whap vocabulary and study guide

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UPDATE (4/29) We did it! This massive doc began around...September? Look how far we’ve come--it’s time for APs! Here’s a virtual pat on the back. We’re not done yet though... HIGHLIGHT EVERYTHING AND PASTE IT ON YOUR OWN DOC OR EXCESSIVELY USE THE CHAT SIDE BAR, AND I WILL CUT YOU (guuurrlll). Check this study guide out !! Textbook website ( outlines & quizzes ) TABLE OF CONTENTS Part 1: The Early Complex Societies , 3500-500 BCE Chapter 1: Before History Chapter 2: Early Societies in Southwest Asia and the Indo - European Migrations Chapter 3: Early African Societies and the Bantu Migrations Chapter 4: Early Societies in South Asia Chapter 5: Early Societies in East Asia Chapter 6: Early Societies in the Americas and Oceania Part 2: The Formation of Classical Societies , 500 BCE - 500 CE Chapter 7: The Empires of Persia Chapter 8: The Unification of China Chapter 9: State , Society , and the Quest for Salvation in India Chapter 10: Mediterranean Society : The Greek Phase Chapter 11: Mediterranean Society : The Roman Phase Chapter 12: Cross - Cultural Exchanges on the Silk Roads Part 3: The Postclassical Era , 500 - 1000 C . E . Chapter 13: The Expansive Realm of Islam Chapter 14: The Resurgence of Empire in East Asia Chapter 15: India and the Indian Ocean Basin Chapter 16: The Two Worlds of Christendom Part 4: The Acceleration of Cross - Cultural Interaction , 1000 - 1500 C . E . Chapter 17: Nomadic Empires and Eurasian Integration Chapter 18: States and Societies of Sub - Saharan Africa Chapter 19: The Increasing Influence of Europe Chapter 20: Worlds Apart : The Americas and Oceania Chapter 21: Reaching Out : Expanding Horizons of Cross - Cultural Interaction Part 5: The Origins of Global Interdependence , 1500 - 1800 Chapter 22: Transoceanic Encounters and Global Connections Chapter 23: The Transformation of Europe Chapter 24: New Worlds : The Americas and the Oceans Chapter 25: Africa and the Atlantic World Chapter 26: Tradition and Change in East Asia Chapter 27: The Islamic Empires Part 6: An Age of Revolution , Industry , and Empire , 1750 - 1914 Chapter 28: Revolutions and National States in the Atlantic World Chapter 29: The Making of Industrial Society Chapter 30: The Americas in the Age of Independence Chapter 31: Societies at Crossroads Chapter 32: The Building of Global Empires Part 7: Contemporary Global Realignments , 1914 to the Present Chapter 33: The Great War : The World in Upheaval Chapters 34 & 35: Reactions to World War I Chapter 36: New Conflagrations : World War II and the Cold War

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Page 1: Whap Vocabulary and Study Guide

UPDATE (4/29) We did it! This massive doc began around...September? Look how far we’ve come--it’s time for APs! Here’s a virtual pat on the back. We’re not done yet though...

HIGHLIGHT EVERYTHING AND PASTE IT ON YOUR OWN DOC OR

EXCESSIVELY USE THE CHAT SIDE BAR, AND I WILL CUT YOU (guuurrlll).Check this study guide out !!

Textbook website ( outlines & quizzes ) TABLE OF CONTENTS

Part 1: The Early Complex Societies , 3500-500 BCE Chapter 1: Before History Chapter 2: Early Societies in Southwest Asia and the Indo - European Migrations Chapter 3: Early African Societies and the Bantu Migrations Chapter 4: Early Societies in South Asia Chapter 5: Early Societies in East Asia Chapter 6: Early Societies in the Americas and Oceania

Part 2: The Formation of Classical Societies , 500 BCE - 500 CE Chapter 7: The Empires of Persia Chapter 8: The Unification of China Chapter 9: State , Society , and the Quest for Salvation in India Chapter 10: Mediterranean Society : The Greek Phase Chapter 11: Mediterranean Society : The Roman Phase Chapter 12: Cross - Cultural Exchanges on the Silk Roads

Part 3: The Postclassical Era , 500 - 1000 C . E . Chapter 13: The Expansive Realm of Islam Chapter 14: The Resurgence of Empire in East Asia Chapter 15: India and the Indian Ocean Basin Chapter 16: The Two Worlds of Christendom

Part 4: The Acceleration of Cross - Cultural Interaction , 1000 - 1500 C . E . Chapter 17: Nomadic Empires and Eurasian Integration Chapter 18: States and Societies of Sub - Saharan Africa Chapter 19: The Increasing Influence of Europe Chapter 20: Worlds Apart : The Americas and Oceania Chapter 21: Reaching Out : Expanding Horizons of Cross - Cultural Interaction

