organizational change theories closed systems structuralism open systems contingency theories...
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Organizational Change Theories
• Closed Systems• Structuralism• Open Systems• Contingency Theories• Conflict Theories• Critical Theories• Resistance Theories• Diffusion Theories• Connectivism Theories• Chaos Theories
Machine Theory
• Frederick Taylor “Principals of Scientific Management—– scientific method to improve productivity, – optimizing tasks, – simplifying jobs, – Specializing– Time Studies – most efficient way to perform a job– initiatives and incentives increase productivity– Reorganized from the bottom up (task to manager)
Machine Theory• Frederick Taylor “Principals of Scientific
Management—– 4 Principles
1. Replace rule of thumb work with task studies
2. Scientifically train & develop worker
3. Cooperate with workers to ensure efficiency
4. Divide work equally between managers & workers so managers could plan as workers worked
Machine Theory• Frederick Taylor “Principals of Scientific
Management—
– Drawbacks
– Increase in monotony of work
– Missing from job – skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy, and feedback
– Dehumanizing
Machine Theory
• Fayol – Administrative Theory
• Reorganized from the top-down– Formalized studies general guidelines for the
worker– Hierarchical pyramid structure of control– Superiors and subordinates—chain of
command– Departmentalization groups related by
process, purpose, or place
Organization is a machine to produce a product as efficient as possible.
Machine Theory• Max Weber (1900)• Bureaucracy Theory
– Ideal bureaucracy has hierarchy– Impersonal– Written rules of conduct– Promotion based on achievement– Division of labor for efficiency– Goal oriented– Draw back relied on benevolence of
superiors
HR & Motivational Theories• Elton Mayo
• Hawthorne Studies
– Work is a group activity
– Need for recognition, security and sense of belonging
– Complaints revolve around sense of status
– Group collaboration must be planned and developed to develop cohesion to resist disruptions
Organization is a social group or work team
HR & Motivational Theories• Abraham Maslow (1940s)• 5 Needs
– Physiological– Safety– Love– Esteem– Self-actualization or self-fulfillment
• The urge to create, produce, for job satisfaction
• Management should meet the upper needs
HR & Motivational Theories• Douglas McGregor “The Human Side of
Enterprise” (1960) 2 types of managerial assumptions (Theory X & Y)– Theory X Assumptions
– Humans have a dislike for work – must be controlled or threatened to do work
– Most people want direction, dislike responsibility, desires security above all else
– Most people need to know what is expected of them and be held accountable.
HR & Motivational Theories• Douglas McGregor “The Human Side of
Enterprise” (1960) 2 types of managerial assumptions (Theory X & Y)– Theory Y Assumptions– Work is a natural state for humans– Man can direct his own steps if he is committed to
the goals of the organization—if explained fully & grasps vision
– If the job is satisfying, people will be committed– Most men seek responsibility– Creativity and ingenuity can be used by
employees to solve problems– Most people have a lot more potential than they
are given the opportunity to use.
HR & Motivational Theories• Frederick Herzberg
• 2 Factor Hygiene & Motivation Theory
–Hygiene Theory–Job environment, the company,
policies, administration, kind of supervision, working conditions, interpersonal relations, salary, status, and security
HR & Motivational Theories• Frederick Herzberg• 2 Factor Hygiene & Motivation Theory
– Motivation Theory– Job Opportunities – achievement, recognition,
growth / advancement – Interest in the job
Both approaches must be done simultaneously. Treat people as best you can AND
Use them in jobs where they can achieve and grow
HR & Motivational Theories
• Lewins – Informal groups
Structuralism – Bridge between Open & Closed Systems (1930-70s)
• Political struggle between rational and irrational
Structuralism – Bridge between Open & Closed Systems (1930-70s)
• Chester Bernard (1938)• The Functions of the Executive• Recycled Spencer’s Organismic
Perspective• Organizations exist by cooperation,
willingness of workers, contributions toward a common purpose
• Management creates the goals & Moral Imperative that binds workers to collective good
Structuralism – Bridge between Open & Closed Systems (1930-70s)
