1..,.. ) .' ,I , , ;. :) : . Maria Christine N. Halili 1'/w.d & [);ott1b

2. RBS Philippine Copyright, 2004 by Rex Book Store, Inc. Philippine History Fir&t Edition 2004 ISBN 971-23-3934-3 Cl,.sification: Text!look (04SS0000l) IU!PliJNTI!D: FESROAJIY2006 Published, copyrighted 2004, and distributed by ~ Book Store, Inc. (RRSI) with main office at 856 Nic~tnor Reyes,Sr. St .Samp~>loc, Manila; 1'el No. 73513-64. Regioaal Offices: 11SanciangkoSL.,Cebu City, Tel.Nos. 251-e773, 254-e774; lS, Annabelle and Merhama for theil: inspiration and prayers. M.C.N.H iii 4. Preface Knowing the inipre_,;,;ions left by past generatiom; tdls us that valuable lessons can be learned from hi.-;tory. The transition of the Filipino society hoin the earlyphases of tcchnologic;al development up to its preparation towanls glol>a lb: IX 8. 8. l.nstmments of Exploitation 9. Political Reorganization F.. Towards the Jlispanization of the Natives 1. Economy 2. Education 3. Arts and Science 4. Rt'ligion F. Foreign Affairs 1. Sino-Philippine Relations 2. Dutch Attempts 3. Briti!;h Ckcupation C. Struggle for Rights ~nd freedom 1. Revolt of Lakandula and Sulayrnan 2. First Pampanga Revolt 3. !fagat Salama! and the Tondo Conspiracy 4. Magalat':; Revolt .S. Revolt of the Irrayas ' 6. Rt'volt of Tamblot 7. Revolt uf Bankaw 8. !Wvolt of Ladia 9. Revolt of Oabm1 10. Maniago'11 Ri'Vult 11. Malong's Rl'Vlt 12. Revolt ofGum,lpus lJ. Revolt of Pechv Alma~an 14. Sumoroy's RPVoll 15. Tapdr 's Revolt 16. Dagnhor's Revolt 17. Silang's l~evoll 18. Palaris's Re,olt 19. Revolt in Defcns~ of the Spanish Constitution l( 9. 20. Revolt of the Bayot Brothers 21. RP.ligious Revolt of Hermano Pule 22. Muslim Y..'ars 23. Factors that Gave Rise to Nabona lism 24. Propaganda Movement 25. The Katipunan 26. Revolution of1896 27. Rivalry in the Peatipunan 28. The Biak-na-Bato Republic 29. Spanish-American War 30. Filipino-American Collaboration H. The Birth of a Nation 1. Proclamation of Philippine lndependcnre 2. "Battle" of Manit~ 3. The Mdloloo Republk I. The American Rule 1. War of Philippine independence from the United St.ltes 2. The Philippines under the American Civil Government 3. Our American Heritage 4. Philippine Independent Church 5. Tht> Colonuns 6. l...md Tenure System 7. The First l abor Groups 8. Communist Party of the Philippiies 9. Sakdalism 10. Philippine l'olitic-5 During the Era J. Commonwealth Period 1. The Tran~ilion 2. Decades of Unrest 3. Entry of Japanese Imperial Forces xi 10. K. Th(' Japanes~ Occupation l. }apanmentioned premises, the c'Xchangr lh~ory of..AlY,in 5q.(f. may be clltefully thought about. His ~xchangt> theory refers to the systematic statemtd on the idea of reciprocjty. There arc some motivational forccs lound in the society Jffccting the aclions of people involved in the siluation. A,~a.ll as nation~ are also rooted in the idea of intel"(;hange. One of the most prominent thinkers of the 19'" century was Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Ileggl_ (1770-1831), a Gennar> idealist philosopher.Hegel conceived thesubject matterophilosophy tobe TE"alily a5 a who!~. This reality he reftmed to as the Absolute Spirit. For him, the task of philosophy is to chart the development of the Absolute Spirit. Hegel's role ufhi~toriciJI man follows a princople,whiationof thesis and antith~sis. man achieves thesynthe~is, which is the historical reality. Applylng this theory in hist(>ry, thlrc were guerilla fighters ir> World War 11 who were guidld by their sense of duty and responsibility to lead the people during the warfare. The situ.1tion was the Japanese invasion. The combination of their thoughts like parriotism and heroism rerulted to their historica l;~cts, m.tnifesled through their deeds and exploits in the battles that Wl!re fought against the Japanese forces during the war era. In understanding histo~~,JJ;_Othei..~Jii?!Y,I.Q be consiWn!ic theory of Karl M&'rx, anotifer German phlosopher. He asserts that the prevailing economic ~ystem determ.ines the form of societal organiT.aion and the political and intdlectual hi~tory olthe epoch, whlch thus attributeactions andev;,nts in history to economic 2 18. motives. Th~ struggl~ to maintain !if(' is the most enduring motivation for any human activity. To cite anin.~tance, the intensification of inter-island contacts and theincreasingspecialization in craftsmanship by early dwellt>rs were brou~ht about by economic consideration. Cenrurie:; of trade and personal relations with Southeast Asian neighbors led to the enrichment of Filipino life and culhtrc. A~ more d wcllcrs trildcd with foreig n m~rchRnts, influences in the field of commerce, scienn~. religivict.,.!'lt as they were transmitted to other members of the society. Another example is thE' Spanish colonial t>ra. [t !oils !Jet'n !>aid that tht! three primary motives for vastexploration oflands were for God, gold and glory, but the main incentive w.ls for economic reasons. Colonies are important sources of raw materials and opporiUnillt'S fur invt'Stment. Spain was at th~ height of its vower in the 16"' century since it exercised political and economic control in its several colonies. The Conummist Mtulifesto written by Marx which contains the stMraphy developed by Ferna nd Braud11l (1902-1985), considered the fa ther of rustorical s tructuralism. Accord ing to Braude[, tn achieve a " tot~ ! history," all aspc of people for ev-ei:. 3 19. increa:;ing freedom and for newer and higher rPilli7.ation of the human person." It is not about the ~tory of man as the indiv,dua!, but man as the associated man. Man interacts with nature ami with other men, thtL~ consciously changing his own per:;pective and to some extent, the sy~tem of environment. Based on Constantino's supposition that Phi!ippilll.' history is a stQry uf ~truggle, the study has to be rC.15Se55ed with a n11tion~list perspective in the interestof objectivity. This is to allow themodl!m Filipino to fmm a cl~ar picltJre of his ancestors' conditions and sentimmts (rom the puintof view ofFilipino writers to >rrect some h1storiehistoricartifacts. 