Part 5: The Origins of Global Interdependence , 1500 - 1800 Chapter 22: Transoceanic Encounters and Global Connections Chapter 23: The Transformation of Europe Chapter 24: New Worlds : The Americas and the Oceans Chapter 25: Africa and the Atlantic World Chapter 26: Tradition and Change in East Asia Chapter 27: The Islamic Empires

Part 6: An Age of Revolution , Industry , and Empire , 1750 - 1914 Chapter 28: Revolutions and National States in the Atlantic World Chapter 29: The Making of Industrial Society Chapter 30: The Americas in the Age of Independence Chapter 31: Societies at Crossroads Chapter 32: The Building of Global Empires

Part 7: Contemporary Global Realignments , 1914 to the Present Chapter 33: The Great War : The World in Upheaval Chapters 34 & 35: Reactions to World War I Chapter 36: New Conflagrations : World War II and the Cold War Chapter 37: The End of Empire Chapter 38: A World Without Borders

Important! When you create a new chapter, don’t just enlarge the font; highlight the title and change the format to Heading 2, right next to the font drop-down menu. Then come back up

here, click in the table of contents, and click the refresh button. We can have a nice directory to all of the chapters then. c:

About the Doc:

Page 2: Whap Vocabulary and Study Guide

It was made for everyone to collaboratively study WHAP because of its tendency to be a little...difficult for some. So, I made this doc for the ID portion of Gilbert’s/Janda’s WHAP tests, because that seems to be the one that keeps accumulating over time. Made by Kenny along with the numerous efforts of lots of students :)

Guidelines for the Doc:

● You MUST help contribute definitions to the document. If you’re just here to steal the hard work of many people (includes copying and pasting all the definitions onto a separate word doc and never coming back. I can name a few already), I’m going to kick you off the document, and I will MAKE SURE you stay off. I. Am. NOT. Kidding. This. Time. If you think this is a joke, I can see revision history, and you can’t just copy, delete, and paste a previous definition, I can see everything. If all the definitions are filled out, ADD TO THEM.

○ FORMAT OF DEFINITIONS: Since we should know the format of the test, please write a 1-3 sentence definition explaining the importance and context of the term in its time. (add time and place) MAKE THEM SHORT AND SWEET! WE DON’T WANT A WALL OF TEXT!

○ I’m not an evil person. I’m like Batman. I save Gotham City by fighting villains. And those villains are those who STEAL FROM THE DOC.

● INVITE OTHER PEOPLE TO THIS DOC. If you know anyone who is in WHAP but does not know about this document, then invite them to it. Send them the link to the doc. It should automatically authorize anyone with a student account. Collaboration is crucial to success, and it will prevent the above from happening. I know there are some people in WHAP who still are not on the doc. We need as much help as we can get. Please use their student accounts. It’s too confusing to keep track of other accounts.

● Keep unnecessary comments to yourself, please. Only add comments if the definition is vague or needs improvement. You can always help improve it too.

This document is 64 pages and growing.

Part 1: The Early Complex Societies, 3500-500 BCE

Chapter 1: Before History● Catal Huyuk - A neolithic village that grew to be a complex town with about 5,000

citizens and different products such as pots, baskets, textiles, leather, stone, metal tools, wood carvings, carpets, beads, and jewelry. A center of production and trade of obsidian tools. Located around south-central Anatolia.

● Homo Erectus - A new species of hominids possessing greater intelligence and sophistication than their Australopithecus predecessors. Were able to communicate and were the first to walk on two feet. They used fire. They also had vocal cords that allowed them to produce many different sounds, but not as many as the Homo sapiens.

● Lucy - an ancestor of modern humans. She was an Australopithecus. She was about 3 feet tall, with a small brain (500 cubic centimeters). complex ideas to one another without sophisticated languages.

Page 3: Whap Vocabulary and Study Guide

● Lascaux - a cave in France in which prehistoric paintings were discovered (served as sympathetic magic)

● Australopithecus - A genus standing alongside Homo; a hominid creature which flourished in east Africa during the long period from about four million to one million years ago. They were intelligent enough to do complex ventures. Short, hairy, and limited in smarts.

● Neanderthal - the earliest known source of reflective thought whose people flourished in Europe and southwest Asia. Part of a distinct species (though some lump them with early homo sapiens) called Homo neandertalensis. They performed elaborate burials with ritual observances. They were named after the Neander Valley in Germany.

● Cro-Magnon - descendants of the Neanderthals who also lived during the Paleolithic Era also known as some of the early humans. Were known for decorating themselves, creating lots of artwork, and worshipping fertility gods.

● Chinook - a paleolithic society in the Pacific north-west region of North America which abandoned a paleolithic lifestyle and instead established a permanent settlement. Ate salmon.

● Paleolithic - the “old stone age” which is defined as the discovery of the first distinguished, primitive stone tools - characterized by foraging and hunting-gathering.

● Neolithic - the “new stone age” in which refinements of tool-making techniques were discovered, with polished tools instead of chipped tools. Included the early stages of agricultural society, as compared to the older nomadic lifestyle. Refers to the transition from hunting-gathering to settled, agricultural societies.

