Semester 1

AP World

Study

GuideBy: Brian Lin

Lin 1

Lin 2

Lin 3

Prehistory

Great civilizations have a well organized work force, big population, andadvanced technology.

100,000 years ago, humans began migrating out of Africa. These migrations required new technologies, new botanical and

biological knowledge, and new ways of living.Paleolithic Era: Era of the foragers

Longest era in human history. During this time with no written evidence, researchers used the following ways

to understand history. Archeological evidence: physical remains

Human skeletal remains Remains of meals Stone tools Evidence from natural environment Artistic creations

Anthropological evidence: studies of modern foraging communities Genetic evidence: comparative studies

50,000 years ago: Megafaunal extinctions. Many large animals were driven to extinction by hunters.

Fire­ stick farming. Regular burning of vegetation on land cleared undergrowth,

deposited ash, encouraged growth of new shoots that wouldattract grazing animals and animals that prey on them.

Technological change began to accelerate. Migrations to new continents and new environments. More precise stone tools. Cave paintings and sculptures began

to emerge. 13,000 years ago: People acquired food from hunting and gathering (foraging).

Very low levels of productivity. Low population densities. Lived in small family groups.

Created networks that smoothed exchange of goods, people,and ideas between neighboring groups.

Notions of kinship provided all necessary rules of behavior. Women probably took responsibility of child­ rearing and

Lin 4

gathering food. Men hunted. Low life expectancies.

12,500 years ago: Global temperatures dropped and a new Ice Age began. TheMiddle East suffered an environmental collapse. People were forced to travelfarther to find any source of food.

11,500 years ago: Around this time, the drought ended in the Middle East.Remains of a granary were found, which suggests that some time during thedrought, people became farmers.

Domestication­ process of changing, breeding, and improving cropsthrough human interference.

Farmers changed plants forever by choosing the best seeds to get thebest crop.

This transition from hunting­ gathering to farming was a turning point inhuman history.

9,000 years ago: Animals became a steady source of food. Period ended with the appearance of the first agricultural communities. Knowledge began to accumulate faster than it was lost with the adoption of

symbolic language. Appearance of communities of affluent foragers prepared way for the agrarian

era of human history. Used extensive technologies, which allowed humans to occupy larger

areas without increasing size of individual communities. Sometimes they used more intensive technologies to create larger and

more sedentary communities. Allowed them to be less nomadic and to spend longer periods

at one home. Occurred 15,000­ 20,000 years ago in Mesopotamia.

Civilizations People chose to secure food through agriculture due to population pressure and

climatic conditions. Early farmers constructed agricultural villages because hunting and gathering

could not support the increasing numbers of peoples.Neolithic Age

Named after the tools made in this period not the crops. Farming required thepeople to make new tools from stone.

Innovation­ not borrowed or imposed from the outside Diffusion­ the spread of ideas from one culture to another.

Lin 5

Innovative primary urbanization happened in: Mesopotamia The Nile The Indus The Huang He The Niger Mexico Andes Mountains

As cities started to form, the early state was born, with its specializedorganization, centralized rule, and powerful armies.

Record­ keeping was developed to: Keep track of business transactions. Keep track of administrative orders. Record proclamations of rulers. Record rituals of priests. Record legends of gods. Record history of the city.

First system of writing evolved around 3300 BCE in Sumer. Cuneiform

Used for religious, business, political, and literary purposes.Sumer in Mesopotamia

To provide food in the hot, dry climate of Mesopotamia, farmers had to buildirrigation ditches and canals to provide water for the fields.

Created a form of government called a city­ state. A city­ state was an independent political unit; frequent wars were

fought between city­states. After some time kings and priests exercised political rule in each city­ state. Concept of citizenship (civic loyalty) was developed. Religious beliefs and practices were a big part of Sumer.

Sumerians believed survival depended on the will of gods. Much power resided in the priest. Many important functions were performed in ziggurats (stepped­

pyramids). Controlled huge retinues Retained field workers to farm the temple’s estates. Rituals Royal burials

Lin 6

Invented the wheel; improved the plow; developed the canal to help watertransportation.

Metallurgists used bronze for tools and weapons. Number system in base 60 was invented. First legal code: Code of Hammurabi City­ states constantly warred with each other, which eventually weakened

them. Conquered by outsider, who added Sumer to their empires.

Accomplishments of early city­ states Increase in human population. Economic growth. Effective organization for common tasks. Creative breakthroughs in just about everything. Inauguration of a rule of law. Formation of non­ kin­ based community with a sense of purpose and humanity.

Despite all this, city­ states could not work out a system of government and regulationthat would enable them to live in peace.