'They are now keptat the UniversityofMichigan. From 1926 to the outbreak of the Second World War, much of the archaoological discoveries were done by Henry Otley Beyer (1883-1966) born in Edgewood. Iowa who halt married Lingayu Gambuk, the 15year-old daughterofa powerfullfugaochiefin1910. The dls, resulting from the cortstructton of a dam for Manila's water supply, was Beyer's first archaeological resench in the country. In 1947, Beyer published the Outline ReviewofPhi11ppit11' ArdllJrology by 1,,; and Prwinces, a pion~ring research activity in Philippine prehistory. Larry Wilson, a mining prospector, assisted St-yer in !he exploration of numt>rous Pleistocenesites in Northern Luzon. It was eyer who first disdO!>ed the importance of Palawan in the search for early man in the Philippines. All over the archipelago, the fOS&ilized remains of large mammals that roamed the islands during the Middle 1-'ld~ toccne Epoch have been discovered in the 1920s. The fossils o( el epha~, !>tegodons, rhinoceroses,and deerhave beendiscovered inCagayao, Pangasinan, Rizal, Panay Island and in Northeastern Mindanao.The elephos, ~tegodon, and rhinoceros are now extinct in the COUltry. 6 22. In Cabarmyan Island in Lingay~n Gulf, fossilized tooth of a dwarf elephant was reported to have been retrieved. This specie of d warele-phantwassubsequently identified and named f.lt>p/11:s beyeri afler H. OtiP.y lleyer, considered as the Father of Philippine Arch~wlogy and Pnhistory. Von Koonigswald, ~ palfontologist known for his work on Java Man, gave the name for this specie. After the SecondWorldWar. increased in~i in ltte prehistoric beginning!'! of ~ Philippines evolved. Archaeology w~ later on introduced as part of the curriculum at the Univer!;ily of the Philippines. Wilhelm G. Solheim nconducted the first postwarexcavations in :vtasbate lsl,md from 1951 to 1953. Alfredo Evangcli~;ta and E. Ar~enio Manut~l a~"isted him in undertakkg ehe work. Behvcen 1950 and 1954, Solheim was the reSt~a rch associate at the Museum ofArchaeology .1nd 13thnology of the University of the Fhilippines and the librarian and curator of the American Historical Collection of tht- U.S. embassy in Manila. His earliest works in Philippine archaeology was in 1951, w ith the publications on .uch.1cological fieldwork in San1'arciso, Tayabas (nowQuezon). Ilis activities ino uded extensive field experience in Southea..~t Asia, as well as the various islands of the Pacific Region. from 1958 to 1962, Robert B. foxa.nd Allredo Evangelista, both working for the National :1uscum ot the Philippines, undertook series oftest-digs in thecave~ ofCagraray,Aihayand Bato, Sotsogon. Tradt-ware ceramics from China and l1her poin~ out that many of the author's data do not tally with what we hear fromold men. The ;tuthorwrote that two of hi!; m.a.nuscripts were rottenand hardlylegible.I'oneofthesewritten materials was preserved for future generationli. He made no explanation aboul thedatea~ wella.~ theoriginofhis sources.Neither were there claims toclarity. There ill no traditionofrecording hLtory nor !~gal decision in Panay during the precolonial times. Thus the Maragtas could neither support the presence of any pre-Spanish Confodt.rntinn oflv!Jidiaas (also spelled as Madyaas) nor uphold tM exiltcnce of a Sumakwel Code. Previously regarded a~ the :;econd oldest legal code in the Philippine:> was the.Code.of'Kblantiaw. Thi~ code was said tobe a set of ancient laws promulgated in 1433 by Datu &ndara Kalantiaw (Spanil;h spelling, Calanliao) of Aldan, the third Muslim ruler of Panay. The code itself was contained in one oJ the c}:lapters of the f,a~ antiguas leyendas tit' /a isla de Negros (Ancient Legends of Negros Island) writtenby Fr. fosc Maria Pavon,a Sparush secularpriestwho became a parish priest of 'Himamaylan, Ncgros Occtdentalin1838 1839. Jo$1! E. Mai'Co of Negros OccidePtal d~overed the alleged Pavonmanuscriptsand presented it to Dr. jam~Robertson,Dire:tor ofthe Philippine Libraryand M~um in1914. According to Marco's confession, heobtained the two manuscript volumes from someone who had stolen them from tht! H!mamaylan COilWnto during the Revolution. Direc.tor Robertson had the Pavon manuscripts published in its English ltanslation in 1917. The Philippine Slud!e; Program of the University of Chicago reprinted the translation in 1957. Eventually, filipino hi~torians and textbook writers acknowledged the auth~nlicily of the Pavon manuscripts without any doubt. In tMunprecedented doctoralstudyofScott, he concluded that the Pavon manuscripts were not genuine and that the Code of Kalantia.w was a hoax. He presented his serious objections to this fakc sale of other fake historical document~. There is no histotical evidence for the exisrence ofDatu Kalantiaw,ora code ofhis name other than the documents presented by Jose Marco. 2. The conbmt:; of the manuscript arc of dubious value. For example, the ;~uthor prays for the preservation of the King ofSpain in 1838 and dedicate~ a book to him in 1839, but Spainhad no king between 18:33 and 1874. 3. The author also states that the month of :-.Jovember was called a bad month for it brought air laden with putrified microbes ofevilfevers. It was only in the 1850s that Louis Pasreur discovered the theory of infectious germs. The word "microbe" itself was invented by Dr. Charles EmmanuelSed.illot.Heproposed the term forthefin>t time in a ledun:! before the Academy of Sciences in 1878. ol. The Ka!antiaw Code contains many strange edicts that contradict the character of the Filipino. For example, the code prescribed deathpenalty for the crime of tresspassing on the datu's house, but imposed only 11 year's slavery for stealing his "''ife. Eventually, Scott's doctoral dLm, whi(h was thOc'ptE'vailing helicf during his time. Catastrophism asserts that only major catctstrophes could alter the formation of the earth. Map~ or charts covering the enticeworld or specific regions are contained in an atl~ Ptolt>my, an Alexandrian scholar produced the first collection of maps in about A.D. 150. In Lht> 16"' c.entury. Gerardus Mercator used the tenn atlas in the title ofhis colletiion of maps. "!he term was derived from the custom of plating the Greek mythological figure Atlas holding the t>arth on his ~h.oulders un the title pages of map is Terrarum (Theater of the Earth). was published in 1570 by Abraham OrMiu~, a Dutch cartographer. 