● Hunter-Gatherer - a peoples whose life revolved around constant hunting and gathering of vegetation, as most societies were nomadic and could not establish an agricultural life style until the transition to the Neolithic period. The men were in charge of the hunting and the women gathered; because what the women gathered was the staple food while the meat was a supplement, there were few differences in gender roles.

Chapter 2: Early Societies in Southwest Asia and the Indo-European Migrations

● Mesopotamia - A region of land located in modern day Iraq, “land between two rivers.” (the Tigris and the Euphrates rivers) Has very few natural boundaries. Rainfall is scarce.

● Epic of Gilgamesh - one of the earliest known works of literature, it is a collection of stories which told the tale of the legendary Gilgamesh, king of Uruk, and his friend Enkidu.

● Ziggurat - Mesopotamian step-pyramids used for animal sacrifices and as shrines for gods. Connected the heavens with the earth. Each one worshipped a local god or goddess.

● Sargon of Akkad - the creator of the first empire in Mesopotamia in a city near Kish and Babylon. He was a talented administrator, a powerful warrior, and the ex-minister of Kish, recruiting armies and crushing Sumerian city-states one by one and then placing the conquered cities under the rule of his own governors and administrators. His empire gradually declined and collapsed around 2150 BCE due to rebellion in city-states that resented imperial rule.

Page 4: Whap Vocabulary and Study Guide

● Sumer - a land in the southern half of Mesopotamia, and the people were the original dominant people of Mesopotamia due to their elaborate irrigation networks that facilitated their agriculture. All Sumerian cities were monarchies.

● Hammurabi - called himself the “king of the four quarters of the world.” A ruler of Babylon who first established a written law code that applied the concept of lex talionis. Instead of confiscating supplies in the regions he conquered (like Sargon,) he instituted less ruinous but more regular taxes. Instead of traveling to around like Sargon, Hamurabi created a centralized government.

● Babylonian Empire- empire that dominated Mesopotamia until about 1600 B.C.E with ruler Hammurabi. The empire ran smoothly because of styles adapted and built off of Sargon’s rule. 1800-1600 BCE

● lex talionis - “law of retaliation.” A law implemented in many early societies (e.g. Babylon) that stated that an injury, intentional or not, would be compensated with equal retribution. However, in Hammurabi’s Code, people of high social status compensated in the form of a fine, rather than an injury.

● Assyrian Empire- The empire that took over after the collapse of the Babylonian Empire. They had advanced iron weaponry and horse-drawn chariots, and relied on Babylonian and Mesopotamian techniques, but eventually fell due to internal and external conflicts.1300 BCE - 612 BCE

● Nebuchadnezzar- King of the New Babylonian empire. Even advanced weaponry and enormous wealth could not help the empire- neighbors already acquired advanced tech. and brought many Mesopotamian cities to an end.

● Metallurgy- Production/purification of metal; Bronze and iron metallurgy developed, however since the alloy of bronze was very expensive and rare, the production of iron soon became the dependent source. Both however had an impact on the army and agriculture. Bronze came first. Iron brought by Assyrians. Helped Egyptians expel Hyksos.

● Cuneiform - “wedge-shaped” Sumerian writing that is written using a stylus to impress symbols on wet clay, which is then hardened, dried, then preserved.

● Hebrews- Speakers of the ancient Hebrew language. pastoral nomads who inhabited lands between Mesopotamia and Egypt. Early Hebrews recognize deities like Mesopotamia, but after Moses, MONOTHEISTIC.

● Monotheism - the belief in the existence of a single deity. Expressed in some facets of Hebrew faith. Earliest form of monotheism was started by Akhenaten in Egypt.

● Yahweh. - a powerful deity who created the world, according to Israelite belief. Expected worship of him alone, and the following of high moral and ethical codes detailed in the Ten Commandments and the Torah.

● Phoenicians - the civilization that lived north of the Israelites and referred to themselves as the Canaanites. They were pioneers in maritime trading, developed top-notch ships, were known for their special purple dye, and invented the first phonetic alphabet. Established many colonies and traveled beyond Mediterranean.

● Alphabet - Phoenician style of writing consisting of 22 symbols representing consonants. Made literacy much more accessible, compared to previous pictographic writing systems. Borrowed by Greeks, who added vowels.

● Hittites - Indo-European migrants who settled to the central plain of Anatolia, imposing their culture/rule on the inhabitants. Had close relations with Mesopotamian peoples, traded with Babylonians and Assyrians, and acquired many aspects of Mesop. culture. Even though the state dissolved, their language/identity prevailed. Refined iron metallurgy and constructed horse-drawn chariots.

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Chapter 3: Early African Societies and the Bantu Migrations

● sub-Saharan Africa - refers to the region in Africa below the Sahara desert to the tropical forest in the south

● Sudan - extensive transition zone of savanna and grassland that stretches across the African continent between the Sahara to the north and the tropical rain forest to the south. Where first agricultural societies in Africa developed.