• Philip Selznick & Institutionalism• Resurrects Machine Theory with a twist• Organization strikes bargains with its
environment that change the present objectives
• Organization has such personality that reflects social needs and pressures (adaptation) from the environment
• Operative Goals – what it does• Professed Goals – what it says it does
(preparing students for the future)
Selznick (1996)• Organizations seek “legitimacy” to justify
what they do. – They tend to seek similarity for legitimacy
• Coercive Isomorphism—forced to act a certain way by either another organization (TEA) or cultural expectations – my school had doors & windows
• Mimetic Isomorphism—copy each other when they are uncertain what to do
• Normative Isomorphism—everyone takes the same training and interact professionally
Structuralism – Bridge between Open & Closed Systems (1930-70s)
• Ralph Stogdill (1948) -Tautological• 124 Characteristics of Leaders1. Capacity (intelligence, alertness)2. Achievement (scholarship, knowledge)3. Responsibility (dependable, initiative)4. Participation (active, social, cooperative)5. Status (socio-economic, position,
popularity)6. Situation (mental level, status, skills)
Structuralism – Bridge between Open & Closed Systems (1930-70s)
• McCall & Lombardo (1983) Anti-Traits1. Insensitive to others (abrasive, bully)2. Cold, aloof, arrogant3. Betrayal of trust4. Overly ambitious: thinking of next job, 5. Specific performance problems6. Over-managing – unable to delegate7. Unable to think strategically8. Unable to adapt9. Over-dependent on a mentor
• Katz & Kahn(1978)
• Organization’s adaptive interaction with changing environment emphasized: goal is survival
• Organization is active system=– Input– Throughput– output
Organization is a living organism
Open-System Theory
Open Systems (1960s)• Open systems are made up of subsystems
that create homeostatsis for the organism. Mapping the environment requires sensing and assigning meaning to symbolic Information
• Imprints parts of the environment onto the organization.
• Symbolic Motivation & Communication• Feedback allows system to change goals “on
the fly”
Open Systems (1960s)
• Harold Leavitt (1964)
• 4 subsystems
1. Tasks—processes performed in system
2. Structure—organization, governed
3. Technology—type of equipment, knowledge, methods
4. Humans—skills, attitudes, roles, motivators
Open Systems (1960s)
• Daniel Katz & Robert Kahn(1966)
• 5 subsystems
1. Technology—production
2. Managerial
3. Supportive –interact with environment for influx of energy
4. Maintenance—forces of stability
5. Adaptive—forces devoted to change
Open Systems (1960s)
• John Seiler’s (1967)
• Forces in the environment
• Internal
– Inputs
– Outputs
– Actual behaviors
Open Systems (1960s)• Getzel-Guba Model morphed
• Environment
– CommunitiesCollectivesNorms, Values
• Social System (school)
– GroupsIndividual
– Interdependencies personalities
– Role expectationNeeds
School’s Response
Open Systems (1960s)
• Getzel-Guba Model morphed
• Carol Shakeshaft & Irene Nowell (1984) argued that GG Model did not describe the reality of the feminine experience – especially with role expectations “keepers of the private realm”
Open Systems (1960s)
• Getzel-Guba Model morphed
• Environment– CommunitiesCollectivesNorms,
Values
• Social System (school)– GroupsIndividual– Interdependencies personalities– Role expectationNeeds
School’s Response
Open Systems (1960s)
• Process Theoryinteractive processes that underlie motivation
• Vroom’s Expectancy Theory
• Valency=Effort + Expectancy +Choice
Flow of Information• Machine Theory – bottom up• Bureaucracy Theory – top down• HR – horizontal and vertical inside
organization• Structuralism – depending on
leadership traits• Open systems – horizontal & vertical
both inside and outside the organization, loop-backs
• J.G. Miller’s Information Overload
Flow of Information
• J.G. Miller’s Information Overload– Results in
• Omission• Error• Queuing• Filtering• Approximation
Siemen’s Connectivists Theory of hyper processing & multitasking.
Contingency Theory• Positivistic
1. Nomothetic—law-like regularities
2. Methodologically positivistic – empirical research (measures variables & statistical analysis)
3. Structure measured by material factors rather than idealistic factors
4. Deterministic –required responses
5. Consciously scientific style
Contingency Theory (1960-70s)
• Generalizable relationship between organizational and environmental contingencies, organizational structure, and leadership.