Egypt Nile River provided water and silt for natural irrigation. Deserts, cataracts, and the Mediterranean Sea provided defense against

invasion. Due to this protection, Ancient Egypt was ruled by indigenous dynasties

for almost 2,600 years. Egyptians developed hieroglyphics. Pharaohs gained a position as gods after Egypt was unified. Egyptians believed that pharaohs kept the forces of nature in balance. Egypt was ruled by monarchy not individual city­ states.

Early China Shang Dynasty

Based in Huang He Valley Kings ruled the state.

Built capitals as administrative and religious centers. Organized people to constrict irrigation channels and dikes for flood

control. Early chinese script were found on oracle bones. Kings mediated between the spirit world and humans Kings believed they were of divine descent.

Lin 7

Shang crafted bronze and used horse­ drawn chariots. Zhou Dynasty

Left behind substantial amount of written documents. Book of Documents

Developed concept of Mandate of Heaven. Book of Songs

Collection of China’s earliest poetry. Transformed warfare

Developed calvary Introduced infantry

Created much larger state than the Shang Dynasty. Had a decentralized administration.

Contributed to political instability.Mesoamerica and Andean South America

Cities began as religious centers Developed into city­states with important functions in politics and trade. Were not built on major river systems. Did not use metal in their tools. Wheels and animals were not used for transportation. No written language except for the Maya. Teotihuacan dominated valley of Mexico. Mayan civilization

Constant warfare between city­states. Practiced polytheism and offered blood sacrifices to gods. Monumental architecture Written language Accurate calendar Developed math system which included concept of 0

Recap of the first cities New scale and density in human settlement patterns. New technology: metallurgy Monumental scale in architecture Specialization and hierarchy in social, political, and economic life. Cities became centers of exchange of goods and ideas. Invention of writing Cities required complex, hierarchical, government Cities were religious centers

Lin 8

City defenses protected inhabitantsEmpires

Empire­ extension of political rule by one person over other different peoples Grow from conquest Build structures that display power Establish vast trade networks Include diverse people under single, centralized rule. Created bureaucratic administrations to enable functioning of a single political

entity. Collection of taxes from citizens and tributes from the conquered Insure uniformity of language, currency, weights and measures, and legal

systems. Hegemony­ rule that subjects accept willingly if they can be persuaded that it is

in their best interests Dominance­ exercise of sheer power Causes of decline of empires

Failure of leadership Overextension of administration Collapse of economy Doubts over ideology of empire Military defeat

Roman Republic Built on seven hills beside Tiber River Started out as a republic

Republic Republic­ a government in which power resides in a body of citizens and

consists of representatives elected by them Governed by patricians Rest of the people were plebeians Twelve Tables­ laws of the republic Plebeians eventually got political rights Two consuls commanded the army and directed the government Senate was consisted of 300 patricians and made major laws Assemblies were consisted of plebeians and made minor laws Republic could appoint a dictator

Had absolute power to make laws and command army Power lasted for 6 months

Lin 9

Chosen by consuls and elected by Senate Military power was a key factor to Rome’s greatness Rome prefered to rule by hegemony, ultimately it would use force if necessary. Patron­ client relationship­­ patron (usually a patrician) offers legal protection

and often representation while client (usually a plebeian) offers obedience,services, and money in exchange

Paterfamilias­ father of the family Had absolute power over all members of the family Continued to have control over economic lives of daughters even after

their marriage The end of the republic

Generals fought each other for political power Civil wars in Rome Army generals begin seizing more power

Julius Caesar Governed as absolute ruler Granted Roman citizenship to many people in provinces Appointed friends and supporters to Senate Created jobs for poor by constructing new public buildings Started colonies where people without land could own property Increased pay for soldiers Set up new calendar

Roman Empire Pax Romana­ Roman peace

Rome at the peak of its power Period of peace and prosperity within the empire

Augustus Rome’s most able emperor Believed that a well­ ordered family was linked with a well­ ordered

empire Sought to revive family order

Created a civil service Grain supply Tax collection Postal system

Romans constructed new cities as administrative, military, and financial centers Invention of concrete

Lin 10

Built bridges, aqueducts, forts, stadiums, and baths As long as people worshipped emperor and did not question legitimacy of state,

diverse religious practices were permitted within empire. Empire collapsed due to many reasons

Loss of fertility in Italian soil High inflation Evasion of taxes Disloyalty of soldiers Government corruption Deficit spending Diseases Use of mercenaries in army Division of wmpire Unemployment Loss of patriotism Germanic Invasions No war plunder Hun invasions Civil war Increased poverty love of luxury Cooler climate, less crops Gold and silver drain Heavy taxes Gap between rich and poor Reliance on slave labor Loss of interest in public affairs Disruption of trade

Eastern Empire Constantinople was the new capital Lasted longer than Western empire Justinian Code

Codification of Roman system of law Provided foundation for imperial administration Basis of modern European law

Emperor headed both state and church Economic prosperity based on agriculture, industry, and trade.

