new things begun to appear. In the northern Philippines a suggestion of what could be the oldest sign of metal in this country appeared in the Musang Cave in Cagayan. This was a brass needle tenuously dated about 2000 B.C. In Palawan bronze tools, glass beads and bracelets and gold beads were dug up in the Duyong, Uyaw and Guri Caves. Duyong Cave is dated between 300 to 500 B.C. while Guri between 100 to 200 years B.C. Uyaw Cave contained jar burials with bronze adzes and spears, and was as old as the Duyong Cave. By this time the use of metals is already widespread in the old world and mainland of Asia. But its first appearance in these islands marked the beginning of a new set of changes that again altered the life ways of the people and made the pace of life much faster than the previous ones. The earliest metals to appear were gold, bronze, brass and copper in the form of ornamental beads, and tools like adzes and spearheads. There were, however, very few of these, thus suggesting that these metals were not mined but rather, were brought in through the movement of peoples or via trade. The first solid evidence for the presence of iron tools in this country was found in Palawan and dated about 190 B.C. Iron made possible many changes in the culture of peoples of the islands and made the rate of change even faster. That tools made of iron could retain a sharp cutting age longer made these more effective and efficient than tools made of stone. Stone tools lose the sharpness of working edges even after a single use and need to be reground to be of use again. Metal tools, especially iron, on the other hand can be used over and over before being re-honed. Another advantage is that iron can be shaped to whatever useful form is needed so that it can be adapted for a very wide range of tool needs. Within a few hundred years, iron tools begun to be more and more common in archeological sites all over the country. With its spread far-reaching changes took place in the life ways of people. One of the most effective uses of the iron blade is in the clearing of forests for the cultivation of food plants. Whereas stone tools are not very efficient in cutting down trees, metal tools do not have this limitation. On top of this metal tools can reduce the time required for clearing and in making wider areas available for cultivation. _________________________ * These are excerpts from the work of Dr. Jesus T. Peralta of the National Commission for Culture and the Arts.Complete text of these topics could be accessed at the NCCA website. 12 LESSON THREE: EARLY PHILIPPINE CULTURE * Philippines, before the conquest, was a nation of flourishing civilization. The inhabitants culture had the elements of a civilized society: organized policies and laws; an elaborate system of writing and language; religion; independent governmental units (barangays); markets/trading posts; and weapons, tools, and utensils necessary for existence. By the first century A.D., Philippines shared with its Southeast Asian neighbors a Neolithic-based culture which consisted of the following elements: (1) materially, kaingin (swidden) farming, domestication of ox and buffalo, use of metals and navigational skills; (2) socially, respect for elders and constituted authority, and the importance of women; (3) religiously, animism, anito worship, ancestor worship, jar burial; and, (4) culturally, some music and dance patterns, and tattooing (batik painting)(Evangelista, 2002). The contact between Philippines and the so-called Great Civilizations of Asia (India, China and Islamic Arabia) contributed much to the development of the culture of the former. PHILIPPINES AND THE GREAT CULTURAL TRADITIONS OF ASIA Indianization of Southeast Asia The entry and proliferation of Indian tradition in Southeast Asia resulted to the Indianization of the region, giving birth to Hindu and/or Buddhist kingdoms like those in Funan, Champa, Sri-Vijaya, Majapahit, among others. These states recognized divine rulers. Interestingly; however, Philippines was spared from such development. This is because our country was bypassed by Indian traders who exclusively traded with Burma, the Malay Peninsula, Thailand, Indo-China Peninsula and China as the terminal of Indian products. Indianized Southeast Asians then brought Indian influences to the Philippines at a later date (Evangelista, 2002). An example would be the Orang Dampuans (men of Champa), which, according to Sulu tradition, between 900 A.D. and 1200, these immigrants from the Indianized kingdom of Champa (in Indochina) traded with the Buranons of Sulu (Zaide, 1999). *Some Indian Influences 1.Sanskrit terms in the Tagalog language [e.g. ina, asawa (swamin),likha (lekha), balita(vartta), katha, ahas (ahi), hari, ganda, mana] 2.In clothing, the waist loom of the Igorots resemble the looms, cloth and color schemes woven by the women of Assam, India; Barong Tagalog had the same cut as that of the Kutra of Lucknow, India; use of cord and veil in marriage ceremonies 3.Among the natives of Sulu, there was the adoration of Vedic deities like Indra (sky god), Agni (fire god), and Surya (sun god) (Zaide, 1999) 4.Fables of Indian origin like: the monkey and the turtle; and, the Visayan anecdote of the hawk and the hen (Zaide, 1999) *Relations with China During the reign of the Sung (960-1127 A.D.) and Ming (1368-1644 A.D.) dynasties in China, Chinese traders established settlements along coastal towns and in the hinterlands of the 13 archipelago. Hence, there was a continuous flow of goods from the port of Canton to the different trading ports in Lingayen Gulf, Masbate, Manila Bay, Mindoro, and Sulu in the Philippines.

Filipinos bartered their products, such as yellow wax, gold, hemp, cotton, betel nut, tortoise shells, and pearls, for the Chinese goodssilk, porcelain wares, iron, tin, bronze gongs, umbrellas and fans (Zaide, 1999.). Clearly, Filipino-Chinese relations were more economic in nature than political. Chinas political influence (Confucian system of government) to Southeast Asia was limited to Vietnam due to the conquest of the said country from 111-939 A.D. Moreover, Chinese traders had low social status in Chinese society and therefore could not be bearers of Confucian political ideas (Evangelista, 2002).

