The national curriculum framework such

that children's life at school must be

linked to their life outside the school. This

principle marks a de portable use from

the legacy of bookish learning and thus

the students have been given provisions

to preface some project reports on certain

subjects.

I express my hearty gratitude to CBSE

for providing such an interesting and

board scope topic for our project. I am

really thankful to our respected Soc ial

Studies teacher Mrs.Priti Singh mam who

helped us in a passive way. I would also

like to thank my parents and my friends

for their help, encouragement and

blessings.

London is the capital city of England and the United Kingdom. It is the most populous region, urban zone and metropolitan area in the United Kingdom. Standing on the River Thames, London has been a major settlement for two millennia, its history going back to its founding by the Romans, who named it Londinium. London's ancient core, the City of London, largely retains its 1.12-square-mile (2.9 km2) mediaeval boundaries and in 2011 had a resident population of 7,375, making it the smallest city in England. Since at least the 19th century, the term London has also referred to the metropolis developed around this core. The bulk of this conurbation forms the London region, governed by the Mayor of London and the London Assembly.

HOUSING: TENEMENTS AND GARDEN CITY

(In 19ᵀᴴ Century)

The origins of London slums date back to the mid

eighteenth century, when the population of London, or

the “Great Wen,” as William Cobbett called it, began to

grow at an unprecedented rate. In the last decade of the

nineteenth century London's population expanded to four

million, which spurred a high demand for cheap housing.

London slums arose initially as a result of rapid

population growth and industrialisation. They became

notorious for overcrowding, unsanitary and squalid living

conditions. Most well-off Victorians were ignorant or

pretended to be ignorant of the subhuman slum life, and

many, who heard about it, believed that the slums were

the outcome of laziness, sin and vice of the lower classes.

However, a number of socially conscious writers,

social investigators, moral reformers, preachers and

journalists, who sought solution to this urban malady in

the second half of the nineteenth century, argued

convincingly that the growth of slums was caused by

poverty, unemployment, social exclusion and

homelessness.

GardenCity

The garden city movement is a method of urban planning that was initiated in 1898 by

Sir Ebenezer Howard in the United Kingdom. Garden cities were intended to be planned, self-

contained communities surrounded by "greenbelts", containing proportionate areas of

residences, industry and agriculture. Howard founded the Garden Cities Association (later

known as the Town and Country Planning Association or TCPA), which created First Garden

City of the world in Letchworth in 1899.

London SuburbsBecause of population pressure and the absence of

inexpensive housing in the city center, the population of

London had to move outwards, creating a new

relationship between the center and the periphery. For a

long time, the affluent had had houses or cottages in the

country to which they could retreat on weekends or

holidays or for retirement. In the nineteenth-century,

transportation made it possible to live in the suburb and

work in the city.

Victorian builders used both types of street

plans in the remaking of London. Arterial

roads like Oxford Street or Marleborne Road

were cut to parallel the Thames; radial roads

were also built from the center out, not unlike

the railroads.

Number of trends evident:-

The InnerCity

1) Loss of social heterogeneity of many London districts: Take Westminster, Mayfair, or

Pimlico. There Georgian and Regency terraces, with courts behind them for a service

population, and a nework of mews or alleys for the storage of carriages and the stabling of

horses. But by the 1870s, the mews and courts were demolished, largely because public

transportation and cabs rendered obsolete the carriages and horses, together with the

grooms and coachmen. Also workers did not move to the suburbs until the cost of the

railroads and the Underground dropped considerably.

2) The depopulation of the City: traditionally home to small masters, merchants,

stockbrokers and financiers, insurance underwriters, and ship owners. Beginning in the

1860s, they all moved outwards. In 1851, the population of the City was 127,000; by 1861,

it was 112,000, and by 1900, it was 31,000. The City became a business center, busy during

the day and deserted at night. Its architecture changed, great office blocks were raised,

often in the grand styles borrowed from previous eras like the Gothic, the Jacobean, and the

Italian that the Victorians favored.