Qin Dynasty

Lin 11

First empire in Chinese history Qin Shi Huang Enormous public works projects Ruled through bureaucracy

Emperor chose people for office based on ability Work was rewarded or punished according to an official’s efficiency

and fidelity Created standardized:

Weights and measures Coinage Size of roads and length of cart axles Legal code Written form of Chinese language

Han Dynasty Chose educated scholars as government officials Established academics to teach knowledge of Confucianism Eventually needed an exam to become a government official New technologies

Expansion of iron industry Mining Paper production Compass Harness for horses Improved plow Hydraulic engineering Tapping natural gas

Gained revenue to support armed forces and imperial court by: Raised taxes on land Devalued coinage confiscated land of nobility Sold offices and titles Established government monopolies Took over grain trade

Opening of first Silk Road Confucianism­ refinement of one’s ethics and personal virtues Legalism­ principle of strict adherence to laws and leader Daoism­ philosophy of spontaneity in the force of nature and the cosmos

Lin 12

Indian Empires Important texts

Vedas Hymns, prayers, spells, and ritual instructions

Mahabharata Longest poem in the world Civil war fought between two branches of the same family Bhagavad­ Gita: divine advice on life, death, and rebirth Each person has unique dharma, determined by one’s caste

Ramayana emphasized marital devotion

Mauryan Empire Chandragupta Maurya­ emperor of Mauryan Empire Artha­sastra attributed to Kautilya

Cutthroat view of interstate competition Large states swallowed small ones (Justice of the fish) The enemy of my enemy is my friend

Men had power over women and were responsible for protecting them. Women were expected to run the household and obey men Emperors tried to build highly centralized administration with well­ paid

bureaucrats, powerful military, and efficient system of spies. Asoka brought empire to greatest extent. He converted to Buddhism, a religion committed to nonviolence after he saw

the carnage of his conquests. He tried to rule with fairness, tolerance, and honesty. Sent Buddhist missionaries throughout his empire to spread Buddhism. After his death the Mauryan Empire collapsed.

Gupta Empire Much smaller than Mauryan Empire Not as centralized as Mauryan rule Emperor created “theater­ state” to persuade outlying regions to follow their

lead. Powerful army maintained tight control in core of empire Golden Age for Learning

Mathematics Arabic numerals and decimal system Concepts of zero and negative numbers

Lin 13

Quadratic equations and the value of pi Calculated length of solar year

Astronomy Proved Earth was round Proved Earth rotated on an axis

Medicine Medical guides described more than 1,000 diseases and over

500 plants Performed surgery

Literature and performing arts Kalidasa: poet and playwright Panchatantra: series of 87 stories with moral lessons

Hunas invaded the empire and ended Gupta ruleReligions

Hinduism Oldest of world’s leading religions; evolved in India Blend of Aryan and non­ Aryan traditions in India Helps people deal with many spiritual and physical pains of daily life Soul of living being is called atman Atman tries to reach Moksha (union) with Brahman Trying to reach imperfect goals such as material riches and personal pleasures

bring about suffering and pain Reincarnation happens until they reach Brahman Rigveda: hymns to Aryan gods; introduced origin and rationale of caste system Caste system

Probably the most unequal and hierarchical social system in the world. Each caste was subject to different rules Only upper castes were permitted to receive formal education, and

separate castes were not to intermarry nor even dine with each other. Rulers supported priests while priests affirmed authority of rulers Temples took on important economic functions in banking and money­ lending

Lin 14

Buddhism Siddhartha Gautma was founder of Buddhism He realized that pain was an integral part of life. Sought a remedy for it Tried to achieve enlightenment through meditation

He tried to push away punishment and promises of rewards. Achieved enlightenment Four Noble Truths

All worldly life contains suffering The cause of suffering is desire There is an end to suffering: enlightenment Following the eightfold path can lead to the end of suffering

Right understanding Right concentration Right thought Right speech Right action Right livelihood Right effort Right mindfulness

Five Precepts I will refrain from killing live creatures. I will refrain from stealing from others I will refrain from sexual misconduct

Lin 15

I will refrain from lying, harsh language, slander, or idle chit­chat

I will refrain from intoxicants which lead to loss of mindfulness Release from cycle of mortality and pain is called nirvana

Judaism Based on a covenant between God and Abraham Abraham’s descendants would forever worship God God in turn will forever watch over and protect Hebrew people Jews believed God promised Israel to Abraham TaNaKh

Consist of books of Bible written in Hebrew language Tell of many narratives of God

Essential beliefs God demands obedience and administers rewards and punishments

fairly, in accord with fixed laws God’s power affects destiny of individuals and nations God works through community of chosen people: Hebrews God promises specific geographical homeland: Israel God provides legal systems to guide proper behavior