• Organizational contingencies include size, task structure, environmental factors – usually uncertainty
• The leader’s job is to alter the organizational structure to keep the system in sync with environmental contingencies
• Lawrence & Lorsch (1967)
Contingency Theory (1960-70s)
• Lawrence & Lorsch (1967)• Differentiation of • specialists
– Predictable environments foster stable craftsmen
– Generalists are required for unstable environments
• Space – depts in different locations• Structure /Leadership Styles• Size
Contingency Theory (1960-70s)• Structure /Leadership Styles
Conflict Theory
Critical Theory
Innovation, Diffusion, Change Theory
• Hargreaves & Fullen (1996) change is “messy”
• Everett Rogers: • Process of distributing innovation
through a social system – communication-based model
• Community of Teachers (not learners) seem to share superficial tricks or tips but not deep investigations into issues of teaching, learning and the profession.
Diffusion formal & Informal Communities
• Everett Rogers (1995) Diffusion of Innovations
• Example: Self-organizing virtual learning communities versus the processes in bounded learning communities
• 4-Elements Present
1. The new idea – innovation
2. Communication channels
3. Time
4. Social System engaged in joint problem solving activities to accomplish goals
Diffusion Theory - Rogers• Innovations as perceived by individuals
1. Relative advantage – better than what we are doing?
2. Compatibility-consistent with existing values, needs
3. Complexity—difficult to understand or use?
4. Trialability –is it used on a limited basis
5. Observability – do we see results?
6. Support – time, energy, resources, political backing
Diffusion Process -- Rogers• E.M. Rogers(1995) Diffusion of
Innovations
• 5-Step Adoption Process
1. Awareness --knowledge
2. Interest--persuasion
3. Decision—engages in activity
4. Trial /Implementation
5. Confirmation -- Adoption
Diffusion Process
• Rate of Adoption
1. Perceived attributes of innovation
2. Type of innovation-decision
3. Communication channels
4. Nature of the social system
5. Extent of change agents’ promotion efforts
Tipping Point• The concept of the tipping point is
the build-up of small changes that effect a big change
• Stickiness Factor –staying power of an innovation –keeping one’s attention
• Internet’s greatest economy is in fact, attention.
Fullen & Miles (1992) 7 reasons reform fails in Schools
1. Faulty ‘Change Maps” – to be unique is not a good reason for change
2. Complex Problems3. Symbols over substance – adopt external
innovations with only symbolic benefit – CC! Not enough grass-roots support
4. Impatient and Superficial Solutions5. Misunderstanding Resistance –may be a
learning curve issue6. Attrition of Pockets of success7. Misuse of Knowledge of Change Process
Fullen & Miles (1992) 7 reasons reform succeeds in Schools
1. Change is learning2. Change is a journey not a blueprint –
planning is continuous3. Problems are our friends—assertive
problem-solving must take place4. Change is Resource Hungery—time & $$5. Change requires Power to manage6. Change is Systemic – interrelational,
structure, policy, culture7. Implemented locally—cannot happen from
a distance
Fullen & Miles (1992) other reasons reform succeeds in Schools
1. Common language,
2. Conceptual picture—of change process and goals
3. Multiple stakeholders at different levels participate in reform process
4. Culture is a priority – relationships must improve to create conditions to share ideas
5. Sharing of successes and failures
6. Change is inevitable and we must learn to live with it.
Berkman’s UOID Theory• Influenced by Rogers • Berkmans User-Oriented Instructional
Designers theory1. Identify the potential adopter2. Measure the potential adopters perceptions3. Design & develop a user-friendly product4. Inform the potential adopter5. Provide post adoption support(Burkman in Gagne, 1987, pp 440-1) – this was
our model for the TARGET grant –Line Coaches—relationship between developer & adopter was critical
Rogers (1962, 1995)• Adoption Categories explored
– Innovators– Early adopters—visionary users, project
oriented, risk takers, self-sufficient, cross-curricular communication can integrate
– Early majority—pragmatic users, process oriented, may require support, departmental
– Late majority– Laggards
Concerns-based Adoption Model (CBAM)--Hall & Hord
• Hall & Hord (1987) macro level theory of diffusion
• Bottom-up, systemic change
• Framework includes “stages of concern”