17 33. Ortelius noticed that the Amerkan continents seemed to hreakingup approximately200 million yearsago, earlier into a northern porlion. which he named Laurasia and a southernportion, termed Gondwanalandby the Au~trian geologist Eduard Suess. Wegener supported his theory with fos~il evidence. Plant and animal fossils from thccoastlincsofSouth Amerka and Africa found to match. Fos~ils in unlikely climates further defended his claim, such as the discovery of tropical plant fossils in Antarctica and of glacial deposit!! in Africa. DuringWegener's lifetinw, his theory did not receive scientific validationsince the technological means toprove ithad not yetbeen develo~. During those days, mostpeoplebelieved that all earlh's formations never move. Arthur Holmes (18901965), a Briti~h geologist advocated support for Wegener's theory. Jn l928, he proposed that the convection currents within the earth's mantle driven by radioactive heal might have caused the mechcmism fur continental drift. In the 1950s, scientists began ocean()graphic rewarch, which revealed thephenomenon known ~s5eafloorspreilding. In the 1960s, the theory ofplate tectonics was established. The plates of the earth move. The theory explains that the lithosphere (the outer layer of the earth) move sideways above a. less rigid layer called the ~sthenosphere, whicl is und~r ~xtremc pressure. Eventually, the theoryofcontinental driftgained far-reachingacceptance in the field of science. 18 34. The surfacl'ofthe earth i.o;continuallychangingbecauseofforce::; either from tht"intemal heat of the earth or the energy produ also known as hydrologk cycle which eventually results to the washing outofsoiL 2. Geological Foundation J>rior to the appearance of modern man in the Philippine archipelago, hi~tory has to depend on the war~ of ~cologists. The geologists s~ek to understand how the earth evolved into what it is todayand forecast possible geologic events. In Arthur Holmes' book 1'heAge ofthe Earth (1913}, he developed a geologic timescale, which he continued to work on until 19:'i9. 'The d.11cs given for certam geological formationsareWormedestirnalP.S,in termsofyears before the presenI (BI'). Accon1in& lopresent estimates, the piM el earth is between 4.6 a11d 4.8 billion ye,.rs BP. The first dinosaurs were believed to have appeared iround 225 million ycirs ago, during the Mesozoic Era. At about65 millions years ago, the dinosaurs thatonceoc.:upled the valleys, plains, and swampsbe-came extinCt. It isbdievetl that these huge creatures perished with a huge mc-toorit~ that hit the eaTUI or with shattering volcanic e ruptions. The Philippine soil iscompos~d ofnumerous rocks, which came from regions r.,r from the archipelago's present location. It w~ during the T"rliary period of the Cenozoic F.ra (54 million years- 2 million years BP) that the land structure of the Philippines was defined. In the northem part, the P.hilippine archipelagowa.~ believed to be adjoined to Formosa (now Taiwan) during the Eocene {53- 54 million years BP) and Oligocene epochs (37 - 38 million years BP). However, the Formosanconnection wassevered during the Miocene epoch (26 m illionyears BP). The comt>ined effect~ ofvolcanism and other tectonic movements of the basement complex brought about the disjunction. Asconnections with other areaschang~d, the internal structure of the archip"lago also underwent changes with.the flattening of thecrustalsurfael!of theexistinghighergrounds during the Pliocene epoch (7 -13 million years 'BP). The emergence of man onearth was estimated al 5 million yt"ars BP. 19 35. Pleistoceneepoch (1.6millionyears to 10,000 years BP), the first divisionof the Quaternaryperiod is theepoch prior ltJ the Holocene epoch (10,000 year.~ BP tothe present). During the Pleistoceneepoch, the earth underwent e that there occurred four cold phas-l't'Sia. When the Sunda and Sahul Shelves were exposeJ, tht> land bridges were believed to have connected most of Indonesia, New Guinea and Atstralia. Dark-skinned people, ances tors to the Ausl ra loid.~. tTavelcd across the bridges to :-Jew Guinea and other islands of Mel;mesia. '!he Mongoloid p10ple thtm populil t~d New Guinea and gradually journeyed to the southeast by sailing canoes. Several changes in the land formation in tt>e archipelago took place toward the end of the Plei~tocPnc due to a number of factors likevolcruuceruptions,erosion, faulting, and foldinR ofthegeological base of thP. ifiland~. Tht> J>lcistoccnc lasted for a long perioc.l of tine. Al the height of th~ interglacial period, a great riversystemflow~xl from the int~rior ot Asia n1n to refer to l.A!yte and Samar. Later, it was given to the whc>le ar:chipt:!lago. In 1751, Fr. ]udn J. Delgado, a Jesuit historian called Manila, Pc'f'lrl of lirc Oriml since it became a rich outlet of Asian trade even prior to the comingof th~ Spaniards in the archipt'lCigo.Dr. Jose lllial, the country's foremost hero, gave the name p,.,,, oftlrtOrimt Srrs to his nal'iveland on the eve of his execution in 1896. The name Filipinn~ first appeared in a rare map published in Venice in 1554by Giovanni BatHst.1 Ramu.r,io, an Italian geographer. Th~ Spanish Filil'inas or Ftlipi>r.1~ was later chiiih":!U to Philippine Islands (P.I.) during the Amerlc.an colonial era. It was n.'llamcd Republic of the Philippines (R.P.) after the recognition of its independence in 1946. There were some Filipin~ who proposed new names for the Philippines :;ince the name of our country was gven by the coloni.zens. Artemio Ricarte, a Katipunan general, wanted it to be called the Rizalillt' R~pu/J/ic, after Jose Rizal. former President Ferdinand Marcos propoeed the name Mahnrlikn (also tht> name of his guC!'rilla group in World War II), alter hi~ dream of making this nation (rt'at again. 4 Geography and Resources The Philippines, found in.the Western Pacific Ocean, has an asti'Onomicallocation of 4 23'21"25' N. l.atitudt:! and l16127"E. Longinde. lt is situated in the SOLL!beastem portion of Asia. Taiwan bounds the country on the north, on the west by South China St:!a and Vietnam, on th~ east by the Pacific Ocean, on the south by the Celebes Se~ and Indonesia and, on the southwt>:>t by :vfalaysia and Singapore. ~try has 61 natural harbors(with20 lilndlocked straits). Manila Bay, th~ finest naturaIharbmin the Far East. has on area ofl,970 square kilumet~rs. Palawan, which forms the country's western boundary, has a t.ottiug /Julik (striped .