Governs many aspects of life 10 Commandments dictate behavior toward God, parents, and

fellow humans God provides a sacred calender

Jews were conquered twice and were exiled and lost ethnic heritage Eventually were allowed back to Israel and reconstruct their lives Judea­ spiritual center Jews preserved cohesion through acceptance of authority of sacred scriptures

and persistence in seeing themselves as chosen people of GodChristianity

Its first teacher­ Jesus Emerged from Judaism during Roman rule Jesus’ teachings on ethics attracted attention

Promised eternal life in heaven for souls of believers Jesus performed miracles Roman government saw him as a heretic

Jesus’ followers proclaimed him to be a source of eternal life,miracleworker,and son of God

Lin 16

Roman government executed Jesus by crucification Jesus’s teachings

Baptism signified entry of a new believer into Christian community Passover meal was transformed into Eucharist, or Holy Communion,

which signified forgiveness of sins. Preached that life on earth would soon change dramatically Repeatedly spoke of “Kingdom of Heaven” in which the poor would be

favored. Scoffed at Jewish dietary laws and challenged Sabbath restrictions Believed that future lay in heaven not on earth

Peter: Jesus’ disciple, welcomed non­ Jews into the Church Paul: Second founder and greatest early missionary of the new faith

Converted to belief in Jesus as Son of God Linked Christian communities through missionary voyages and series of

letters Promised eternal life to those who believed in Jesus’ power Formulated new concept of original sin and redemption

Constantine, a Roman emperor, declared christianity a legal religion after amilitary win.

He funded Christian leaders and construction of churches He withdrew support from pagan religions Made Christianity de facto religion of Empire Constantine took part in Church affairs

Sponsored Council of Nicaea Decided official doctrines of Church Set up hierarchical Church organization based on that of Empire

Became Christian on his deathbed Emperor Theodosius: christianity to be a state religion

Islam Islam means submission to the word of God, called Allah Muslims use the Koran to know God’s words Stories of Muhammad’s life, words, and deeds provide Muslims with models of

a righteous life Mecca­ center of religious pilgrimage and trade Also site of Ka’aba Muhammad was visited by Gabriel sent by Allah; Muhammad was instructed to

recite God’s words

Lin 17

Muslims consider Koran to be absolute, uncorrupted word of God Five Pillars of Islam

Declaring the creed, “There is no god but God, and Muhammad is hisprophet.

Praying five times daily while facing Mecca and if possible praying alsoin public assembly at midday at each Friday

Giving alms to the poor in the community Fasting each day in the month of Ramadan Making the Hajj

Sixth pillar­ Jihad (sacred struggle) Those who observe Islam faithfully will spend it in paradise Those who don’t will spend eternity in hell God has power over everything Muslim leadership created position of caliph, successor to the Prophet First four caliphs were chosen from Muhammad’s relatives and companions Civil wars began between various political, economic, tribal, and religious

groups Shi’a: caliph should be chosen from Prophet’s family

Recognized only descendents of Prophet’s family as religious leaders Sunni: caliph should reflect sunna of Prophet, but didn’t have to come from his

family Umayyad caliphs

Constructed beautiful mosques in major cities Converted tons of people to Islam Conquered and ruled parts of Spain

Abbasid caliphs Overthrew Umayyads and built a new capital at Baghdad Recruited widely among all peoples of empire to fill administrative and

military positions Hulegu conquered Baghdad, executed caliph and ended Abbasid

empire Sufi­ a member of one of the orders practicing mystical forms of worship

Practiced pious asceticism Wanted to experience God directly as the ultimate reality, emphasized

devotional love of God and people Attracted others to Islam through their simple faith, personal love of God, and

dedication to needs of others

Lin 18

Often served as missionaries of Islam Rashid al­ Din: first world historian Ibn Khaldun­ stressed cyclical theory House of Wisdom­ Greek, Indian, and Persian writings were translated into

Arabic Arabs transmitted Hindi numerals, decimal system, and concept of zero Developed algebra Believed in heliocentric universe al­ Razi: compiled medical encyclopedia Islam served as network of communication Learned paper­ making from the Chinese Had largest agricultural exchange in world history Improved and invented new forms of irrigation Increased and diversified agricultural productivity Population increase and urban growth

Chinese Dynasties Shang, Zhou, Qin, Han, Sui, Tang, Song, Yuan, Ming, Qing, Republic

Remember the song? ;)Sui Dynasty

While building a strong central government, Sui emperors placed enormousdemands on their subjects

Constructed palaces and granaries Repaired defensive walls Levied high taxes Demanded compulsory labor from subjects Construction of Grand Canal

Facilitated trade between north and south China Established economic foundation for political and cultural unity

Construction projects spearheaded considerable growth, but becameunpopular because of their dependence on high taxes and forced labor

Tang Dynasty Emperor Tang Taizong: able ruler who worked hard to promote stable

government and economic prosperity Saw himself as a Confucian ruler Both price of rice and tax rate were low