*Some Chinese Influences 1.In language, particularly Tagalog, there is a good number of loaned words (e.g. ate (a-chi), katay (ka-tai), hukbo (hok-bo), pansit (pansit), sangla (sangle), lumpiya (lun-pia), kuya (ko-a) 2.Use of umbrella, porcelain, gongs, lead, 3.Wearing of white dress when mourning 4.Manufacture of gunpowder 5.Mining methods and Metallurgy6.Parental-arrangement (in marriage) Islamization of the Philippines When Islam was making its presence strong and appealing in Southeast Asia, the region was already Indianized, but later, Indianized states would be confined in mainland Southeast Asia, while Islam would eventually overrun Island Southeast Asia. The coming of Islam in our country in the 13th century is so much related with the spread of Islam in Southeast Asia and it had lasting effects on its island world. From Sumatra, Islam went to Malacca, and from there, to the coastal areas of the Indonesian islands, and finally to southern Philippines. From Sulu, it spread to other parts of Mindanao, then to Visayas and Luzon (Evangelista, 2002). Although there are various theories as to how Southeast Asia (Philippines included) was Islamized, traditional accounts mention the arrival of Arab teachers called Makhdumins (singular-Makhdum) in Sulu, which, after sometime, would convert the natives of the island into Islam.This religion was later on strengthened by Rajah Baguinda Ali of Sumatra when he arrived at the end of the 14th century. By the middle of the 15th century, Serif Abu Bakr from Palembang founded the sultanate of Sulu. In time, conversion of the Sulu archipelago was completed (Evangelista, 2002). Tradition claims that a number of serifs went to Mindanao and islamized the island, but it is Serif Muhammad Kabungsuan who is credited for the large-scale conversions in Cotabato and Lanao. He would later establish his own sultanate in Mindanao (Evangelista, 2002). A.POLITICAL LIFE: GOVERNMENT AND LAWS Knowledge about the life in the Philippines in pre-Hispanic times is based largely on the contact chroniclesaccounts written by Pigafetta (Magellans chronicler, 1521), Loarca (1582), Plasencia (1589), Chirino (1604), Morga (1609), Colin (1660), and Alcina (1688), including the 14 author of the Boxer Codex (late 16th century).These were ethnographic notes by nature. Historical accounts were later penned by Pigafetta and other chroniclers of post-Magellan expeditions (Patane, 1996). If the idea no documentno history is all that is to be considered true, then ancient oral traditions and archaeological proofs of pre-Hispanic Philippines are useless. But this is not the case. Scientific archaeological diggings that bear artifacts (vis--vis European and Chinese writings) are gradually piecing together early Philippine history. Barangay. Barangay or Balangay (a Malay term meaning boat) was the pre-Hispanic government of the Filipinos. Barangays were independent small units of ethnic communities. Barangays were run according to kinship relations (Evangelista, 2002).It was made up of 30 to 100 families that lived and worked together under a chieftain called Datu. These small communities, the Spaniards noted, were often at odds with each other, except those groups with whom they had performed the blood compact (Rodriguez, 1998). *Inter-baranganic relations were established for the carrying on of socio-economic activities. Treaties of friendship and alliance were concluded through the blood compact known as Sandugo(one blood)contracting parties drew blood from their arms and mixed it with wine in a cup. Both datus drank from the same cup, thereby making them blood brothers. The chieftain, probably the most important personality in a barangay, is called by varied titles. In Central Luzon, there is the so-called gat (ginoo in Tagalog), which is similar to the pangat of Cordillera.In Visayas and in Mindanao, they have the dato and tuan, which is associated to a respected elder of the community. There is also the title raja as noted by Spaniards in 1565 in Manila (Kasaysayang Bayan). There is also the term lakan (prince), which denotes being heir to the chieftainship. In Islamized Maguindanao, the ruler is called Sultan. The Datu The datu was regarded high authority in the barangay. His responsibilities included the duty to govern and lead the people in battle, to defend the barangay against enemies, to enact ordinances against wrongdoings, and to settle disputes among followers. He exercised full authority over his group, although he could delegate his powers to a council of elders headed by the community elder. In return, the datu demanded respect, a share in the harvest and hunt, and service (Rodriguez, 1998). Chieftainship was commonly by inheritance; however, among the Visayans, one could become a datu by exhibiting skill, daring, prowess in battle, or by accumulating wealth in the form of fighting men and slaves. Thus, slaves could also rise and become leaders (Rodriguez, 1998). The Sultan The Sultans of Mindanao deserve much elucidation to have a better understanding of a rulers power and duties. Centralization of political power in the hands of a sultan is the essence of an Islamic state. Relevant to this is the role the sultan played in terms of controlling territorial claims. His concept of domains dictates his authority over lands, seas, rivers and all other territories that the sound of his gongs could reach. In Sulu, a council of prominent datus and influential elders called roma 15 bichara serves as adviser to the sultan in matters pertaining to politics and religion (Kasaysayang Bayan). Among the Visayans, as mentioned, selection of datu is loose, but not in Sultanates. There are five criteria in the election of a sultan (Kasaysayang Bayan): 1. bangsawan (royal blood). A Datu could become a sultan based on blood ties. He should come from a lineage of sultans. Women could not become sultans due to their alleged weakness and they are not also allowed to enter mosques, nor lead public prayers.