● Nile River Valley- Each spring, the Nile floods, leaving behind a layer of rich, fertile muck. This fertile soil is responsible for the productive agricultural economy of the Nile River Valley, where many Egyptians and Nubians resided. Major method of transportation.

● Nubia - the kingdom located along the Nile River below Egypt. Possessed lots of natural resources. Inhabitants not able to use river as easily as Egyptians did, due to impassable cataracts, and its land required more cultivation. Traded regularly with Egypt despite constant tension.

● Menes - minor official from Upper (southern) Egypt who rose to power, unified Egypt in 3100 BCE, and constructed a centralized state ruled by the pharaoh. Sometimes identified as an early Egyptian ruler named Narmer.

● Old Kingdom - a period of great authority of the pharaohs as shown by the pyramids (e.g. Khufu). This period especially demonstrated the pharaohs’ skills of managing labor resources (pyramid labor).

● Hyksos - a Semitic people whose name means “foreign rulers”, they introduced horses, chariots, and bronze metallurgy to Egypt and had an edge over Egyptian military and weaponry. Later, the Egyptians utilized their technologies to expel them.

● New Kingdom - kingdom during a prosperous and productive time with agricultural surpluses that could support a large population, an army, and the bureaucracy. The authority of the pharaoh is demonstrated not by pyramids, but rather by temples, palaces, and statues. Pharaohs during this kingdom were more vigorous in their attempts to extend Egyptian authority beyond the Nile River valley.

● Hieroglyphic Writing - the pictoral system of writing developed by the Egyptians. It was generally written on papyrus, but was also found on various monuments and pyramids. Only literate group was scribes.

● Hatshepsut- One of the few women rulers in Egypt, who co-ruled with her stepson Tuthmosis III. Was presented as a man in pictures, statues, etc. Women were more influential in Egypt than in Mesopotamia.

● Akhenaten- One of the Pharaohs of Egypt who sought to spread the belief in the “one and only true god” Aten, monotheism. After his death, his successes in spreading monotheism failed and the state religion regressed to polytheism again.

● Osiris - an Egyptian god associated with the Nile river and the cycle of life. He also determined who would be granted immortality by weighing people’s hearts on a balance. Set high moral standards (to gain immortality).

● Amon-Re - a cult in which people associated the two Egyptian gods, Amon (Theban deity associated with the sun, creation, fertility, and reproductive forces) and Re (a sun god worshipped at Heliopolis), together.

Page 6: Whap Vocabulary and Study Guide

● Book of the Dead - Egyptian book of magical spells used to assist a dead person’s journey through the underworld and into the afterlife

● Bantu Migrations- early migrations of Bantu (3000-1000 BCE): moved south and west into forest lands, move south to Congo River and east to the Great Lakes region, by 1000 BCE, occupy most of Africa south of equator; after 1000 BCE, rate of migration increases due to appearance of iron.

● Niger-Congo: The Niger-Congo people recognized and worshiped one god called Nyamba. The Niger is located in northwest Africa, south of the Sahara Desert. The Congo is located in the Middle of Africa, southeast of the Niger.

● Kushite Kingdom- When Egyptian forces retreated from Nubia in the 10th century BCE, Nubian leaders created the new kingdom of Kush with its capital at Napata. About 760 BCE, the rulers of Kush (king Kashta) invaded Thebes and founded the Kushite dynasty that ruled Egypt for almost a century.

● Harkhuf - an Egyptian explorer who made several trips to Nubia. He brought back exotic items, increasing the Egyptians’ interest in their neighboring kingdom.

● Meroitic Writing - system of writing developed by the Nubians. It has still not been deciphered by historians. Name comes from Kingdom of Meröe.

Chapter 4: Early Societies in South Asia● Dravidians - a society (already settled in India) that clashed with the Aryans. Mixed and

mingled with Aryan peoples, and tensions subsided. Established Neolithic settlements throughout most of the Indian continent. As color was a deciding factor in the varna, dark skin was subject of caste system and the subjugation brought by Aryans. They influenced the Aryans religiously as demonstrated by the Upanishads. The Aryan descended Indians generally have lighter skin, and Dravidian descended Indians have darker skin.

● Harappan Society - (2500-1500 BCE) a society that most likely spoke in a Dravidian tongue and developed in the Indus River Valley whose remains are cannot be excavated due to the rise of water levels over time. Rich and poor lived in very different styles. Had a complex water/sewage system. Declined after 1900 BC due to ecological degradation and/or natural catastrophes. An ancient war between Harappan Society and Mohenjo-Daro that caused both their demise.

● Indus River Valley - Much like the Nile river (but less predictable-- often changing paths, cause major destruction), the rain and melting snow from the Hindu Kush and Himalaya mountains pick up silt and deposits it as the courses through the land. As it helped agriculture, it led to improvements such as those in Egypt and Mesopotamia -- population growth, specialization of labor, and development of cities.