Extensive communications network Grand Canal

Lin 19

Equal­ field system governed distribution of farmland Purpose: to ensure fair distribution of land

Government was staffed by officials chosen on merit, as measured byperformance on civil service exams

Needed knowledge in Chinese literature, philosophy, history Most won posts because of intellectual ability

One of largest empires in Chinese history Maintained tributary relationships with other lands

Fostered trade, cultural exchanges, and diplomatic contacts Declined to the incompetent emperors that neglected duties

Song Dynasty Highly centralized government, but didn’t have a very strong army Emperors emphasized civil administration, industry, education, and arts Expanded bureaucracy; generously rewarded loyal government officials Placed military under supervision of civilians Huge bureaucracy drained imperial treasury

Prompted two rebellions Bureaucrats dominated government so much that it was impossible to reform

system No experienced army generals Declined after nomads captured Kaifeng Mongols eventually defeated the Song Dynasty

Economic Development in Tang and Song China Agricultural production was the leading factor of economic development

New and old techniques boosted agriculture Huge population growths and urbanization Veneration of family ancestors became extremely important Foot­ binding let males control women affairs Porcelain spread everywhere, demand was high Metals became stronger with new techniques Alchemists discovered gunpowder, which was used in new inventions Printing became common and the Chinese printed more works Built new ships and a compass Developed banks Developed the first use of paper money Developed checks Money became important to everyday life

Lin 20

Trade turned China into a cosmopolitan society Chinese developed tastes for exotic goods which fostered economic growth Many religions spread through China

Buddhism became extremely popular Attracted Chinese because of its high standards of morality, its

intellectual sophistication, and its promise for salvation Explained Buddhist concepts using Chinese cultural traditions New types of Buddhism was born in China Some people resented Buddhism

Emperor eventually banned foreign religions Confucianism changed from the influence of Buddhism­ Neo­ confucianism Influenced Korea, Vietnam, and Japan

Trade It was mostly indirect, a chain of separate transactions in which goods traveled

farther than individual merchants. Economic effects on interregional trade

Altered consumption Affected day­ to­ day working lives

Social effects on interregional trade Traders became a distinct social group Social mobility Allowed elite groups to distinguish themselves from commoners

Political effects on interregional trade Motivated creation of states in different parts of the world Problems

Trade Controlled privately Controlled by state

How authorities should deal with merchants Spread new religions

Buddhism from India to Central and East Asia Islam from North Africa across Sahara Desert to West Africa

Spread technological innovations Environmental

Diseases that devastated Eurasia Plants and animals

Silk Roads

Lin 21

Land­ based trade routes linked pastoral and agricultural peoples as well aslarge civilizations

A “relay trade” in which goods were passed down the line, changing handsmany times before reaching final destination

By the beginning of the Common Era, indirect trading connection, oftenbrokered by pastoral peoples, linked classical civilizations in network oftranscontinental exchange

Silk Road trading networks prospered the most when large, powerful statesprovided security for merchants and travelers

Classical Era Roman and Chinese empires anchored long­ distance commerce at

western and eastern ends of Eurasia 7th and 8th centuries CE

Byzantine Empire, Muslim Abbasid Dynasty , and Tang Dynastycreated belt of strong states across Eurasia

13th and 14th centuries CE Mongol empire encompassed almost entire route of Silk Roads in a

single state, giving renewed vitality to long­ distance trade Most goods carried on Silk roads were luxury product, destined for elite people Silk was highly desired

China had a monopoly on the silk industry Technology began to spread by the 6th century CE

Silk was used as currency in central Asia Symbol of high social status Associated with the sacred in expanding religions of Buddhism and Christianity Although volume of trade on Silk Roads was small, it had important economic

and social consequences Some peasants gave up cultivation of food to produce products that

were popular on the Silk Roads Well­ placed individuals could benefit immensely from long­ distance

trade Spread of Buddhism

Buddhism spread from India throughout Central and East Asia asmerchants traveled the Silk Roads

Merchants preferred its universal messafe Took hold in oasis cities of Central Asia

Changes in Buddhism

Lin 22

Some doctrines changed; Buddha became a deity Religious art influenced European influences

Disease Human contact along Silk Roads exposed people to new diseases for

which they had little immunity Smallpox and measles devastated Roman Empire and Han

China 13th­14th centuries CE­ Mongol unification of land mass facilitated

spread of Black Death One­ third of European population perished Affected China and Islamic World too

Sea Roads Venice emerged as a major city of commerce, linking Mediterranean Sea to a

large network of seaborne trade in Indian Ocean basin Between 500­1500, Indian Ocean represented world’s largest sea­ based

system of exchange, stretching from southern China to eastern Africa Desire for scarce goods motivated trade Transportation costs were lower

Could carry more bulk goods destined for mass market Silk Roads were limited to luxury goods for wealthy consumers