2. kamagulangan (right age). A sultan is the oldest among the datus in a sultanate. 3. ilmawan (has proficient knowledge of the shariah and adat). A sultan should be familiar with the shariah or Islam laws and the adat or customary laws. He too should be knowledgeable in foreign languages like Arabic and Malay. He should also project himself as an able statesman, wise judge, and efficient in diplomatic ties. 4. altawan (wealth). This should be measured based on his properties, scope of territorial jurisdiction, and palaces. 5. rupawan (personality). He should possess a strong personality, moral ascendancy, and good manners. *LAWS

Laws were either customary or written. Customary Laws were handed down orally from generation to generation. Written laws were those that the chieftain and his council of elders promulgated from time to time when necessary. Written laws were recorded (Examples of these are the laws of the Koran/Quran and the fabled Code of Kalantiyaw). Laws dealt with: inheritance, divorce, usury, partnership, crime and punishment, property rights, family relations, adoption, and loans. Laws were made through the initiative of the datu and with the approval of the elders. After a law has been enacted, a public announcer called Omalohokan goes around the barangay to announce the new law. It was the responsibility of every member of the barangay to know about the new law. *Judicial Process and Trial by Ordeal. Disputes were settled through a court, with the Datu as the Judge and the accuser disputed their case by presenting their witnesses. It was the duty of the datu and the elders to determine which of the disputants is sincere in his arguments. Usually, the number of witnesses determined the winner of a dispute. The Trial by Ordeal is a series of tests used to determine the guilt or innocence of accused criminals. The process involved the following: a.A stone is placed in a vessel with boiling water. The suspects dipped their hands, and the man with the most scald was adjudged the guilty one. 16 b.Giving of lighted candles to the suspects. The man whose candle died out first was considered guilty. c.Plunging into the river. He who came to the surface first was the guilty one. Many drowned in the process since nobody of the accused wanted to be pinpointed as the criminal. d.Chewing of uncooked rice. He who had the thickest saliva spewed was considered guilty. B.ECONOMIC LIFE:AGRICULTURE, INDUSTRIES, AND TRADE Anywhere in the archipelago, production based on natural resources was the main source of livelihood among the early Filipinos. The physical environment influenced also traditions, beliefs, norms, rituals, and social relations. Generally, the socio-economic life of the early Filipinos revolved around three ecological niches (Kasaysayang Bayan): 1.Sea-based Societies. For those living along coastal areas, the sea was of prime importance for every day activity. For the Badjaos of Sulu, for example, their familiarity with the directions of the wind was vital when they sail to the open seas. The sea provided almost everythingfood and medicinenecessary for survival. In the Visayas region, W.H. Scott (1994), in his study of the 16th century barangay, noted: The Visayan spent much of his time in the water with his boat for it was his only means of transportation Nobody lived beyond 40 kilometers from the seashore. Orientation was focused not on the suns movement but on the seas current. A farmer from the island of Batayan would sail towards Cebu to plant rice in that island; the miners from Camarines would cross the sea going to Masbate; that is why the young learned his communitys tradition by listening to the sound made by the sea as he paddled. 2.Societies along the Plains. People thriving in plains had a favorable position in trade. Things from and beyond the seasChinese porcelain and metal products, gongs, salt, and woven clothwere primarily the products that the people of the plains traded with those coming from the mountains. These communities took advantage of their geographical location, that is, their proximity to the sea, to market routes, and their access to foreign goods and other markets.

Anybody was allowed to plant anywhere for vacant lots were wide enough for everybody. Millet and bananas were the common plants. Sago (lumbia) and gabi (taro) were like grasses that grew everywhere.Rice fields were commonly located at the foot of mountains. 3.Mountain-based Societies. The people of the mountains were engaged in extensive rice farming. The people of the Cordilleras [e.g., I-Benguet, Ifugaos, Bontoks] are noted for their rice terraces. Productivity was increased by the use of irrigation ditches. Some were also into mining. Mountain people traded forest products and precious metals (gold and copper) with the commodities of the lowlanders or people of the plains. Boat-building Industry Boat-building was a flourishing industry in the Philippines before the conquest. The process of building ships proves that the early Filipinos were highly knowledgeable of the different kinds of wood suitable for boats.Sailing was a pre-Hispanic knowledge that paved the way for political and economic relations with other nations (Kasaysayang Bayan). 17 Apparently, boats did not only foster inter-island trade (domestic), but more importantly, international trade and travel. One missionary noted that the boats were constructed without nails. In Catanduanes, the boat-builders first made a huge boat, and inside it would be a small boat and in that small boat would be a smaller one, and so on. A huge boat would at least contain 10-12 smaller ones. These boats were sold in Leyte, Batangas and Mindoro (Rodriguez, 1998). Indigenous vessels were carved out of single tree-trunk, and some of the bigger ones had seats or benches. There were many types of boats that the early Filipinos used: the balanghaia slender, with narrow stern and prow, light and low-lying, held together with wooden bolts. It had tick bamboo outriggers to hold the boat atop the surface of the water, adding to its speed and balance; the caracoawas sleek, double-ended, and could go forward or backward without turning around. Double outriggers for fighters allowed faster maneuvering (Rodriguez, 1998). There was the paraw , which was usually used in rivers and bays for trading. It had two paddles and a triangular sail. A paraw was used to transport loads from ships to the seashore. It was also used to escort caracoa during the conduct of pangangayaw (sea raids)(Kasaysayang Bayan). The other industries of pre-Hispanic Philippines included: pottery, weaving, mining, lumbering, livestock raising, wine-making, and fishing. Barter (exchange of goods to goods) was the prevailing economic system domestically and internationally. Although early Spanish chroniclers reported that the natives had no knowledge of money, this is otherwise disputed by local numismatists due to the hoards of piloncitos that have been unearthed in various parts of the country.The piloncito is a small gold piece no larger than a pea, shaped like a rounded cone, with a character stamped in relief at the base. The Philippine piloncitos are almost identical to those documented as the recognized coinage in Java as early as the 10th or 11th century, and those of Thailand during the Sri-Vijayan period. This, being the case, would then point out that pilocito is the earliest coinage used in the Philippines (Legarda, 1998). C. SOCIO-CULTURAL LIFE: CUSTOMS AND PRACTICES* 1. Social Classes Maginoo (Nobles/Noblemen). This class was composed of the Datu and his family. It should be noted that the datu was not a king, but much of a leader, a mediator in disputes, and was responsible for the welfare of the people within his jurisdiction. Timawa/Maharlika(Freemen). They were the warriors, merchants, craftsmen, and slaves who won their freedom. The timawa owned his own land, had his own followers but was also bound to serve the datu. The Tagalog maharlika rendered military service to the datu at his own expense and shared with his leader the spoils of war.This class disappeared sometime in the 1630s when the Spaniards were able to unite diverse kinship groups (Rodriguez, 1998). Alipin (Slaves/Dependents). These were captives of war, those unable to pay their debts, all illegitimate children; those purchased, and punished criminals. In the Visayas, an alipin was called oripun.