● Mohenjo-Daro - One of the two major early Indian cities. Had city walls, a citadel, a pool for religious/ritual purposes, and a large granary for collection and distribution of grain taxes. Also possessed a sophisticated water/sewage system. (see Harappan Society).

● Aryans - meaning “noble people,” these people relied more on a pastoral society instead of an agricultural one (chiefdoms with a leader and a council of village elders). They used lots of horses, and cattle became the main source of wealth. They were Indo-European, gradually migrating from southern Russia/Ukraine all the way to the Indian subcontinent. Later, adopted agriculture.

Page 7: Whap Vocabulary and Study Guide

● The Vedas - a collection of hymns, songs, prayers, and rituals honoring the various gods of the Aryans. There were four books. Most important was the Rig Veda. This was the origin of the name Vedic Age.

● Raja - related to Latin “rex” (king), they were the leaders of Aryan chiefdoms organized around herding communities and agricultural villages. Worked with council of elders to rule region.

● Caste system - A system that divided Aryan society into rigidly defined social classes (varna), and the Brahman caste still exists in India today (sort of). Classes were hereditary and usually unchangeable, but it was still possible. Surprisingly, it allowed for social mobility; foreigners could easily assimilate into the society and find a place to fit in. Provided political stability unlike other societies who had strong government (Egypt, China, Persia).

● Varna - the principle of skin color; the Aryans used this to distinguish themselves from and place themselves above Dravidians. They were divided up into brahmins (priests), kshatriyas (warriors and aristocrats), vaishyas (cultivators, artisans, and merchants), shudras (landless peasants and serfs), untouchables (did dirty work like burying dead and handling garbage). However, as Aryan intermingled with Dravidians, the color became indistinguishable and the classes were no longer based by color.

● Jati - Subcastes that pertained to a specific occupation; provided additional community to identify with. If an individual violated its laws, he would be an outcast and might not even be able to survive. Members of the same Jati intermarried and cared for one another. Members of the jati normally remained in the same jati for life, only with the possibility of being relegated as stated above. Provided the structure for individuals’ lives.

● Lawbook of Manu - dictated appropriate social behavior, particularly for women. Included women’s obligations such as proper moral behavior and social relationships. Did give women respect, but kept them subordinate. Composed after the Vedic Age, yet reflected most of the social principles of the Vedic Age/Aryan influence. Stated the the main purpose of women was to produce and care for children.

● Sati - the practice of a widow throwing herself onto her husband’s funeral fire within a day of the death to show her devotion, whether it was forced upon them or not. Important in that it showed women were subordinate to men. The practice was never extremely popular, and now it is gone. Moralists recommended that upper class women do it.

● Indra - a powerful Aryan war god that drank a lot, symbolized turbulent life of Aryans. Associated him with the weather, especially the coming of rain. Reflected concerns of agricultural society.

● Varuna - the god that ruled the skies and that the Aryans worshipped. Very similar to the Egyptian god Osiris, he punished the bad (liars, cheats) with mild to harsh punishments (disease and death). He and his helpers also separated the evil from the good (evil → House of Clay; good → World of Fathers)

● Upanishads - a body of works that literally means “a sitting in front of.” It refers to the practice of disciples gathering before a sage for discussion of religious issues. They sought to understand the intellectual and religious issues in the Vedic scripts, proper moral behavior, and brought spiritual and cosmic reasoning for the caste system. Brought about discontent with the systematic rituals and desire for religious speculation. Portray the acculturation of Aryan and Dravidian belief.

Page 8: Whap Vocabulary and Study Guide

● Samsara - The cycle of life and death and reincarnation. The Upanishads’ teachings helped to escape this cycle and eventually transcend to become part of Brahman. Souls that have died will go to the World of the Fathers (Aryan heaven) and then return reincarnated.

● Karma - It accounts for the specific incarnation souls experienced based on their deeds; good causing their souls to be reborn into a more pure/honorable existence, whereas the bad would be reborn into a baser existence. (Explained why souls were reborn into better or worse castes). Helped maintain order in the caste system.

● Moksha - The Hindu equivalent of nirvana: a deep dreamless sleep that occurs after transcending samsara. It turns into permanent liberation from reincarnation. Involved severing all ties with the physical world. The principal means to achieving moksha were asceticism (denial of all physical pleasures) & meditation. Must merge with Brahman.

Chapter 5: Early Societies in East Asia● Shang - (1766-1122 BCE) the dynasty that took over the Xia dynasty by using horse-

drawn chariots and controlling, using, and monopolizing bronze tool-making. Had a decentralized government that relied on the loyalty of lords of various states. Capitals changed around. The most prominent capitals were the sites of Yin (tomb of Fu Hao) and Ao (city walls). Downfall was a ineffective king (criminal fool).

● Yellow River - ( 黄河 Huang He )a boisterous and unpredictable river that picks up vast amounts of loess (yellow soil). The loess causes the river bed to build up, and forces the water out of its established path. It periodically unleashes a devastating flood, hence the nickname “China’s Sorrow.” To cope with it, cultivators built dikes in order to control the flood damages.