Monsoon winds and improving technology of shipbuilding and oceanicnavigation facilitated Indian Ocean trade

Commerce operated through urban trade centers strung out aroundentire Indian Ocean basin

Earliest seagoing ventures hugged coast for short distances Malay sailors sailed across thousands of miles of open ocean from

Indonesia to Madagascar Introduces new foods

India was fulcrum of growing commercial network Buddhism and Hinduism began to take hold in Southeast India

Economic and political revival of China under Tang and Song dynasties Reestablished unified state which encouraged maritime trade Growth of Chinese economy sent Chinese products pouring into Indian

Ocean trade, while providing vast market for Indian and SoutheastAsian goods

Chinese technological innovations added to momentum of commercialgrowth

Lin 23

Islam rose and spread through much of Afro­ Eurasia Islam was friendly to commercial life Creation of Arab Empire

Stretches from Atlantic Ocean through Mediterranean Basin allthe way to India provided a vast arena for Muslim traders

Indian Ocean trade network became increasingly Islamic Kingdom of Srivijaya

Dominated sea route through Strait of Malacca Levied taxes on passing ships Taxes provided revenue to pay for security Created military and naval forces

Kingdom of Sailendra (Java) Constructed Borobudur, largest Buddhist monument in the world

Illustrate penetration of Indian culture throughout SoutheastAsia

Islam eventually reached Southeast Asia African civilizations

Swahili civilization took shape as set of commercial city­states stretchingalong East African coast, from Somalia to Mozambique

Following rise of Islam, engaged in extensive trading in western IndianOcean

Local people and rulers found opportunity for wealth and power ingrowing demand for East African products in Arabia, Persia, India, andbeyond

African merchant class developed,villages turned into sizable towns,clan chiefs became kings

Accumulated goods from interior and exchanged them for productsfrom distant civilizations

Many ruling families claimed Arab or Persian origins as a way to bolsterprestige

Swahili language was grammatically African, written in Arabic script andcontained Arabic loan words

Swahili civilization rapidly adopted Islam Great Zimbabwe was a powerful state inland

Linked to Indian Ocean trade Source of gold: wealth measured in large herds of cattle Constructed huge stone enclosures

Lin 24

Sand Roads Gold, salt, and slaves: trade and empire in West Africa

Introduction of camel was a huge factor in African commercial life North Africans organized camel caravans across desert

Saharan trade routes laid economic basis for construction of series of states,empires, and city­ states

All were monarchies All secured revenue by taxing merchants who conducted trade Acquired reputation for great riches Slavery found part in west Africa Worked as agricultural laborers, miners craftsmen, state officials,

domestic servants Slave trade developed Islam accompanied trade

American network Absence of domesticated animals, wheeled vehicles, large ocean­ going vessels North/ south orientation meant that any spread of agricultural products would

be impeded by distinct climatic and vegetation zones Slow spreading of cultural elements Most networks of communication and exchange in Americas lay within, rather

than between, the two civilization areas in the Western Hemisphere­ those ofMesoamerica and the Andes

European Christendom During postclassical era, Christianity provided some cultural commonality for

diverse societies of Western Eurasia, much as Chinese civilization andBuddhism did for East Asia

European Christendom was deeply divided, unlike Chinese civilization Europe eventually became global center of Christianity Continued traditions of Roman Empire

Roads Taxation system Military structures Centralized administration Imperial court Laws Christian Church

Byzantine state

Lin 25

Smaller than classical Roman Empire, it still remained major force in easternMediterranean until about 1200

Its capital of Constantinople, emperor claimed to govern all creation as God’sworldly representative

Ended after capture by Ottoman Turks Byzantine Church

Emperor assumed role of both caesar, head of state, and pope, head ofChurch

Became known as caesaropapism Emperor appointed patriarch, or leader, of Orthodox Church

and sometimes made decisions about doctrine Emperor treated Church as department of government

Eastern Orthodox Christianity had pervasive influence on every aspectof Byzantine life

While Eastern Orthodox Christianity and Latin Christianity had much incommon, each began to compete politically with the other for territoryand for the right to claim Roman imperial legacy

Although Latin remained the language of the Church in the West,Byzantines used the Greek language

Eastern Orthodox leaders rejected claims of Roman popes to be finalauthority for all Christians

1054: Roman pope and Orthodox patriarch formally declared eachother was not true Christian

1204: Western Crusaders, instead of attacking Muslims, seizedConstantinople

Byzantine and the World Byzantium’s ability to defend its core regions from attack delayed it

from getting conquered Central player in long­ distance trade with commercial links to most of

the known world Preserved much of ancient Greek and Roman learning, transmitted this

classical heritage to Islamic world and Christian west Eastern Orthodox Christianity spread among Slavic­ speaking peoples

Cyril and Methodius, developed alphabet, based on Greekletters, with which Slavic languages could be written