3) Suburban exodus altered relationship

between employer and employee: before the

Victorian era, prosperous merchants and

craftsmen operated their businesses from their

homes. Employers, clerks, journeymen, and

apprentices lived near each other, often in the

same building. Even if there was not much

contact, there was proximity. After 1860, skilled

workers began abandoning the city for the

suburb; then home and family became more

important than work; the working day was also

shortened and income rose.4) The growth of vast slums like the East End: Dramatic growth in the first half of the 19th

century. People who worked in the docks and industries like foodstuffs, beverages, building

materials and soap lived in the boroughs of Whitechapel, Stepney, Poplar, Bethnal Green,

Bermondsey, and Southwark. Descriptions of living conditions are found in Edwin

Chadwick's Report on the Sanitary Conditions of the Labouring Classes (1842), Henry

Mayhew's London Labour and Lond Poor (1861), Charles Booth's Life and Labour of the

People in London (17 vols.; 1886-1903), and the accounts of contemporary observers. The

novelist Charles Kingsley wrote in 1849: "And, oh God! what I saw! People having no

water to drink—hundreds of them—but the water of the common sewer which stagnates

full of . . . dead fish, cats and dogs, under their window."

Transport: railways and tube

Railroads and Suburban GrowthVarious Modes of Transport

Railroads And SuburbanGrowthThe introduction of the commuter train

helped determine patterns of suburbandevelopment; towns grew up around thesuburban stations; fit in with the Britishdesire to live in the country; also madepossible north-south development andended the Thames' role as the determinantof the direction or urban development.Development of the rail road within Londonwas different from the suburbs; the raillines do not connect; hence a traveller mustoften change stations to continue a journey;hence the need for a means of rapid transit.

The London Underground was born in the early 1860s, with the opening of the Baker Street Station of the Metropolitan Railway. The opening was preceded by a decade of political and financial discussion. Plans had to go through Parliament. Plus there were the technical problems of actually constructing the Underground. In 1862, the Lond Times complained "of dark, noisome tunnels, buried many fathoms deep beyond the reach of light or life; passages inhabited by rats, soaked with sewer drippings, and poisoned by the escape of gas mains.”

In 1861, 23,000 people were directly employed by the railways; by 1891, the figure was almost 70,000. In addition,

48,000 people were employed in ancillary transport industries. Result is the conclusion

that 250,000 people depended on the rail industry for their livelihood. Other

industries grew up near the rail lines; also service industries like hotels, restaurants,

refreshment stands, etc.

But by the end of the 19th century, the Underground was complete; the result was the linking of the railway termini in the city center and an acceleration of settlement on the city's periphery, away from the Center. The direct and indirect impact of the railroads on the economy of London is difficult to underestimate.

In the beginning of the19th century,the main mode of transportation wasthe horse and carriage. It wasn't untilthe latter part of the century thatrailways changed people's lives andhabits. But even after the advent of therailway, remote areas still relied onthe horse for local transport. Carts,drays, vans and wagons weregenerally used for carrying goods inEngland. They could also be used tocarry people, but generally people ofthe lower orders. Carriages carriedpeople in England. Barouches,landaus, victorias, curricles andbroughams were all carriages.Following is a brief summary of thetypes of vehicles used to get around asper the cities:

Various Modes OfTransportation

Barouche- A four-wheel fancy carriage with a fold-up hood at the back and with two inside seats facing each other. It was the fancy carriage of the first half of the 19th century.Berlin- A big four-wheel carriage with a hood.Curricle- A two-wheel carriage that was fashionable in the early 1800s. It was pulled by two horses and deemed sporty by the younger set.Landau- Open, fancy carriage with four wheels with a hood at each end and two seats opposite each other. It was popular in the first half of the 19th century. Two horses pulled the landau.Phaeton- A light four-wheel carriage with open sides and drawn by one or two horses.Victoria- A low, open carriage with four wheels, which sat only one or two people. It was in use from about mid-century and very popular with ladies' driving.