● Yangtze River - ( 长江 Chang Jiang) Did not have devastating floods like Yellow River, flowed to southern China. Supported intensive rice cultivation through complex systems of irrigation → population increase in southern China from prolific harvests.

● Mandate of heaven - the heaven-given right of the emperor to rule. If he was a good ruler, the realm would retain stability and the dynasty, the right to govern. If not, heaven would no longer support the emperor, his realm would fall into chaos, and the mandate to rule would be transferred to a more deserving candidate. The Zhou used this to justify the removal of the last Shang emperor, who was a “criminal fool.”

● “China’s sorrow” - a nickname given to the Yellow River due to its tendency to devastate field communities and anything else it its way. (see “Loess” and “Yellow River”)

● Extended family - Was particularly influential institution during neolithic times; early dynasties ruled territories largely through family & kinship groups. Over time, however, the importance of the extended family faded, and along with it, the matrilineal traditions associated with it. The extended family was key to the idea of the veneration of ancestors with a large territory.

● Consort - a wife of an emperor; one of the most famous consorts is Fu Hao, of the Shang king Wu Ding. Consorts, unlike women, could be exceptionally well-treated and sometimes took part in politics and military campaigns as Fu Hao did (successfully).

● Loess - the Chinese equivalent of silt, makes the Yellow River yellow. Causes the buildup of the riverbed, leading to the tremendous floods of the river. Because it is so soft and easy to work with, cultivators didn’t have to use metal tools (instead they used wooden tools) to work it.

Page 9: Whap Vocabulary and Study Guide

● Hereditary state - The Xia, Shang, and Zhou dynasties were hereditary states, in which the successor to power was determined via the blood line, especially to the males (for China became more of a patriarchal society over time).

● Zhou - (1122-256 BCE) Dynasty that eclipsed Shang. Adopted many Shang practices, such as decentralized gov’t. Couldn’t control iron production or usage, so regional princes became more independent and it lost hegemony. Degenerated into the Warring States Period. Relied on obedience of subordinates; causes for downfall included internal conflict (subordinates refused to obey central authority) and external conflict (invaders).

● Ancestor veneration - Patriarchs of each family conducted rituals that honored all deceased relatives. They believed that they resided in a realm where they had control over the lives of their posterity. The sense of the ancestors’ presence and continuing influence in the world led to an equally strong ethic of family solidarity. Placed emphasis on the patriarchs of the family.

● Oracle bones - a principle instrument used by fortune-tellers in ancient China; an early form of divination, where a question was inscribed on an animal bone, thrown into a fire/subjected to heat, and formed splits and cracks. These cracks were studied and determined the answer to the question on the bone. Later (in the nineteenth century), they were discovered by peasants and sold to druggists, who crushed them into powder and used as medicine. Important discovery because it gave a clear glimpse into early Shang forms of writing and political/social conditions of the time.

Chapter 6: Early Societies in the Americas and Oceania

● Obsidian - a type of volcanic black glass used in weaponry. They used obsidian to make knives and axes with wickedly sharp cutting edges. Like jade, Obsidian came to the Gulf Coast from distant regions in interior Mesoamerica. In places such as Teotihuacan, obsidian tools, along with other manufactured goods, appealed to consumers in distance lands which kindled the influence of the city.

● Bloodletting rituals - The most important form of sacrifice practiced by the Maya, which involved cutting up the body to create flow of blood. They believed that doing so would prompt the gods to send rain. Both by war victims & voluntarily by nobility to show Mayan gratitude for and to replicate the gods’ sacrifice in creating the world. Illustrated Mayan worldview that gods required harsh sacrifices from the Maya.

● Austronesian peoples - seafaring people who occupied New Guinea starting 3000 BCE; sailed the ocean in large canoes equipped with outriggers, which stabilized the canoe and reduced the risks of long voyages; could figure out directions by observing the stars, currents, winds, cloud formations, and other natural indicators. They migrated to many Pacific islands, such as the regions of Polynesia, Micronesia, and the island of Madagascar. Additionally, they depended on the cultivation of root crops and the herding of animals.

Page 10: Whap Vocabulary and Study Guide

● Olmec ball games - Played mostly by men, using a hard, heavy rubber ball and without using the hands (only hips, head, legs, etc). Objective of the game was to propel the ball onto a mark or through a ring to score points. It was played as a sporting event, as a ritual that marked the conclusion of treaties, and sometimes high-ranking captives would play with the losers being tortured and executed immediately after, although it is in debate whether it was the losers or the winners (for honor) whom were sacrificed. This practice demonstrated that the Mayans’ concern for sacrifice extended to their games.