~hark). The Philippine archipel;,go hl!s rich d~>posits oi gold, copper, inm, lead, manganese,nickel, chromite, sil,er and other metalTe io,md. and those who h,wc entered and eng~ Nortt>; San Migut!l, Buldcan; Marinduque; and Samilr. Thegreatest iron-bearingareain the rountry is Smigao. The world's ling tappl>d in Ct>bu, Sorsogon, Masl>atc, t. In most of the islands. rainy season occurs frum May to November. During this period. the wind blow:. from the soothwest. Often, thecountry and Clllture. Since the 19'" century, Fihpinos h,ove been rderred to as the Christiani:ed Malays whoconstitute thebulkofthepopulation. They 30 46. are thedescendantsofthose whow~re colonizedby Western settlers. Nwncrically greater in nwnber are the Visayais (primarily in the central pMlion of the archipelago) and the Tagalogs. The Cebuanos, Ilonggos, ancl Waray-Waray comprise a big number among the Vi~ayans. In the Visaya~, the llonggos live in Western Negros, in Southern Mindoro and in Panay Island while the Ccbuanos predominate in Cebu, W~tern Leyte, Buhol, Eastern 1'egros, and in ~omc coast..'! areas of Mindanao. The Waray-Watays are in the provinces of Samar and Eastern Leyte. Mo&t of th" Tagalogs live in Manila, in Central Luzon, and Southern Luzon. People coming from certain provinces in the Tagalog region like Batangas, Bulacan,zonhaveintonations oi their own. The Ilocanos are considered the third biggest group. They live particularlyin!locos1'orte,llows Sur, anci La UnionbutITh"'ny havc rrtigratcd locally and abroad. Other members of the populace include the Pangasine~$, Pampangueiius, Zamhals, lbilnags{Cagayanos), and Bicolanos. The Pangasinenses live in the Lingayen Gulf region of Pangasinan, including the province o Panga~inan. :Many of them have already migratP.d in other provinces of Central Luzon. The Pampangueiios or Kapampanganslivc inCentral Luzon,particularly in tht? province oi Pry. HnRabi, a chairsculpted from a large mass of wood, plays an important part in the livf's of the lfugaos. This indicates the high position of the owno:r in tht' community. The Igorots live on rootcrops grown in their yard and on wild pigs. deer, and fowl in the fore~t. The lgorots of lht> pR~t engage in headhunting to avenge the death of a lcin or tnbesman. This custom is least pra~ticed nowada~. The Bontoks ba~ically do hunting and agriculture for a living. They perform rituals like bngbgion. The young generations that have g'onc to schools in the Chr~ti~n lowlands have almost adopted the way of life of the lowland communities. Other indigenous group,c; are the Gaddangs of Isabela, the Negrito.Qor Aetas of Zambalcs Jnd the hin!erlar)d.Q; the :'vlangya.ns of Mindoro; the Tagbanuas, Bill~k. Tau't Bato, Moll>of,s and Jama- Mapuns of PCllawan; Mam.1nwa (a Nl>grito group) or Surigao del Norte; the Kalibugilns, Subanuns, and Samal5 of Zamboanga del Sur; the Manobos, limrays, Iranuns, ~nd T bolis of Maguindanao, Cotabato, and Sultan Kuctral; Mandayas of Davao Oriental; Bagobm;.md B'!aansof Davao del Sur; Yakan~ ofBasil.m; theTausugs oftht>SuluArchipelago, the B}ersed from an island in Southeast Asia. Wilhelm Solheim II of the Univcm;itv of Hawaii has been the leadin~ pr('pnnent of this idea. lie assu~es that Proto Austronesian developt'd p rimarily in Northeastern Indonesia and Mindanao Island. expanding northward s w ith a developing maritime population through the Philippine Archipelago and into 'laiwan. 1-'mm thmr. they rcacheci South Chma. 40 56. Solheim II believes that it was the Nusnntao (the maritime- oriented p~historic poople) who developed l'roto-AUlltronesian as a trade language along the coasts of Northern Luzon, Southern Taiwan, and South China. between 4,500 and 5,000 B.C. Historians pn.>5uppose that between 300 and 200 B.C., inhabitants of Malay-Polynesian desc~t settled in the Philippine archipelago. They were mainly an agricultural and fishing people, others wandered from place to place. There were 30 to 100 families in a soc:iety known as bnrangay. Tool assemblages, clothing, pottery, jewelry and the like arc technologicalartifact~. Thc5e man-madeobjectamed. A country's past history unveils its cultural tradition. Culture may be a5Sociated with manuhctured material:;, for these are prodICts of human behavior. Certainly, the structuring of the early Filipino society has t>ccn achieved in response to the needs of prehistoric Philippine communities. Old Slone Agt'or Pall'olitl1ic Period (50,000-10,000 B.C.) i~; the era ofcrude stone tool~and weapon~. In the Philippine~, it wa~ believed to have gtarted in Cy hunting. These stone tools could ue us"'d for smashing thebonesof ol.li.Jrulls and shellfish that they have gathe!'t'tf. Tht!:;e implements may aln be u~d in cutting. splitting. stripping and piercingwoodenbranches, palm leave., and bamboo.Treebarks we.re used for dothing. Certainly, with~ alnondance of fi.~h in riven; and seas, methods o{ preparing food were con~ived . Archaeological evidence shows kitoilaw to bt- the earliest method of p!'t'paring fish for con~umplion where vinegar or limcjuice enhances thl.' ta~tl.' of th~t fish. In Mindanao, the juicP. of the ta/xm~tabo11 (Nydrophytum orbiC'ulutum), a green fruit, is added to remove tht- fishy smcU. In Leyte and Cl.'bu. they use coconutmilk. The selection of the T.;bon C':md Old Malay. The copper object is now caJle:e. Antoon Postma, a Dutch national who has lived with the Mangyansfora longtime and thedirectorof the Mangyan Assistance and Rese11rch Center in Mansalay, Oriental Mindoro, wa.~ able to unlock the message un the copper material. The l.CI i~ an offidal record imprinted in the Sala.ltiWikain (proverb~), legends. myths, and poems. Some of the folk epic~ of the early time.~ indud(:: t'hc Jlocano Lflmtmg, the lfugao Alim and Hudltud, the Kalinga Uf,l/im, the Bicol Hnndiong, the Maranao Banlu~m1, and the Magumdanao lndampMrn and Sulaymmr. Thecustoms and traditions of the early Filipinos bear Hindu influen ce. Amon~ them We'l't' c1S follows: the placing of ~ lre!S in the hom;e of theb ride'sparents by the groom before the wedding, the throwing of rice grain.