Cyrillic alphabet enabled translation of Bible into Slaviclanguages and aided conversion of persons to Christianity

Lin 26

Scandinavians and Slavs formed state called Kievan Rus alongDnieper River

Kiev emerged as prominent city Prospered due to trade with Byzantium and Scandinavia 989: Prince Vladimir of Kiev decided that all his subjects should

convert to Eastern Orthodox Christianity (conversion from top­down)

Rus borrowed extensively with Byzantium Cyrillic alphabet, political ideals of imperial control of

church, missionaries to instruct subjects in new faith Orthodoxy helped unify Russian people and provided

religious legitimacy for princes of Kievan RusWestern Europe (500­1000)

Much of characterized Roman civilization declined in Europe Large­ scaled centralized rule vanished Disease and warfare reduced population by more than 25% Land under cultivation contracted Urban life diminished; Western Europe reverted to largely rural

existence Public buildings crumbled Outside Italy, long­ distance trade dried up

Roads deterioated Money exchange gave way to barter

Literacy lost ground Barbarian peoples became dominant Western Europe’s center of gravity moved away from Mediterranean

toward north and west Much that was Roman persisted

Germanic peoples arose to replace Roman authority Deeply influenced by Roman culture Created distinct ethnic identities among them through contact

with Roman Empire Germanic kings embraced Roman law to provide order in their new

states Several of larger Germanic kingdoms tried to recreate unity of Roman

Empire Carolingian Empire under Charlemagne

Lin 27

962­1100: Holy Roman Empire in German states and northernItaly

Efforts were unsuccessful in reviving anything close to Romanimperial property

Society and church Fragmented and decentralized society emerged, known as feudalism Thousands of independent, self­ sufficient, and isolated estates or

manors, political, economic, and social power was exercised by warriorelite of landowning lords, or nobles

In constant competition, lesser lords and knights swore allegiance togreater lords or kings and thus becoming their vassals, receiving landsand plunder in return for military service

Such reciprocal ties between superior and subordinate were alsoapparent at bottom of social hierarchy, as Roman­ style slaverygradually gave way to serfdom

Serfs were not personal property of masters Bound to masters’ estates as peasant laborers and owed

various payments to lord of manor Women required to weave cloth and make clothing for lord,

men worked in fields In return, serf family received small farm and protection

provided by the lord In violent times, the only security available to many persons lay

in these communities, where ties to kin, manor, and lordconstituted primary human loyalties

Also filling vacuum of the fallen Western Roman Empire was RomanCatholic Church

Hierarchal organization was modeled on that of Empire andtook over some of its political, administrative, educational, andwelfare functions

Latin= language of church Church became extremely wealthy

Ordinary people followed rulers and were baptized as Christians Process similar to Buddhism’s appeal in China

Bore promise of superior, supernatural powers Its spread was often associated with miracles Sometimes coercion was needed, but softer methods often

Lin 28

prevailed Willing to accommodate considerable range of earlier cultural

practices, absorbing them into emerging Christian tradition By 1100, most of Europe adopted Christianity

Church and political rulers sometimes cooperated and sometimescompeted

Some rulers offered protection and encouraged faith; in return,Church offered religious legitimacy over rule

Competed over right to appoint high Church officials Change in West 1000­1300

Repeatedly invaded by Muslims, Magyars, and Vikings 1000­1300: High Middle Ages saw expansion and growth in Europe

Opened new lands for cultivation New villages were organized on what used to be wastelands

and forests Increase production associated with agricultural expansion stimulated

considerable growth in long­ distance trade Urbanization happened

Attracted new groups of people Organized themselves into guilds

Women's Roles New substantial opportunities But by 15th century, opportunities were declining

Religious life Substantial numbers of women, particularly from aristocratic families

were attracted to secluded life within nunnery Offered relative freedom from male control One of few places where women could exercise authority and

obtain education For a few women, religious life brought public prominence and spiritual

influence Monarchs began to consolidate authority Scandinavian and other states began to appear, each with its own distinct

language and culture High Middle Ages

Western half of Christendom was on rise while eastern half was indecline

Lin 29

Expansion characteristics Territorial conquest Empire building Settlement of new lands Vigorous trading initiatives Missionary activity

Vikings set off on transatlantic ventures Merchants, travelers, diplomats, and missionaries brought European

society into more intensive contact with distant peoples and commercialnetworks

Most dramatic example of Western European expansiveness: theCrusades, a series of holy wars that began in 1095

Undertaken at God’s commands and authorized by Pope Required participants to swear a vow in return for an

indulgence, which removed penalties from any confessed sins,as well as immunity from lawsuits and moratorium

Religious wars Drew upon Christian piety and warrior values of elite

Most famous Crusade: aimed at wresting Jerusalem and christian holyplaces from Islamic control

Crusades demonstrated growing European capacity for organization,finance, transportation, and recruitment