1.Aliping Namamahay (householder)---had his own family, little house and lot, and served the master during planting and harvesting season or in the construction of houses 18 2.Aliping Sagigilid (hearth slave)---those who are living with the master, had no property, and could not marry without the masters consent. The sagigilid,; however, could buy his freedom in gold. By the 1700s, one could rise to the timawa class by paying 90 pesos. WOMEN: Women, for the early Filipinos, were the equals of men for they were highly respected, could own properties, and could become chieftains in the absence of male heirs. They too, had the exclusive right to give names to their children. The women of Catanduanes, the Spaniards wrote, were skilled in fishing and raising crops like their men (see The Pre-Colonial Filipina by Mary John Mananzan). A Priestly Caste Early Filipinos had a hereditary priestly class of twelve ranks. The highest was called Katalonan, or Babaylan in the Visayas. The mankokolam was of a lower rank. The native priests/priestesses were feared because they were believed to have the power to inflict diseases. There was the aswang who killed humans and feasted on their flesh. The bayogin was a male transvestite with natural powers, and belonged to the lowest rank (Rodriguez, 1998).In the Cordilleras, these shamans were called by various names with various abilities and functions. Among the Ibalois of Benguet, there is the mambonong; the Ifugaos have the mumbaki; the Kankana-eys have the mansip-ok. The social stratification of the early Filipino society was not as rigid as that of the Caste System of India. Those with lower status could rise to the highest status and vice versa. 2. Clothing and Ornaments* Male Attire: [Upper]males wore a sleeveless jacket called Kangan; datus and nobles wore a red kangan, while the commoners wore blue or black jackets. Males also wore a headgear called putong (turban)a piece of cloth wrapped around the head; a red putong indicated that the user killed a man in war, while an embroidered putong indicated that the user killed at least seven. [Lower]males wore a g-string called bahaga strip of cloth wrapped about the waist, passing down between the ties Female Attire:[Upper]females wore a jacket with sleeves called baro or camisa. [Lower]females wore a loose skirt called saya or patadyong; a piece of red, white or embroidered cloth called tapis was usually wrapped around the waist The early Filipinos did not wear shoes or slippers. They walked about barefooted. They also adorned themselves heavily. Both men and women burdened themselves with such trappings as armlets (kalumbiga), pendants, bracelets, gold rings, earrings, and leg-lets. The teeth were adorned with gold or silver fillings.Tattooing was also practiced. Both males and females tattooed their face and bodies. Tattoo was not only for beautification purposes. Among the males, it signified war records. The Spaniards called the tattooed males of the Visayas regionPintados. 3. Writing, Literature,* and Time Keeping The early Filipinos had a syllabary called baybayin, which was probably of Sanskrit or Arabic origin. It consisted of seventeen symbols, three vowels (A, E or I, and O or U) and fourteen consonants (B, K, D, G, H, L, M, N, NG, P, S, T, W, Y). 19 Communities along rivers and coasts were the most literate among these early Filipinos. These communities were trading centers. Writing was probably used to record business transactions. Later, the scripts were used to record folktales, poetry, songs, and other literary compositions (Salcedo, 1998). They wrote with a metal stylus on bamboo strips or banana leaves, from top to bottom, and left to right. Archaeologist found three surviving artifacts bearing ancient scripts: the Calatagan earthenware pot (found in Batangas); the Butuan silver paleograph; and the Laguna copper plate. Two contemporary groupsthe Tagbanua in Palawan and the Mangyan in Mindorohave retained their traditional writing. Of the three scripts, it is only the Laguna copper plate that has been deciphered so far. The plate bares the Saka year 822; the month of April-May, the 4th day of the dark half of the moon; Monday (Salcedo, 1998). The ancients wrote on bark of trees, on leaves and on bamboo using their knives, pointed sticks or iron as pens, and the colored sap of trees as ink. Ancient Filipino literature may be classified into floating or oral literature and written or recorded literature. This literature was composed of maxims, riddles, war songs, wedding songs, lullabies, chants, drama, epics, myths and legends, folktales. Usually, songs are accompanied by dances and acting. (See History of the Filipino People by Teodoro Agoncillo).