~ to the newlyweds after the matrimonial cc~mony by the guP.sts; and the offering ofltuyo (mixture of bctclnul, ikmo IE'af, and limt") to a gu~t a~ an expression ofho~pilality. 'lherf' Wt"re early supt'rslilil>n$ in the country that enme frorn Indiani:~..:-d migrants. Until today. many believe that a girl. whusings in front of the stove while cooking will marry a widowt:"r und that a cat dearring its face indicates the coming ol a visitor. Likewise. eating twin bananas would cause o mother to give birth to twins. ThE' mode ofdressing in preSpanish Philippin~:; shows Indian influences. The putong (turban) of the early Filipino mt!n and the snr()ng (lower garment) of the early Filipino women resemble thl' Indian p11t1~s and .~ri. The archaeological relics excavated in the Philippine$ further indicate Indian influence:;. SomP. oi th Filipino nirjunks ldtChuanchow, Canton and other ports in China and trailed with lhe pr.oplc of Lingayen, Manila, Mindoro, and Sulu. In 1225, Chdu Ju- kla, a Chin~SC Superintendent of Foreign 'JT-,ldc described China's tr~dt> with Mai in his book Ch~1,,. )11 as being tattooed up to the neck. 49 65. During the reign of Zhu Di (Chu 1i), the Yu.ng-Jo Emperor in 1403 to 1423 when China was expanding the boundarie~ of its domain, he induced the countries vi.~ited hy his missions to pay tributes to the Ming court. Th$ttey, and o~oy. The Chinese al~o taught the filipino.~ the use ofSt'IISOnings 50 66. like I01JO (soysauce) and ta!ntri,andplantvegetables likebatnw,petsay and upo. During the early times. the Filipino manner of dressing bore Otincsc traces. "I"M sl.ccved jackets ('.a~ngan) of the Filipino males, the loose trousers of the Muslim womenofMindano, and the u.se of slippers, wooden shoes (!mkya), fan~; and umbrellas were of Chinese origin. The social customs of the early Filipinos showed Chint-se influence. Among then1 were the arrangementof marriage by the parents of theboy and the girl, thehiringofa go-between inmarital negotiations, the honoring of depart~d ancestors and the employment ofprofessional mournt-rsduring the fune.ral. Certain existing social customs bear indications of Chinese origin like the blasting of fircxrackcrs on Ne": Yeat's Eve, the bt!ating - of gongs to celebrate a feast, and the collcxtion of tong (percentage fee) by the owner of a gambling joint. Haggling between the merchant and the customer to arrive at a price for a commodity is another practice that the natives have lert3in to kinship and family relation,;, clothes, ornaments, food and d rinks, agriculture and commerce, tools and occupations, and absttact ideas. AmOng these areas follows:trte (oldersister),san~ (third older sister), kuya (older brother), diko (second older brvther), sangko (thiro older brother), suki (friend), gunti1g (scissors), lliyu (shame), l'akyaw (wholesale), and .~u~i (key). In the 13'" century, Japan was said to haye traded with the Philippines based from the early historical rerords in Ryukyu. Japanese Wrlkos (pirate-ITadetli) sailed the Orirnt waters, and many of them were able to r.!ach the Philippine ardupelago. The Japanese madesome early contributions to Filipino culture and economy. They taught our people some industries such as the rrumufacture of ann as follows: first, the profr~.;iol! of faith (f'.ha!mdtt): ''TI1ere is no God but Allah, and Muhammad is the :>,{co;.in~ (Ulk.tl which is the obligatory giving of one fortieth oi one's income to the needy or religious cause to purify one's wealthand attain salvation;fourth, thepilgrilll8C toMtcca (/Uijj} which i.~ a mandatory onccinalifetiml:' trip to the H(')use of God (the Ilping other Muslins and prc3ching J~lam. lt has Jat~ly t"volved to holy war. which focused on the militant interpretation of the jihnd. Islam had lefther !.1sting imprrs.Gion on the life .tnd culture of the :.luslim Filipinos, which include the Maranaos of Lanao, Maguindanaons of Cotabato, Samals of Zamboanga, Yakans of Dasilan, and '!llUsugs of Sulu. 'Ihe m()l;que is their special place of worship and point of ~:onvergence for social activity. It was buill as 'link to Mecca. With Islam, came the sultanate form of government, together with th title of political dib'Ilitaries, such as sultan (supreme ruler) rajll muJr1 (heir apparent), dayang (princess}, and kali fjudge); the Arabic alphabet, Islamic holid,ly~, and the Arabic arts. Slngkil (a Mararu~o word for "gettinga leg or fool entangled in an object"} originated from L~nao del Sur. Thed;mcers. withsulerrm faces and dignificd pose, dre~~ed in elegant Muslim costumes begin dancing in a slow pace, whi('h soon prugrt!SSes to a faster tempo to the rhythmic clapping ofcrisscrossed bamboos. The ladles gracefully wave big fans wh1l~ th~ men glide with brightly colored handkerchief~. When performed by ladies of the royalty of Lanao, the dance is u:oually u~hered by a waiting lady. who holds all exquisitely 54 70. embellished lmbrella over the Princess' head wherever she goes. Legend has it that singkil originated from the time the diWIJtas (nymphs or fairies) played a jokeon Princess Gandingan as she was on a stroll. The diUH!/S/.5 caused t:hc trees to tremble and the rocks to roll; however, the princess skipped nimbly from place to place unhanned. In their artworks, the MAran~os used t:he oldr or okkil design, a curvilinear floral design. The different lJ'Pes of okki/ design appear as border decoration on the cover and in the pages of the Qu'r01n. They are also replicated in furniture, boats, farm implements, silverware, brassware, jewelry, and ceramics. Similar okir designs were also made on ancesiTaI hou.~ called torogan. The indigenous bird motif, the sarimanok, is also said to have been developed by the Maranaos. It is decorative in nature, having the appearance of a bird or rooster holding a fish in its claws or beak. Another artistic expression by the :Muslims is the Tausug kri~. Tbi.s is 8 :r.ig?.ag type ofs'"'ord. These swords were not onlyused as weapons but also considered as great works of arts, at time~ inlaid with silver and gold orpearls.One fearsome weaponwas the iantaka {switel gun) pia on flexible bE'ams that aUowcd the gunner to pur!rue a moving target. lhe people in a society colle. They drew blood from their ann~ and mixed it with wine, which they shared and drank at the samP. llme .'IS viewed by witnesses. Chroniders notl'd anu characterized the soci..'ll ~!ratification sy~tem o)f pre-colonial Filipino community organi7.