Demonstrated considerable cruelty Pervasive feature in European expansion Conquered:

Muslims Pagans along Baltic Sea Byzantines and Russians Christian heretics and enemies of the Pope

Little lasting political or religious impact on Middle East Unable to induce much conversion Muslim scholarship along with ancient Greek and Roman learning, came

into Western Europe Crusades hardened cultural barriers

Rift deepened between Eastern Orthodoxy and RomanCatholicism

Christian anti­ semitism worsened as Crusaders crusades

Lin 30

General Stuff Roman Catholic Church maintained degree of independence from state

authority High­ ranking nobles, acting through formal councils had right to

approve new taxes 3­ way power struggle among kings, warrior aristocrats, and church

leaders enabled urban­ based merchants to achieve unusualindependence from political authority

Merchants exercised local power, won right to make andenforce their own laws and appoint their own officials

Relative weakness of Europe’s rulers led to development ofrepresentative institutions through where views of people can beexpressed

Mongols Established largest land­ based empire in human history spanning from Pacific to

Eastern Europe Brought major civilizations into far more direct contact Left only modest cultural imprint on the world However exercised enormous impact on other peoples throughout Eurasia Genghis Khan

Reorganized Mongol social structure into military units based ondecimal systems

Warriors displayed impressive loyalty to leaders, who rewarded theirtroops with enormous flow of wealth from conquered civilizations

Mongols learned siege warfare from Chinese Gained reputation for brutality and utter destructiveness Mobilized human and material resources of empire to support army Census taking made systematic taxation possible of conquered people Centralized bureaucracy Domestic policies appealed to conquered people

Offered merchants 10% or more above asking price; allowedfree use of relay stations for transporting goods

Mongol administrators held highest decision­ making posts, butChinese and Muslims held many advisory and lower ­ levelpositions

Practiced religious tolerance as long as conquered were loyal toimperial rule

Lin 31

China was most difficult to conquer Result: Unification of divided China Many Chinese believed that Mongols were granted Mandate of Heaven Extracted as much wealth from China as possible Tried to accommodate themselves to Chinese culture, economy and

government Use Chinese taxation system and postal system Gave themselves Chinese dynastic title: Yuan

Kublai Khan ruled like benevolent Chinese emperor Improved roads and built canals Lowered some taxes Patronized scholars and artists Limited death penalty and torture Supported peasant agriculture Practiced religious toleration

Chinese still viewed Mongol rule as harsh, exploitative,foreign, andresented

Ignored traditional examination system and relied on foreigners to serveas officials

Law discriminated against Chinese Forbade intermarriage and prohibited Chinese scholars from learning

new Mongol script Supported merchants and artisans far more than Chinese bureaucrats

Persia and the Mongols Destructive Laid waste to lands Eventually helps restore Persia

Russia and the Mongols Even more destructive Did not occupy Had little to offer

China trading Most economically advanced Internal trade outweighed external trade Ming forbidden oversea trading

Business and the Church Church had a dim view on private profit and wealth

Lin 32

Forbade Christians to take and give interest on loans Jews did much of the work Church forbade Jews to have their own land Eventually forced them to live in ghettos As commerce increased the Church began to revise its opposition to

business Renaissance

Rebirth of Classical ideals Saw as reconnection back to Rome and Greece Sought to establish link between Ancient Roman and Greek texts Universities

Founded to preserve, enhance, transmit knowledgeAmerindian World

Toltecs and Mexica Shared religious and cultural traditions of Teotihuacan Fought relentlessly among themselves Toltecs maintained large and powerful army Toltecs had a compact regional empire Exacted tribute from subject peoples and transformed capital into

wealthy city Mexica (Aztecs)

Settled on island in Lake Texcoco and founded capital city Tenochtitlanthere

Demanded tribute Joined forces with neighboring cities

Exact tribute from subject peoples Sometimes very oppressive on subject peoples

No elaborate bureaucracy or administration Simply conquered subjects and assessed tribute, leaving governance

and the collection or tribute in the hands of the conquered peoplesthemselves

Did not keep a standing army Simply assembled forces when needed Rigidly hierarchical Warriors respected Women served as child­ rearers and homemakers

Principal function was to bear children

Lin 33

Priestly class also ranked high Presided over religious ceremonies

Commoners worked for just about everything Delivered periodic tributes to state agents which goes into the

granary Sacrifices important to appease the gods Huitzilopochtli­ war god

Incas Lived in region around Lake Titicaca, but expanded empire through

much of western South America Ruled as military and administrative elite Administration rested with a large class of bureaucrats Quipu­ recorded statistical information throughout empire Cuzco served as administrative, religious, and ceremonial center of the

empire Considered ruler as the son of the Sun God Inti­ Sun God Viracocha­ creator of the world, humankind, and all else in the universe Strong moral dimension

Lin 34