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Media

theories



� Effects theory

(Hypodermic Syringe,

Innoculation) ± what

the media does toaudiences



� Uses and

Gratifications ±what audiences

do wi th the

media



�Reception theory

(Nationwide audienceDallas, Seinfeld, etc)

what audiences do to

the media



Effects Theories

� Mass media/mass communications make

people powerless to resist messages the

media carries� Consumers are µdrugged¶, µaddicted¶ or

µhypnotised¶

� Effects theories taken up with protection of

young, link between violence and the

media



Effects Theories

Historical stuff

� Frankfurt School: Marxist German

intellectuals reacting against Nazipropaganda and US advertising ±

suggested the power of big cor porations

and the state to control how we think

� Rise of TV in the 50¶s and 60¶s ± fear of

danger to children



Effects Theories

Historical Stuff

� Influence of behavioural scientists (think of

Pavlov¶s dogs) ± media may reinforceattitudes through repetition

� Bobo doll experiment (1963) ± Bandura

and Walters ± children imitate adult

treatment of doll seen on film



Effects Theories

� Moral panics: Concern, hostility,

consensus, disproportionality, volatility

� Two step flow:

Media

Text



Effects Theories



� Two step flow:

Media

Text

Opinion

Leaders



Effects Theories



� Two step flow:

Media

Text

Opinion

LeadersMedia

Consumers



Effects Theories



� Two step flow:

Media

Text

Opinion

LeadersMedia

Consumers

1



Effects Theories



� Two step flow:

Media

Text

Opinion

LeadersMedia

Consumers

1 2



Effects Theories

What¶s wrong with effects theories?

� The problems with violence are often

social/psychological not to do with the media

� The media can often be positive rather than

harmful

� Criticism of the media using the effects model is

often politically motivated� There is not real grounding of research and

theor y for this model.



U&G

� Users of the media use media texts to

satisf y certain needs

� Based on Maslow¶s Hierarchy of needs



U&G: Denis McQuail (1987)

� Information: finding out about the world; seeking advice;satisf ying curiosity; education; gaining security thoughknowledge

� Personal Identity: reinforcement of personal values;

models of behaviour; identif ying with valued other;gaining insight into oneself

� Integration and Social Interaction: gaining insight intocircumstances of others; identif ying with others; basis for conversation with others; substitute for real lifecompanionship; helping to carr y out social roles;

enabling connection with family friends and society� Entertainment: escapism; diversion; relaxation; cultural

or aesthetic enjoyment; filling time; emotional release;sexual arousal



U&G: James Lull (1990)

Structural� Env ir onmental: background noise; companionship; entertainment

� R egu lat i ve: keeping time; part of pattern of daily life

Relational

�C o

mmunic at i o

nFaci l i tat i o

n:

experience illustration; common ground;conversation starter; anxiety reduction; agenda for talk; valueclarification

� Aff i l i at i on/ Av oid anc e: physical/ver bal contact/neglect; familysolidarity; family relaxant/conflict reducer; relationship maintenance

� S oci al Lear ni ng : decision making; behaviour modelling; problemsolving; value transmission; legitimization; information dissemination;education

� C ompet enc e/Domi nanc e: role enactment; role reinforcement;substitute role portrayal; intellectual validation; authority exercise;gatekeeping; argument facilitation



U&G: Richard Kilborn (1992)

� Part of routine and entertaining reward for work

� Launchpad of social and personal interaction

� Fulfilling individual needs ± a way of choosing to

be alone or of enduring enforced loneliness

� Identification or involvement with characters

� Escapist fantasy

� Focus of debate on topical issues

� Kind of critical game involving knowledge of

rules or conventions of the genre



U&G: Problems

� We may not have choice about what we

watch

� Neglects any aspects of effects theories� Neglects socio-economic factors



Reception Theor y

� Often as opposite to Effects theories

� Sees media consumption as active not

passive� Suggests media texts are polysemic

� Research examines social, cultural,

economic, gender, sexuality as influenceon the reading of media texts



Reception Theor y

Active

versus

Passive



Reception Theor y

Reception Theory

versus

Effects Theory



Reception Theor y



Nationwide Audience

David Morley 1980

� Different social/economic groups watchedsame TV programme

� Interviews reveal different readings of

same text



Nationwide Audience

� Dominant (Hegemonic) reading: reader shares the encoded meanings of the text

� Negotiated reading: reader shares someof the embedded ideologies but not all

� Oppositional (counter-hegemonic)reading: where the reader does not share

the programme¶s code and rejects thepreferred reading



Nationwide Audience

� Members of the same subculture will tend

to decode texts in similar ways.

�Individual readings of texts will

beframed by shared cultural formations

and practices.



Reception Theor y



Watching Dallas

Ien Ang 1985

� Different social/cultural groups watchedsame TV programme

� Interviews reveal different readings of

same text



Watching Dallas

� Importance is the pleasure derived from

µDallas¶ as entertainment

� Independent of ideas about mass culture



Watching Dallas

� Readers saw characters as either realistic

or unrealistic

� All saw characters as µgenuine¶� µEmotional Realism¶

� May see the programme as lowbrow but

accept that it is entertaining.



Reception Theor y



Leibes and Katz on Dallas

(1984)� International cross cultural groups

watched Dallas

� Retell the stor y� The retelling was shaped by cultural

background although there were similar

patterns amonst all groups



Reception Theor y



Watching Seinfeld

Lori Yanish 1995

� Canadian and Dutch viewers¶ reactions to

Seinfeld� Dutch viewers associated American

comedy with low class television

� Media as cultural imperialism



Reception Theor y



Madonna

John Fiske 1989

� Does Madonna exploit the music industr y

or does the music industr y exploitMadonna?



Modes of Address

How a text is constructed to make us feel

that it is specifically aimed at us

The ways in which texts built to appeal to

particular audiences (Skins, any

children¶s programme, The Sun)

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