~tlun based on we:alth. political int1uenc~.> and social privileges enjoyed. Tht> ranks Wl!re as follows: (1) the datu class or the rnlingclass; (2) the rmzhnrliJ:a or the aristocracy; (3) the lirrw.~un (pronounced timawa} or the common class; and the (4) oz/ipi11 (also known as uriro11 among the Visay.ms} or the Jependmt dass. TI1t rlllfu or rajah ruled the l~rrmrgt11;. Since the tenn bara11g.1.1J c.1me from the word balnngay, which means boat, 1-'r. Juan de Plasencia, a Spi!nish chronicler in the 16"' century, speculated that the role oi the dulu arose from the captain of a boat migJating to the Philippines with hisfamily, relatiws, and servants. Miguel de Loarca, in his Rt'lacion de Ia; Isla$ filrrina.< (1582) said that the dntus who Jive in the same town obey thP. wr:>althiest among them. Furthermore, AJtonio de Morga in his SIICfSOS do Ia,; /sl,7s Fi!ipinas mentioned that only the best warriors woerc obeyed. The Boxer Codo:. an anonymous late 16'" t:entmy manuscript m.-ntioned thatonly men wert! qualified fur the title.Thedatu's power depends upon the failhfulm'Ss oi hi~ followers. The dat" exerci~ed admlni,.;trativP powers. In arriving at important decisions, thedatu also exerd.;ed k:gislative powers, mlling his peo~le all tog..'ther and securing theirconsent. I Ie had the duty to protect his community. A lf,lfll al~o was given judicial powers since he could nmder judgment in any dispute. He should ht!ar the testimony of the duimllnts before handling down the vudicl. His d~ci:;ion could be ~p pe~ led to an arbiter of the cfclimdnts' chtlice from another ctmlmunity. Control over dispo~ition of barangay real property WdS ve.st~d in their native chief. The chieftAin. received the agricultural produce, 72. ~rsonal services as well as respect from his people. He took his share of the harvest as tribute except from th~ aristocracy or the mahar/iial. Other historiaru:s include the family, relatives, and elder.i of the datu as members of the aril;tocracy. The malulrlikas werebelieved to be the descendants of mixed marriages between a ruling dynasty and one out of power. lhe timmwdassenjoyed theirrights to a portion ofthebarangay land. Their normal obligation was agricultural labor but they were al, and gold anklet~ filled with agates, carnelians and other colored glass. The women worea wide-sleeved blouse calJed baro. Theirskirt was called pnladyong. Their per.sonal trimmings consisted of necklaces, bracelets, earrings and rings made of gold at times filled with pearls, carnelian beads, and other precious gems. Nunerous typeR of glass and stone beads hCJve been unearthed in Philippine archaeological ~itcs, providing substantial proof of early tradt relations of the archipelago with foreign lands. One personal garb in the islands wa~ the ~alakot (native hat), worn as protection from heat or sudden rain. Generally made of annhaw (.tforcstpalm), thesnlakot was widely ustd in Central Luzon and the Visayas. The nonggots used ~ather (from animals they hunt) in making shallow hats, while neighboring Bontoks used coiled rattan.The lfugaos, on the other hand, wore perfectly fittl!d carved bowl-like hats, while the Maranaos and the l:lagobo~ (Davao) made wooden hats as shields for combat. When the firstSpaniards arrived in the 16'" century, they were surprised to see the early Filipinos living in these well-organized and independent villages, the barangays. The native dweUers lived in houses made of wood and bamboo. roofed by nipa palmlea,es called bahny ktti:to (nipa hut}. Oth~ materials u~ed include yantok (rattan), cogan grass. !tone, and clay. TheS houses with an r, along the seashore. ThE'ir domiciles were on stilts, high enough to Jet their boats dock under themeven at high tide. footbridges m~de ofplanks wert;! conneh conunerce with the Orient tlmngh trade routes. Spices lik.: pepper, ginger, nutmeg,onions, and garlicwere the most important items of trade from th.: Eserve meat during winter time. The fall fJf.Constantinople (!453) and the emergence of the Ottoman Tltrks do:red the former trade routes tu the East, cauBing the monarch:; ;md navigators of F.urope to find new routes across the ~as . The Portugu~c were a few years ahead oJ ~c Sew trade routel'. Inspired by r>rlnce H~r1ry, the :'-lavigator (139~1460), Portuguese navigators sailed down the Afric.m coilst to reach the East. In 1487. led by Bartolome Dias, the l'orllgut:!;C! romded the Cape of .Gpo~.Hope. A lew ;carr. later, in 1498, Vasco de Ganil reachl'J Calicu't, lndia, by !ailing eastward from the c~p~. The end oi ihr). The fleetsailed through familiar waters along the westeoast of Africa. They reached the Canaries on September 26. Crossing the Atlantic, theylandedon the SouthAmericancoast, now Pernambuco, Brazil, on November 29. M01gcllan conlinued the voyage, reaching Rio de Janeiro on December 13. He named it Santa Lucia, because he landed there on the saint's feast day. There they traded v.-ith the native Americans lor provisions. 1hcvopge continued at Rio de Plata. By the time they were at the tip of the South American continent, it was already winter. The snowstorms were in a headsttong. The men became apprehensive and asked Magellan that they all return toSpain. Magellandeclined. Instead, he asked them to take courage. The ships took shelter from storms in Port SanJulian (now in Argentina) in Yfarch 1520. Unknown to Magellan, some officers took into command the maneuvering ofthree ships, the San Antonio, the Couccpcion, and the Victoria. The next day,GAspardeQu~ada, cCJptain ofth~ Concepcion, wrote to Magellan that he and others would not recognize his authority unles. they retum lmrn~iately to Spain. Still, Magellan rdu,;cd to heed their petition. Juan etc Cartagena, Antonio de Coca, Juan Sebastian dd Cano, (called Elcano) and Gaspar deQue~ada were found guiltyoftreason but pardoned. ButCartagena continued toplotagain, this time with one ofthepriests, PeroSanchez.de Reina. Theywereprobably jealous because the captain-general of thi.