The early Filipinos were a highly musical people. Their forms of music and dance were mostly connected to sacrificial or ritual offerings. Spanish missionaries marveled at the musical skill of the people who, they reported, conversed through their music (Rodriguez, 1998). Time Keeping: The Agricultural Calendar of the Ifugaos (Kasaysayang Bayan) The Ifugaos agricultural calendar divides the teon (year) into 13 months; each month having 28 algo (days). A month is divided into four weeks: Lanup, Nakayang, Nuntamung, and Langad.These four weeks correspond to the four phases of the moon. MonthAgricultural PeriodActivity 1. Tungo 2. Manaba 3. Dawe 4. Dato 5. Okal 6. Amaduyong 7. Keleng 8. Litong 9. Bisbis 10. Luya 11. Upu 12. Lodo 13. Bakako Luah Ahilamun Ahiloba AhidaluhAhipatangAhibalin Ahibuluh Ahilawang Luah Ahi-ago-o Ahi-uma Ahitanum Ahiloba Ahibuhbuh Holdang Ahitulu Rest and Caao Clearing of the field Weeding of the rice field More weeding Planting Plowing Putting of fertilizer Last stage of plowing, fixing of irrigation and transplanting Rest Weeding Clearing of the Kaingin Burning of the Kaingin Planting of camote Clearing of the payohAppearing of palay Ripening of palay Reaping 20 A teon started with one-day tungo (rest), which was established based on the position of the stars and of the sun. The teon ended with a harvest. To keep track of the days time, one day was divided into 12 periods (hours): nuntalnamo (first crowing of the rooster); nawnawiit (first light); napatal (dawn); nabigat (sunrise); naay-at (morning); narvod (noon); nayob (afternoon); himbatangan (dusk); nahilip (sunset); nahdom (evening); limnabi (before midnight); and kimumipi (midnight). 4. Marriage Custom* The ancient Filipinos had variations in their marriage practices, but in order to have a specific example, we shall discuss one. The Stages of Marriage 1.Courtship (Panliligaw/Arem). It took patience on the part of the man to win the hand of his lady. He was required to serve the ladys family for a period of time (weeks or months) by chopping wood, fetching water, and did chores required of him. 2.Engagement/Betrothal (Pamumulungan/Pamamalae). If the ladys parents are satisfied with the mans performance, the betrothal process follows.The parents of the man or a go-between would go to the ladys home and make arrangements with the bride-to-bes family about the marriage celebration. Several conditions are required before the marriage can prosper. The following are to be given as gifts, payments, or manifestation of love to the ladys family. a.Bigay-Kaya (dowry)consisting of land, gold, or dependents, and or other valuable things such as animals and other properties b.Panghimuyata certain amount of money (gold/silver) as payment for the nocturnal effort of the mother in rearing the lady during her infancy c.Bigay-Susoa bribe given to the girls wet nurse who fed the bride during her infancy with the milk of her own breast d.Himarawsum of money given as reimbursement for the amount spent in feeding the girl during her infancy e.Sambonamong the Zambals, this was a bribe given to the relatives of the lady. 3.Marriage Proper (Kasal).Before the ceremony, another set of gifts was given to the lady and her parents.The marriage ceremony was administered by an old priestess. She took the hand of the couple, and joined them over a plate of uncooked rice. With a shout, she threw the uncooked rice to the guests and the latter responded with a loud shout, thus the ceremony was over. Among the rich, the marriage celebration was elaborate for it involved dancing, singing, chanting, and drinking wine for a number of days and nights. Butchering of animals (pigs, carabaos, cows, goats) was seemingly endless. 5. Spiritual and Superstitious Beliefs* a.Belief in life after death. The ancients believed in the immortality of the soul. The burial practices of those periods show that Filipinos respect their dead. The dead is buried with 21 clothing, gold, and other valuable things. And due to the belief that the souls of the dead constantly relate with the living, the ancient Filipinos butchered animals and offered food to these souls. Mummification Mummification has its roots in Egypt. Ancient Egyptians believed that the dead needed its earthly body in the afterlife. For this reason, they perfected the art of embalming believing that preserving the body would also reunite the human personalitythe soul, intelligence, heart, and spiritfor all eternity (Salcedo, 1998). In Kabayan, Benguet, a municipality dominated by an ethnic group called Ibalois, mummification was practiced. These Ibalois of Northern Philippines are regarded as the only minority group in the Philippines and in Southeast Asia that has ever practiced the art of mummification (Salcedo, 1998). It is also surprising and interesting to note that, so far, in the whole world, there are only two groups of people who arrange their mummies in fetal position: the Ibalois of Kabayan and a group of natives in South America (based on a Discovery Channel program). b.Belief in Deities and Spirits. The ancient Filipinos were polytheists for they believed in many gods and goddesses who controlled their lives. Examples are: Bathalathe greatest god and the creator of heaven and earth; Idiyanalethe god of agriculture; Mandaranganthe fire god; Siginarugangod of hell, etc. Aside from these deities, they believed in other spirits called Anitos or Diwatas who were either benevolent or malevolent. The people appeased them so that they would bring good fortune and heal the sick members of the society.This spirits are offered sacrifices in the form food, wine, pigs, and gold. The ancient Filipinos practiced a form of spirit and nature worship. This is known as Animism. c.Divination and Magic Charms.The ancients were very superstitious for they put very much stock in divination,auguries,and magic charms.They interpreted signs in nature, such as, flight of birds, howling of dogs, striking of thunder and lightning.