● Andean societies - (1000 BCE - 700 CE) Geography made communication between the Andeans and Mesoamerica difficult; mountains and lowlands inhibited travel. Valleys made up the western flank of the Andes, and all water flowed toward the Pacific, so travel between valleys was difficult. Consisted of the Moche (Mochica), Chavin cult, Huari, and Tiahuanaco (see map on p117). Due to the lack of large game animals, they relied mainly on beans, peanuts, and sweet potatoes as the main food crops, as well as domesticated animals such as llamas and alpacas, which provided meat and wool and served as pack animals.

● Mochica (Moche) - (300 - 700 CE) An Andean society that had its base around the valley of the Moche river. Most of the ceramics represent portraits of individual heads or major gods/deities/demons. Even with the absence of writing, they left behind artistic artifacts which gave evidence of a complex society with considerable specialization of labor, depicting scenes of everyday life.

● Maize - corn; as an important grain that became the staple crop for Mesoamericans (not the Andeans immediately, but did spread to Andean region from Mesoamerica), it also became an important crop in South America, particularly for the Chavin cult, for the abundance of maize to support large populations established a reverence for fertility and abundant harvests. Allowed for specialization of labor.

● Agricultural terraces - The Mesoamericans used terraces in order to cultivate their maize/other crops and artificially increase agricultural productivity. These were also able to provide ample water as it flowed down the steppes, watering all the terraces.

● Double-hulled canoes - a sophisticated type of maritime technology which was used by Austronesian-speaking peoples, which were joined by a deck on which they carried supplies, and had sails. This technology allowed for migrations to places such as New Guinea, the Pacific islands, and Hawaii and also reduced the risks of long voyages.

Part 2: The Formation of Classical Societies, 500 BCE - 500 CE

Chapter 7: The Empires of Persia

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● Iran - An arid land located around the modern-day country of the same name, this region describes the area where the empires of Persia developed. The region developed under the shadow of Mesopotamia until the rise of the Persian Empire.

● Cyrus - The founder of the Achaemenid Empire, this man conquered all of Iran and eventually ruled an empire that spanned from the borders of Egypt to India. He began his conquests after initiating a rebellion against the Median lords in 553 BCE. Because he was originally from the mountainous regions, he was known as Cyrus the Shepherd. Reign: (558-530 BCE)

● Darius - The greatest Achaemenid Emperor, this ruler implemented successful administrative practices such as a policy of toleration, satraps, bureaucracy, and spies in order to effectively govern and maintain his vast empire. He also expanded the empire east and west and standardized laws, a tax system, and a coinage system, fostering trade. Reign: (521-486 BCE)

● Xerxes - Darius’s successor as ruler of the Achaemenid Empire, this emperor was known for his harsh treatment and cruelty to his subjects because of his method of quelling rebellions in Mesopotamia and Egypt. Reign: (486-465 BCE)

● Alexander of Macedon - A Macedonian king who ruled one of the largest empires in ancient history, he destroyed the Achaemenid Empire, but adopted their administrative practices. Upon his arrival his forces destroyed many temples and killed many magi. He burned down Persepolis and stole from the imperial treasure. Reign: (334-323 BCE)

● Achaemenids - Empire founded by Cyrus of Achaemenid (reigned 558-530 BCE). Empire at its greatest stretched from Northeast Africa (upper Nile) to Anatolia and the Caucasus Mountains in the North to the Hindu Kush in the East. The Empire was administered by a system of satrapies (read below). Built royal roads with a courier service and qanats (underground canals). Iron metallurgy was commonplace. Empire weakened by conflicts with the Greeks (Persian Wars), fell to Alexander.

● Seleucids - Named after a general of Alexander’s army and based primarily in Persia, this empire continued the Achaemenid administrative practices and established new cities throughout the region, which stimulated trade within and beyond the empire. Native Persians and satraps presented a major threat to Seleucid stability, and eventually they were conquered by the Romans in 83 BCE.

● Parthians - Ruled empire based in Iran that extended to Mesopotamia, existed in eastern Iran since Achaemenids. They were a hardy, resilient people and discovered that feeding horses with alfalfa would strengthen them; their heavy cavalry became formidable. Independent from Seleucid in 238 BC. They retained many Achaemenid administrative practices, but invested more power in their clan leaders/satraps, who frequently and unsuccessfully rebelled against the imperial government. Weakened and finally brought down by internal rebellion and Roman conquest.

● Sasanids - This empire which claimed direct descendant from the Achaemenids established a lasting empire in Persia and zealously supported a revival of Zoroastrianism. Constant conflict with the Roman, Byzantine, and Kushan empires weakened it seriously. They were eventually overthrown by the Islamic Empire.

● Medes - These mainly pastoralist ancient Iranian people migrated to Persia, spoke an Indo-European language and organized themselves politically by clans. At first, their social structure was similar to that of Aryans in India: warriors, priests and peasants. They were also excellent warriors and raided the wealthy lands of Mesopotamia.

● Anatolia - Modern-day Turkey (Asia Minor), occupied by Achaemenid empire. Part of the Persian Royal Road (terminated at Sardis, at the coast of Aegean Sea). It played an

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important part in long-distance trade throughout the empires, providing gold, silver, iron, copper, and tin.