OPEN CARRIAGES:-

Waggon--long, heavy vehicle used in the English countryside for carrying heavy goods and people who didn't have the money to travel fast.Dray--a cart with no sides used for hauling heavy loads.Van--A covered-over, lightweight version of the waggons used for hauling goods, and sometimes for people.

COUNTRY VEHICLES:-

Hackney--For hire, hackneys were often discarded carriages of the wealthy. They served as taxis in the 19th century.Cabriolet--(cab)--These were introduced into England in the 1820s from France. They quickly replaced hackney coaches.Hansom--Invented in the 1830s, it had two wheels and the driver sat in back, so the passengers could get a clear view of where they were going. They eventually replaced the cabs. It was introduced into the United States later in the century. By the 1890s, tires were rubber, making the ride smoother.Omnibus--The first one appeared in London in 1829 and carried about 22 passengers. By the 1880s, a circular staircase leading to the roof added more seating on top. They carried 12 passengers inside and 14 on top. They ran fixed routes and were pulled by horses.

CLOSED CARRIAGES:-

Brougham--All-purpose everyday vehicle for the quality in the latter part of the century. Originally a two-wheel vehicle, by the latter part of the 19th century, they were most often four-wheel carriages.

FOR HIRE VEHICLES:-

Road Wagon, Dog-cart, and Surrey--Were most useful for country work and for fast trotting.Rockaway--Usually relegated to country use, as it was difficult for the coachman to drive in crowded streets on a low seat. They were either closed or open.Runabout--The most generally used light wagon for two passengers.Wagonette--lightweight and led by two horses, it was useful in the country because it carried a large number of passengers with the least effort to the horses.

CARRIAGES OF AMERICAN ORIGIN:-

COACHES:-

Coaches were enclosed, four-wheel vehicles used for long-distance travel.Stagecoach--coaches which stopped at various pre-appointed stages in order to pick up and drop off passengers. They were the only way to visit people not on the mail coach routes. They were built to carry the same passengers as the mail coaches.Mail coaches--subsidized or owned by the post office and painted uniformly. They carried four inside passengers and up to eight outside passengers. Mailbags were piled on the roof and luggage was carried in receptacles called boots.

Sources Of Entertainment in 19ᵀᴴ century:-

The eighteenth century was the great age of theatre. In London and the provinces, large purpose-built auditoriums were built to house the huge crowds that flocked nightly to see plaays and musical performances. A variety of entertainments were on offer, from plays and ballets to rope-walkers and

acrobats.

Theatre going was a very different experience from that of today. Theatre audiences could be rude, noisy anddangerous. Alcohol and food was consumed in great quantity, while people frequently arrived and leftthroughout the duration of the performance. Audiences chatted amongst themselves and sometimes peltedactors with rotten fruit and vegetables. Others demanded that popular tunes be played over and over again.Audiences were a mixture of both rich and poor, and sat in different parts of the theatre depending on whetherthey could afford cheap or expensive tickets. ‘Persons of quality’ were seated in boxes placed alongside thestage, while working men and women were squeezed into hot and dirty galleries. In front of the stage, youngmen would drink together, eat nuts and mingle with prostitutes down below in the notorious ‘pit’.

There were fetes, carnivals, art exhibitions and lessons in singing, dancing and cooking to attend. Talks were

given by visiting notables, scientists, preachers, and people who had been adventuring in different cocuntries, to

join social groups, as they had families and children to look after.

Depending on your social status, you could join various social groups such as 'The Gleaners of Nature', sewing

and craft groups, sporting and church groups, as well as various lodges and friendly societies. Well-to-do ladies

would often join committees and organise events such as bazaars, fetes and exhibitions to raise money for

hospitals, churches and charitable exhibitions. However, in the 19th century, working hours were long and the

pay inadequat emoney. Many working people were poor and could not afford to attend the theatreor do not

have time.