~ Spanish expedition was a Portuguese. Magellan had the two left olf the coa~t of an WUlamed island. Withthefin;tsigns o(spring, thel'Xploratory voyage continued in search ofa .route to theSouthern Sea (now Pacific Ocean). Astrong typhoonhad drivenashoreand destroyed thesm~llestship,Santillgo. In August, the four ships went farther south and eventually, they came upon a sttaitwhich Magellan called "Strait ofAllSaints" (now Strait of Magellan). 71 87. Magtollansent theSan Antonio to explore the southeast opt!ning of the strajt. Trinidad entered the 1;0uthwcst. Sec::etly, San Antonio, piloted by Esteban Gomez (a POTtug uese), deserted on the night of November 20 and sailed back for Spain. The fleet reached the Southern Sea, whkh .Magellan named Ocean Pacific because it was calm. Unfortunalely, Magellan had u.nderto:stimated the ocean's size. In the next five months, the tally, the rajah welcomed Magellan and visited him aboard rus :;hip. He gave Magellan three porcelain jars of rice, whlle Magellan gavt! a red cap and a red-and-yellow robe. 72 88. Subsequently, Magellan's men hes came to be directly governed from Madrid. In 1863, the Over~eas Ministry (MinisteriiJ 1fe U/tramari took over th~ functions of the Council of the Indies (Consejo de JndiJis). The colonial code- titled Rr.copilacio11 de let;es d( los r.-ynos de las ludiiJs (Compilation oflaws on Rov3! Land$in the Indies) popularly known as Iqes de l11dins {laws of the fitdies) issued in 1680, was wed by Spain to rule its extensive possessions. It was on :--.Jovember 16, 1568 when King Philip II issued instructions to Lcgazpi to establish c1ties and towns and create ~ncomie11dns to be distributed to deserving soldiers. In the fir~t three decades of Spanish rule, the Philippines was divided into encomimd.1s. With a cross in one hand and a sword in the other, the Spani~h conquistadores imposed upon the Filipinos this feudaI sv~tem of admini;tration.The word cmcomiendacomes from the verb e;zcomm dar meaning ''to commend or to rommit to one's C'are~. Originall;~ an encomimdn was a feudal institution lllitd in Spain to reward deserving generals and conquerors during Spanish wars of recoverv of tenitorv from the Mours. The earliestencomenderos in the West f~die~ were del~gated with the power to collect tribute and to use the personal ~rviccs of the inhabitants oftheir enconti~ndas. This feudal grant was introduced by the Spanish Crown for the combined purposes of rewarding deser'ing Spaniards and attr11cht>g others to settl~ in the colonies. Permanent .o;ettlemcnt of 81 97. the Spanish soldier~ assured the defense of the colonie~. ThiS also facilitated the conversion of the natives to the Catholic faith. Ericornienda in the Philippines wasnota l;md grant. It was more of an administrative unit for the purpose of exacting tribute from th!! natives and to U!ie the person.ll scrvkcs of the King"s vassals in the ettcomitudn. The t'ncomelldero undertook ways to look after the well-being ofhi.~ peopleand toeducate them with Spanish norm~of conduct. Jn the domain of relations, the ellcomil'lS: TIe cutmterbalance efforts of the .1forcmentioneJ nevertheless proved ineffectual in rcprim.lnding mrn1ptadrn.in.islnltors,{or itwas quite easy for them tobribe the olficialsconducting the investigation. They could even seek for the revocation of the decisions given hy the investigating oft'ici11ls through politic,! influence in lhe. cotmtry or in Spain. ThP local officials as well a~ the Spanish high nffidals became the m;tin instmments of "pacific~ tion." The Sbjugation of the native~ became complete .1ftcr they h:. Encomenderos often ha,1 to send soldiers to wllect the tribute l:>y force. Nonpayment of tribute meant torture or imprisonment. Sometimes houses were burned or looted bv these soldiers as punishment for the niilive~' cleii~nc~. Other na-tives just fled to the moWtains to P.s('. pun.i~hment. The filipinos haled th tril>ute for.it was a syrnbul oi subjug~tion to Spain. Likcwiso>, it resulted to Spanish at>uses e;pecially by tribute collectors. 84 100. Oppmution to colonial authority became quite diEficult. Although th~ Spaniard,.; constituted a small number in the cmmtry, they had conscripted n~ tives from different regions to put down revolts in other regions IQ remain in power. Polo or forced lveen 16 to 60 years of age rendered manual servict< for the cnunh'y for the purposeofbuilding ships, churches, ro,,ds and other forms of infrastructure. '!he polista or worker ha~ to work 40 days a year in the labor pool. In IA84, forced labor was reduced to 15 days a year. To be excluded from the polo, ont< has tn pay fa/In (exemption fee), whlch only a few Filipino.~ could actually pay. The chieftains and their P.ldest sons were also excused from forced labor. Polo Jed to the aban donment of the fields, separation from families orhomes, as well a~ illness and death for som~. The nlcnides often drafted hundreds of men, more than what was necessary for woorkutting and then pocketed the money, which must be paid fw the tJOli worsened w 1th the union of Chttrch and State. The friars, like the government officials. exercisc>d political, economic, and othe r non-spiritual powers. They controlled the educational system as well O'IS thicm was the prevalent form in print. Written in verseand chanted during Lent, it depicted the life and passion of Jcsu~ Christ. ~ first Tagalog p~~.iwbtin the country. The firstsundialsin theco untry werebuiltin1871atTagudin, Ooco~SurbyFr.Juan Sorolla,a Spanish Augustinian. Father Marcial Funcia Ramos introduced the f..rr;t il'on printing press in the Philippines in 1847. IIe also initiated the use of better paper such as pape/ Jt. hilo (linen paper), insread of ri('.E! paper and Chinese paper. George Oppe~ a German, introd uced lithography in the tOlmtry in 1858. The Spaniard~ also introduced to us varied pLants as well al; animals~ horses,CO,shoep,and goats. FromMcxiroviagalleons, we got the following plants: com, cassava, sweet potato, cotton, magucy, indigo, achuete, tobacco, cacao, peanut, cashew nut, pineapple, avocado, pepper, squash, tomato, lima bean, turnip, and eggplant. The g~lleon ships were used to ferry the cargoes acroR-9 the Pacific Ocean These pruducts being shipped to Acapulco, Mexico were brought into