They give meaning to unusual occurrences like when a spoon or fork falls while eating, a visitor would arrive; when a snake enters the house, an accident may happen; when a black cat or bird crosses you path, danger is in your way so you better not continue your journey. Magic charms and amulets (anting-anting or agimat) were believed to save ones life from danger. Those who had these were believed to possess extra-ordinary power and could easily attract beautiful women (gayuma).

These beliefs existed even during the Spanish and American Periods, and they are still persistent today. Many of these traditional and pagan practices have survived side by side with Christianity.Catholicism in our country is sometimes called Folk Catholicism and not Roman Catholicism because it is a mixture of Christian and pagan beliefs. ________________ * These are excerpts from Agoncillos The History of the Filipino People, 8thed., 1990. Reading-A The Pre-Colonial Filipina (an excerpt) By Mary John Mananzan Kasaysayan, vol. 2., 1998 TheFilipinahasavaluableheritage:the memoryofheregalitarianstatusinpre-colonialPhilippines.Inmostaspectsoflife, pre-colonialwomenenjoyedthesame privileges,rights,andopportunities,asdid men. When she was married, a dowry would be givenherfamilybythegroomas compensation for her loss. The groom would givepresentstoherparentsandrelatives, andthenrenderbrideservicefora probationaryperiod.Aftermarriage,the womandidnotlosehername.Amongthe Tagalogs, if she was especially distinguished due to family connections or personal merits, her husband usually took her name. In pre-colonial society, virginity was not a value;andchildrenweretreatedthesame way, not overprotecting females nor allowing males more freedom. Daughters grew up as activeassons;worktrainingwasforboth, andinheritancewasdividedequallyamong legitimatechildren.Unwedmothersdidnot lose face or the chance for a good marriage; theywereconsideredtohaveprovedtheir capacity for motherhood. The law of custom, however,punishedpromiscuityand prostitution. Wiveswereremarkablyequaltotheir husbands.Wivesweretreatedas companions,notslavesorproperty.The propertyeachofthecouplebroughtto marriageremainedhisorherown.Divorce entailedthereturnofthebridepricebyher familyifshewasat fault,whilethemanlost hisrightstothewoman.Propertyacquired after marriage was split equally, and in some cases fines were imposed on the guilty party. Themarriedwomannotonlysharedin earningthefamilylivelihood;becauseof innatemanagerialsagacity,sheoftenhad the key role in the familys economic stability. She could engage in agriculture and trade with the Chinese merchants in her own right. Infact,becauseoftheirprovenreliabilityin fulfillingcontracts,thewomenssignatures were required to make them valid. Oral pre-colonial history provides evidence of womens political power. The legendary first lawgiver was a woman, Lubluban, whose rules concerning rituals, inheritance and property were observed from one generation to another. Princess Urduja of Pangasinan was beautiful, courageous, knowledgeable about Asian culture and language, and skilled in weaponry. Queen Sima is reported to have ruled Cotabato in the seventh century in a regime of integrity, honesty, and peace. Primogeniture was strictly observed, and when a tribal chief died, the first child, male or female, succeeded to the role. Women had the right to be pact holders. Women had a special role in religious life. Every important eventbirth, wedding, death, planting, harvestingwas celebrated with a ritual, and the main celebrant was the babaylan, usually a priestess, who was also a healer and midwife, and a religious practitioner with charisma or special training to contact the spirit world. Women were chief mourners for the dead, dressing the corpse and preparing the grave. They performed ritual dances and songs, offered sacrifices, performed wedding ceremonies. Spaniards had high praises for the greater intellectual superiority of the Indian woman to the Indian man, of whatever class or social condition, she being more serious and formal partner in making contracts. When the Spaniards came in 1521 they were shocked by the freedom manifested by the Filipina, which did not fit into their concept of how women should be and behave. Truly, the Filipina woman deserves much respect and honor. 22 LESSON FOUR: THE FILIPINO COMMUNITIES AND THE SPANISH COLONIAL SYSTEM The coming of the Spaniards*

A result of the Renaissance (rebirth of learning) is the so-called Industrial Revolution. This revolution was a shift from manual labor to machine work. Europeans competed for the accumulation of raw materials, land and territories in order to enliven their fast growing industries. Thus, the Age of Voyages and Explorations was born. Propelled by Gospel, Gold, and Glory, and supported by improved technologymaps, ships, navigational tools, gunpowder and weaponsthe Two Great European powers, Spain and Portugal, embarked for a stiff competition of amassing great wealth and fortune for the sake of power and glory.