THEATRE:-

Boxing:-

A cockfight is a blood sport between two roosters (cocks), or more accurately gamecocks, held in a ring called a cockpit. The first documented use of the word gamecock, denoting use of the cock as to a “game”, a sport, pastime or entertainment, was recorded in 1646, after the term “cock of the game”

used by George Wilson, in the earliest known book on the sport of cockfighting in The Commendation of Cocks and Cock Fighting in 1607. But it was during Magellan's voyage of

discovery of the Philippines in 1521 when modern cockfighting was first witnessed and documented by Antonio Pigafetta, Magellan's chronicler, in the kingdom of Taytay.

Cock fighting:-

Boxing has always had strong links with public houses. In the early days pubs have staged fights and even now some pubs are used as gyms and traianing centres. We take a look at three of London's

pugilistic pubs.

Occupational Structure of london in 19ᵀᴴ century

London in 1715 was at one and the same time Britain’s largest manufacturing centre, its largest port, and the centre of governance, the professions, trade, and finance. Perhaps a third of the population was directly involved in manufacturing, and the capital formed the centre of many trades (perhaps most notably the silk industries). The numbers of medical and legal professionals, in particular, grew strongly from the last quarter of the seventeenth century through the 1740s when the number of professionals began to level off. Employed in an ever growing number of hospitals and institutions, in the plethora of courts (both civil and criminal) and in the army and navy, by around 1730 there were perhaps 15,000 men employed in the law, medicine, the church and the military; while during the same period around one in nine Londoners kept a shop; and a further ten percent worked in the transport sector.

their lives, but a full sixty per cent were likely to find themselves in receiptof charity, or parish relief during periods of unemployment, illness or oldage.

This employment and economic pattern, however, was substantially skewed both in terms of gender and class. Female employment, for instance, was largely restricted to a small number of occupations, of which domestic service was overwhelmingly dominant, with perhaps half of all employed women working in service in this period. Beyond this, women were largely restricted to needlework and laundry , and thelarge numbers of unskilled and poorly paid employments associated with street selling and casual labor. The elite, the wealthy and aristocratic, made up between two and three percent of Londoners, while the "middling sort" – the professionals, large shop-keepers and manufacturers, bankers and traders – formed around a fifth of the population. Of the rest, some twenty per cent, skilled artisans and the simply lucky, might avoid poverty and dependence throughout

Migrant Population

Steps Taken To Accomodate Immigrants in London:-

The former riverside town required new forms of government, of communications, and of sanitation if it was to continue to grow. These were slowly and painfully evolved in the London of 1820-1914. In 1829 a centralized Metropolitan Police Force was provided, under the ultimate control of the home secretary, in place of the uncoordinated watchmen and parish constables. The lighting of streets by feeble oil lamps was revolutionized by the introduction of gas, and soon the Gas Light and Coke Company (1812) was followed by similar companies scattered throughout London. Omnibuses (1829) began a revolution in road transport, and carriage by rail came less than 10 years later.

In 1845 an inquiry into public health was made, with the exposure of London's worst deficiencies, followed by legislation in 1852 ensuring a purer water supply. A statute in 1855 (the Metropolis Management Act) combined a number of the smaller units of

local government and replaced the medley of franchises with a straightforward system of votes by all ratepayers. Major works, such as main drainage, were put in

the hands of a Metropolitan Board of Works. The Victorian middle class preferred the suburb with its privacy; the affluent still

favored the city for its diversities, novelties, and range of pleasures; department stores like Harrod's; music halls, theatres, restaurants, concerts, Gilbert and Sullivan;

museums; great newspapers; and the tourist and post card industries. Pleasures for the working classes: sports, especially soccer; free museums, public lectures, open-air

concerts. All such were lacking in the suburb.

Above all, city dwellers had to adjust to a rapid pace of change and

uncertaint; hence to survive, one had to be flexibile and independent,

hence London often attracted the rural young and women, who had

the opportunity to earn wages as clerks, shop assistants, and factory

girls, many also found emploment in the suburbs as domestics or

gardeners.