• 7-Stages
7 Stages Hord1. Awareness –TCEA, Research, Vendors
2. Informational—Like to know more
3. Personal –how will it affect them?
4. Management—processes & tasks (information & resources)
5. Consequence – impact students?
6. Collaboration—teachers cooperate with others in implementing innovation
7. Refocusing—thinking of additional alternatives that might work better ready to move on
Strategies Addressing Concerns1. Clarify problem, arouse interest, let
them generate possible solutions2. Give clear info about change, show
how change is similar or diff from current
3. Validate and legitimize concerns, reinforce, connect to supports
4. Break the change into manageable steps, “how to”, give practical solutions to logistical problems
Strategies Addressing Concerns
5. Arrange visits to places that use the change, provide positive feedback & dialog
6. Monitor --Provide encouragement, help refine ideas
7.Develop PR campaigns, broadcast or market innovation--conferences
J.M.Keller’s Motivation Model for Instructional Design
ARCS Model
1. ATTENTION – arouse & sustain learner’s curiosity
2. Relevance – Need to relate Instruction to Learner’s Needs
3. Confidence – Need to Match Learner’s Challenges to Learner’s Capabilities
4. Satisfaction—Need to provide learner with Extrinsic and Intrinsic Rewards
Resistance Theory
• Michael Fullen’s (2003) “The moral imperative of school leadership” change is “messy”
– Rests on a “change agent”
– Creating Knowledge with stakeholders builds Relationships which is critical
– Integrating Technology
– Moral purpose
Resistance Theory
• Michael Fullen’s (2003) “The moral imperative of school leadership” change is “messy”
Six-point Strategic model of transforming leadership
1. Reshape Culture by building a community of professional learners – capacity building
2. Change the context, then you can change behavior – move from one grade or subject
3. Mutual Vision – high expectations4. Disciplined Inquiry – data-driven decision
making5. Moral purpose—desire to do the right thing &
the wish to make a difference6. Responsibility – teacher – leaders &
collaborators
Kotter’s 8 Stage Change Process• 1996-2002
• Establish a sense of urgency– Opportunities /crisis demand change NOW
• Create a Guiding Teamgather change agents with credibility, skills, authority to assist in the change
• Develop a vision & Strategy– Clear uplifting statement of goal & plan
• Communicate the Change Vision– Clear, uplifting, repeated messages
Kotter’s 8 Stage Change Process• 1996-2002• Empower Organizational Members
– Remove obstacles, change structures– Reward new ideas & risk-taking
• Generate Short-term Wins– Early success is critical– Celebrate & reward people
• Consolidate Gains & Continue Change– Don’t let up!
• Anchor New Ways into the Culture– Make change stick
Lewin’s Change Model
• Unfreezing– Diagnose need for change, status quo no
longer acceptable– Prepare people & plan change
• Moving– Implement changes– Overcome resistance
• Refreezing– Institutionalize new ways
Structural Adaptation to Regain Fit
• Donaldson’s SARFIT Model (1995-96)• 5 Stages
1. An organization is in fit
2. There is a contingency change
3. The organization is in misfit & performance suffers
4. The organization does structural adaptation
5. The organization achieves a new fit and performance recovers
Change Quotes
• “A great many people think they are thinking when they are merely rearranging their prejudices” – William James
• “Life is change. Growth is optional. Choose wisely” Karen Kaiser Clark
• “I can’t understand why people are frightened of new ideas. I’m afraid of the old ones.” John Cage
• “All progress is precarious, and the solution of one problem brings us face to face with another problem” Martin Luther King, Jr.
Change Quotes• “It isn’t that they can’t see the solution.
It is that they can’t see the problem.” G.K. Chesterton
• “I never give them hell. I just tell the truth and they think its hell.” Harry S. Truman
• “You must be the change you wish to see in the world.” Gandhi
• “Example is not the main thing in influencing others, it’s the only thing” Albert Schweitzer
Change Quotes
• “I not only use all the brains I have, but all I can borrow.” Woodrow Wilson
• “You can’t jump a twenty-foot chasm in two ten-foot leaps” American Proverb
• “We have to get everybody in the organization involved. If we do that, the best ideas rise to the top.” Jack Welch
Chaos Theory