The rivalry in Exploration between the Two Iberian superpowers resulted to a conflict. Both countries fought over territories each claimed to be hers. Thus, in the Treaty of Tordesillas (1494), a demarcation line was drawnan imaginary line running from the North Pole to the South across the Atlantic Ocean. The Eastern Hemisphere was given to the Portuguese, while the Western Hemisphere was awarded to the Spaniards. THE SEARCH FOR SPICES* When spices (from Asia) were first introduced by the merchants of Italy to Europe, the people became fond of them and later on craved for such spices. Maluku (Mollucas), islands in Southeast Asia and dubbed as the Spice Islands (for much of the much-sought spices were available in this place), became popular in Europe.Prior to the rivalry between Spain and Portugal, the Europeans visited this island and other Asian lands (with spices). However, the establishment of the demarcation line banned the Spaniards from using the East routes going to the Spice Island, thus Spain had to find another route to reach the East. There were no other options but the West. MAGELLAN EXPEDITION (1518-1521)* Ferdinand Magellan, a Portuguese served as a soldier and was able to see the East (Asia) in 1505 and in 1511 (fall of Malacca). His original suggestion of reaching Maluku (Moluccas) via the West route was rejected by the Portuguese king. Magellan sought the help of Charles V of Spain so he could fulfill his dreamto sail to the Spice Islands via the West route.Thus, in 1519, he embarked on his voyage on board five outmoded ships with a crew of 235 men. He sailed around the Southern tip of South America passing through the Strait of Magellan (named after Magellan successfully passed through the narrow passage), across the Pacific Ocean. Magellan finally reached Philippines on March 16, 1521 (actual date is March 17, 1521). In the Battle of Mactan (April, 1521), Magellan and his army were defeated by the warriors of Lapu-Lapu, the islands datu. The death of Magellan resulted to the retreat of his surviving armies. Aboard the Victoria (smallest ship of the five), the Spaniards went back to Spain under the command of Juan Sebastian del Cano. IMPORTANCEOFMAGELLANS EXPEDITION 1.It proved that the world is round not flat, as many believed in. 23 2.It established that Pacific Ocean was larger than the Atlantic Ocean. 3.It inspired more expeditions and discoveries around the Globe. After the voyage of Magellan, Spain sent several expeditions to colonize the Philippines but these attempts failed except one. Some of these expeditions were those that started from Mexico: a. Saavedra Expedition (1527-29) b. Villalobos Expedition (1542-1546) c. Legazpi Expedition (1564)

Alvaro Saavedra Ceron reached the Philippines (Surigao in Mindanao) in 1528. During his stay, he performed blood-brotherhood ceremonies with the Filipinos. Two months later, Saavedra left for Timor. Loaded with spices, Florida, Saavedras ship attempted to return to Spain but failed due to strong winds, which kept pushing them back. Saavedra died of fever and his ship never returned to Spain. The remaining crew decided to surrender to the Portuguese (Fabella, 1998). Ruy Lopez de Villalobos was instructed by the Spanish crown to proceed to the Philippines and send back samples of Eastern products as well as reports describing local customs, religion, methods of warfare, and the local manner of life. In 1543, Villalobos reached Baganga Bay in eastern Mindanao. Saddled with hunger, the fleet searched for food in other islands. Again, like Saavedra, Villalobos proceeded to Timor and concluded agreements with the Portuguese so he and his fleet could stay. Later, in 1546, he decided to leave but fell sick and died (Fabella, 1998). The naming of Tandaya/Kandaya (Leyte) as Las Phelipinas in honor of then crowned-prince Philip II of Spain (later King Philip) is credited to Villalobos (although it was his men who gave the name as they reached the island scouring for food). Later the whole archipelago was named Philippines. The Legazpi Expedition (Miguel Lopez de Legazpi) embarked twenty-two years since Villalobos set sail for Philippines. On February 13, 1565, Legaspi reached Samar. He engaged in blood compact with the datus Si Katuna and Si Gala at Bohol. In April 1565, Legaspi established the first Spanish Settlement on Philippine soil at Cebu. It was named Ciudad del Santisimo Nombre de Jesus. In 1570, Legazpi sent an expedition headed by Martin de Goiti to conquer Maynilad (Manila), which at that time was ruled by Raja Sulayman. Goiti defeated Sulaymans warriors after a hard fight. In 1571, Legazpi decided to colonize Manila. As he approached Manila, Lakan Dula, last king of Tondo, paddled out to Manila Bay and welcomed the invaders. Hence, Legazpi landed in Manila without a bloody fight. Later on June 24, 1571, Legazpi proclaimed Manila as the capital of the Philippines (Fabella, 1998). THE COLONIAL ADMINISTRATION* Spains style or strategy in conquering the Filipinos was different from the way the Portuguese, English and Dutch conquered other Southeast Asian nations. It was deliberate in the Spaniards mind that he needed to change the natives personhood and way of life.It was a must for the Spaniard to share with the native a civilized life. The Spaniards mission was to save the natives soul from their traditional beliefs; hence, missionaries were sent throughout the archipelago. For the Spaniard, to become civilized meant to stay in a pueblo (town) under the control of the Spanish king, and be a Christian.This was possible by way of the Reduccion or resettlement (Kasaysayang Bayan). 24 Reduccion was no doubt a difficult but successful tactic of taming and Christianizing the wild natives. Under this system, the Spaniards established the plaza complexa settlement with the Church as its center, and surrounded by the settlers homes.The Spaniards gathered the scattered natives and forced them to settle in these colonially organized communities as Christian converts and little brown Spaniards. Unbelieving natives who rejected Spanish domination went to the mountains and were sternly branded as tulisanes (bandits). [See reader: The Colonial Townscape] Ultimately, in these colonial pueblos where Filipinos were resettled, the Spaniards introduced their god, food, games, celebrations, businesses and politics.