the Philippines by Asian traders irom China, Japan, India, Siam (now Thailand), Moluccas, and other nearby places. On its return, the ga.Ueon would be carrying silver coins or silver bullionthatthe Asian traderswantedas wt'll as other products of Mexico. At thebeginning, thi preferred to trade with iexico. LikewV;e, there were a growing numb~r of foreign merch.1nts in Manila. Although the Royal Company did not succeed, it helped in the furth~r development of agriculture in the Philippines, particularly indigo, sugar, and spices. Gov~rnor General Felix Berenguer de MMquina succeeded Govemor Basco. His first official act was the demolition of nipa houses in the city of Manila, which to him was an ugly sight and can even cause fire. He abo ordered the abolition of indulto de comercio (license to trade),which gave th~illralde 11111yor (provincial govemor} the privi leg~ to control the price~ of goods in hi~ province. Monopolies on playing cards, gunpowder, and wine were also abolished. He established !he minting of money in the country o prevent the outflow of gold. IJ 1842,DonSirubaldode Mas.aneconomist, wassentbySpain to the Philippines to make an economic surveyof the cOWltry. In his report, he made the following recommendations: first, the opening of more Philippine ports to world tJade; second, the encouragement of Chinese immigration in the country to stimulate agricultural development; and third, the abolition of the tobacco monopoly. The openingofLhePhilippines toworld trade resulted to a great demand for its produeuefid,.J to the local weaving industry. The most important materials used in weaving were cotton, abaca, silk. and piiL.T. Finest of tht: fabrics were usually woven in combination. Nipis (sheer) is from pure silk in combination with cotton ;mel abaca (frum the trunk of wild banJna).A partkul$. a. akaldia c. puebl21. a. University of San 11,1nacio b. University of Santo 'lomas c. 'Cniversity of San t'P.Iipe d. Eslenses at the capital to"'!fl of Binalatnngan. lie appointed J>edro Gumapos as count. Francian. He was purr:;ucd inlt) the mountains and was c~ught ~live. He was executed together with Ver. 117 133. 16. Tapar's Revolt, Panay (1663) Cause: Found a':'-JI!W R~ligion Under Native Supervision The prevalent mi~demeanor of Spani.~h friars alienated countless natives from the Catholic faith. Tapar, a nativ~ of Panay, wanted to establish a religious cult in Oton. He attracted many followers with his stories about his frequent conversations with a demon. Tapar and his men were killed in a bloody fight again~t the Spaniards, along with native volunteer soldiers.~ir cmpses were impaled on s~kes. 17. Dagohoy's Revolt, Bohol h744-1829) Cause: Rt!fusal to Give His Brother a Christian Burial Father Gaspar Morales denied Francisco Dagohoy's brother a Chri.~tian t:mrial because the latter died in a duel. Dagohoy argued thclt h:i1S brother's burial wa.~ the responsibility of the Jesuit priest because he had died carrying out the missionary's order, to arrest an apostate. The priest refused to bury Dagohoy's brother unless the proper limc..;uas or church offerings were given. The body was left decomposing fur tluee days. Humlliated by this tragic incident Dagohoy got mad and incited the natives of Bohol to revolt. He took around 3,000 men and women to the uplands of Talibon and Inabangan. He set up a s~lf-sustaining communily far from the Spani~>h authorities. Dagohoy's community grew in number as more prople fled to the hiJls to avoid being recruited by the government to join its expedition.' in Northern Mindanao as well as to avoid the harsh impositions o( the government. Dagohoy and his menraided the Jesuite~ta te ofSanJavier. Then they kiJ led the Italian Jesuit curate in )agna, Father Gui~eppe Lamberti in 1744. Because of the killing. the Spanish authoritie tortured and killed Dagohoy.~ future father-in-law and the porter o( the church of the slain priest. The de.1th of the innocent porter drove more people to join D~gohoy 's group. Shortly afterwards, FatherMorales was killed in cold blood. Bishop Miguel Uno de Espeleta of Cebu tried to pacify the rebel~ through negotiations. The plan to send secular priests to 118 134. Hohol was notcarried out.A20-yeardeadlock set in. Theronunwlity continued to subsist without outward sign of rebellion. Twenty Spanish governors from Gaspar de Ia Torre (1739-45) to Juan Ar>lonio :Martinez {1822-25) tried to stop the rebellion but failed. l.u the- 1740!; and the 1750s, the Spanir with3,000 loyal llocano ~oldiers suppressed the Revolt of Palaris in Pangaslnan. Palaris was publicly hanged. .' . 20. Basi Revolt (1807) Cause: Wine Mono~ly of 1786 Due to thewine mon~ly of the government, the Docanoswere prohibited to drinkhomemade ba:;i(wine (crmented frontsugarcane). They were compell~?d to buy wine from government stores. On September 16, 1807, the Docanos of Plddig, llocos 1:orte, rose in arms in defense of their favorite wine, basi. The rebellion sptead l(l the neighboring towns. Badoc and Santo Domingo. The Spanish alcalde mayor, who w1:1s residing in Vigan, sent a fore,;of36soldiers and twocolumnsofcivilianguards witha cannon to attac.k Badoc. Ilowever, on Sep tember 28, 1807, the Ilia!Ide11111yor together with a ~trong force of regular troops attacked them at San Ildcfonso and quell.cd the revolt. 21. Revolt in Defense of the Spanish Constitution (t8ts) Cause: Abolition of the Liberal Spanish Constitution The Spanish Constitution of 1812 w as very much influenced by the ideals of the French Revolution - Liberty, Equality, and Fraterruty. This democratic constitution granted human rights to both Spaniords and Filipino@. Jt was promulgated by the Spanish Cortes (t'arliament) and approved and signed by 184 delegate:; of Spain and her colonies (including the Philippines). One of its signatories was Ventura de los Reyes, a Filipino. Upon knowing that this constitution was abolished on May 4, 1814 by the despotic ruler King Ferdinand Vll, an explosion of violence in the country against thepri11dpales took place. The ma.~~ suspected that thepri.ncipalcs were behind this, since they had been presumed aiding the Spanish authorities to perpetuate in power. On March 3, 1815, more than 1,500 llocano.'> of Sarrat, IIO