I.POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS The government of the Philippines under Spain was hierarchical in set-up. The pattern was adopted by the present government. A.Central Government: Governor-General B.Alcadia: Alcalde Mayor (Governor) Corregimiento: Corregidor C.Pueblo/Municipio: Gobernadorcillo (Mayor) Villa: Cabildo (City Council) D.Barangay: Cabeza de Barangay (Barangay Captain) THE GOVERNOR-GENERAL. The chief executive of the Philippines during Spanish times was the governor-general who was also known as the captain-general. As chief executive, he enforced royal decrees from Spain. He was the commander-in-chief of the Army. Until 1861, he was the president (chief justice) of the Real Audencia (Supreme Court). As the kings representative in the colony, he served as Vice-Real Patron, who had power over ecclesiastical appointments in the Church, which include the power to recommend priests. He exercised the power of a monarch and was the source of civil power for the local government THE ALCALDE MAYOR. He was considered the most corrupt official for having the privilege, indulto de commercio (abolished in 1844), which gave him the monopoly of commerce in his province. Filipinos (Indios) were given the chance to be a part of the government but to a limited extent. The highest government position a Filipino could attain was Gobernadorcillo. The gobernadorcillo was elected by the outgoing gobernadorcillo and by members of the principalia (land-owners, educated and prominent citizens of the town). The ROYAL AUDIENCIA. This was the Supreme Court. It tried all criminal and civil cases appealed by the lower courts.It also performed executive and legislative functions. Some of the laws promulgated by the Royal Audiencia were those restricting Chinese immigration, fixing of prices of commodities and enforcing rules ordering people to comply with religious duties. The RESIDENCIA. It was the judicial review of a recidenciado (one judged) conducted at the end of his term of office, supervised publicly by a juez de residencia. Punishments for erring officials were: heavy fines, sequestration of properties, and imprisonment. The VISITA. It was conducted by a visitador-general sent from Spain and occurred any time within the officials term, without notice.Wrongdoers were either fined, dismissed form office, or expelled form the colony. 25 UNION OF THE CHURCH AND THE STATE The Colonial Administration shared the power of governance with the Church. The church meddled with governmental functions and this led to the supremacy of the Church over the Government. Such kind of government was called FRAILOCRACY (government of the friars). Both the Church and the Colonial Government aired their grievances to the king of Spain regarding each others abuses and misconduct, but more often than not, the Church was given much favor and consideration. This was due to the Churchs unquestioned and great contributions to the Mother countrys colonial objectives. Tomas de Comyn wrote: Of little avail would have been the valor and constancy with which Legazpi and his worthy companions overcame the native of the island, if the apostolic seal of the missionaries had not seconded their exertions, and aided to consolidate the enterprise. The latter were the real conquerors; they who without any other arms but their virtues, gain over the goodwill of the islanders. Not only did the Church control politics, it also controlled education, and was active in economic matters (i.e., the religious orders owned the best estates in the Philippines). II. ECONOMIC INSTITUTIONS* A.TAXATION The Buwis (Tribute) may be paid in cash or in kind, partly or wholly, as palay or tobacco, chickens, textiles. In 1570, tribute was fixed at eight reales (one peso) or in kind (gold, blankets, cotton, rice) then it continued to increase until the end of the Spanish period. In 1884, the tribute was replaced by the cedula personal (equivalent to the residence tax) The Samboangan, a special tax of real or rice was collected to be used by soldiers in crushing the Moro raids. The Vinta and Falua (similar to the samboangan) were collected to shield coastal areas of Bulacan, Pampanga and the Bicol Region. The Bandala, an annual enforced sale or requisitioning of goods (particularly rice) was collected from farmers. The Cedula Personal or personal identity paper was required to be paid by everyone over eighteen years of age. The Tithes extracted by the Church were an additional burden to the taxes collected by the government. B. POLO [FORCED LABOR] Filipinos or Chinese mestizos aged 16-60 were drafted and were obligated to give personal service to community projects, like construction and repair of infrastructure, church construction, or cutting of logs, for forty days (until 1884, when it was reduced to 15 days). If one opted to be exempted from the polo, he had to pay the FALLA (half real per day).26 Although good in intention, the polo negatively affected agriculture because the working days coincided with the planting and harvesting seasons. It also contributed to deforestation and decimation of the male population (because many were compelled to work in the mountains, thus leaving their families behind). C.ENCOMIENDAS: ROYAL AND PRIVATE Encomienda (from the word, encomendar, meaning, to entrust) was another revenue-getting measure of the colonial government.It was a grant from Spain to a meritorious Spaniard to exercise control over a specific place including its inhabitants. The Encomendero was duty-bound to defend his encomienda and its inhabitants, and to assist in the mission to Christianize its inhabitants. In return, he had the right to impose tribute in his jurisdiction. 2 TYPES OF ENCOMIENDA 1.Royal/Crown: lands reserved for the crown and included the principal towns and ports. 2.Private: granted to individuals who have rendered meritorious performance to the Spanish crown. D. GALLEON TRADE [MANILA-ACAPULCO TRADE] Through the galleon trade (derived from the name of the ships used to transport goods from one country to another), American-Asian commerce flourished, but only a very few privileged Spaniards were benefited. Chinese migrants and mestizos were lured to establish their shops and businesses because of the galleon trade and not for long they were able to control retail and small credit business. And as for the rest of the Filipinos, they remained to be poor. [See Chinese and Chinese Mestizos] Filipino polistas were compelled to cut wood and construct galleon ships for the Spanish traders. Worst, agriculture and cottage industries further retarded for logging and construction of ships coincided with planting and harvesting. Nevertheless, the galleon trade resulted to intercultural exchanges between the Filipinos and the Americans. E.ROYAL ECONOMIC SOCIETY OF FRIENDS OF THE COUNTRY AND THE PHILIPPINE ROYAL COMPANY Governor-general Jose de Basco y Vargas formed a society of learned and competent persons capable of producing useful ideas, thus the RESoFotC, which was composed of businessmen. The society monopolized the tobacco, coconut, and liquor industries. The so-called enlightened despot gave incentives to those who produced products of good quality. The society earned significant credits and recognition for its accomplishments during its existence. Someachievements of the RESoFotC: 1.granted agricultural training and scholarships 27 2.introduced the mynah birds (martinez) to combat migratory locusts 3.implemented the Carabao ban in 1782 to conserve the said animal 4.constructed the fi