● “eyes and ears of the king” - spies implemented by Darius that reported back to him on happenings in the provinces, checked the power of the satrapies and prevented corruption and rebellion ther

● Persepolis - This city established by Darius served as the capital and administrative center of the Achaemenid empire; it featured many grand reception halls and palaces, the ruins of which still remain today. The city was eventually burned by Alexander and his troops, possibly to signal the start of a new rule.

● Tribute (in chapters 7, 8) - Cyrus required periodic tributes from subject lands or cities, but Darius replaced this practice with the more efficient tax system, which ensured a steady influx of money into the imperial court.

● Satraps - These Persian administrators governed a district of the empire, known as a satrapy. To prevent excess power and independence, they were monitored by military officers, regularly taxed by Darius, and were spied on.

● Standardized Coins - facilitated trade within the empire and integrated each province into a larger economy, credited to Darius, who first learned of the idea from the Lydians

● Qanat - underground canals which allowed cultivators to distribute water to fields without losing large quantities to evaporation through exposure to the sun and open air. Numerous qanats crisscrossed the Iranian plateau in the heartland of the Persian empire

● Magi - Priests of the Zoroastrian faith who initially transmitted it orally and later compiled Zarathustra’s teachings in a text known as the Avesta during the Sasanid Empire. Many were killed when Alexander conquered the Persian empire.

● Persian Royal Road - expedited communication, travel, and trade within the empire and allowed armies to move quickly

● Zarathustra - Zarathustra was the original founder of the Zoroastrianism faith. According to legend, he was once a priest and left his home because he was discontent with the current religious system. He supposedly received revelations/visions and spread them as the new religion’s prophet.

● Gathas - Zarathustra’s works, including hymns, prayers to the various deities, and moral and theological treatises. Most were lost due to the arrival of Islam and Zoroastrianism’s subsequent decline. They were also lost because of Alexander the Great’s killing of magi.

● Avesta - the Zoroastrians’ holy book compiled by the Sasanids, which possessed Zoroastrian scriptures.

● Ahura Mazda - the “wise lord,” the eternal and beneficent deity of Zoroastrianism, who created all good things. The material world was a gift to people from him. He was in cosmic conflict with Angra Mainyu, an evil and malign spirit, who was the corresponding deity (theme of duality). It is believed that Ahura Mazda will eventually defeat Angra Mainyu. Numerous Persian emperors, starting with Darius, claimed his divine sanction for their rule.

● Manichaeism - A religion of salvation that was heavily influenced by Zoroastrianism. It became extremely popular despite persecution by the Sasanids.

Chapter 8: The Unification of China

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● Period of the Warring States - later part of Zhou dynasty, period of turmoil encouraged growth of philosophies that strived to reestablish political and social order. (403-221 B.C.E)

● Kong Fuzi/Confucius - (551-497B.C.E) The first Chinese thinker who addressed the problem of political and social order in a straightforward and self-conscious way. (“Master Philosopher Kong”). He came from an aristocratic family and never managed to advance to a prestigious appointment due to his hard-headedness. His teachings were fundamentally moral, ethical, and political in nature, and avoided philosophical and religious topics; he had his students study Zhou texts, influencing education in China for two thousand years.

● Analects - Kong Fuzi attracted numerous disciples who aspired to political careers. Some of his pupils compiled the master’s sayings and teachings in the Analects, a work that has profoundly influenced Chinese political and cultural traditions.

● Junzi - “Superior individuals” whom Confucian doctrine focused on forming, and who took a broad view of public affairs and did not allow personal interests to influence their judgements. The representation/epitome of all the Confucian values, they were necessary to a successful government.

● Ren - humanity, courtesy to all others, kindness. Confucius believed that this quality was sorely needed in a government official. Mencius advocated this virtue specifically

● Li - a sense of propriety, which called for individuals to behave in a conventionally appropriate fashion: they should treat all other humans with courtesy and respect to elders/superiors. Xunzi advocated this virtue specifically

● Xiao - filial piety, which reflected the high significance of the family in Chinese History. The demands of filial piety obliged children to respect their parents and other family elders, look after their welfare, support them in old age, and remember them along with other ancestors after their deaths.

● Mencius - optimistic Confucian speaker who believed human nature was inherently good. He thought that the government should act benevolently towards its subjects by imposing light taxes and a loose ruling system. Mencius also emphasized the value of ren. His beliefs were the complete opposite of Legalist thought. He was considered one of the most authoritative Confucian expositor.

● Xunzi - a prominent Confucius philosopher who believed that all humans were corrupt and selfish, and that they should be fixed through punishments and strict laws. He emphasized the Confucian value of li for establishing a proper, law abiding society, and placed more importance on doing good for the larger society rather than pursuing individual interests. However, he believed that human nature could be improved.

● Dao - “the path” the way/force of nature, passive yet accomplishing more than anything else. An elusive concept, Daoists viewed it as the principle that governed the workings of the world.

● Daoism - the belief that society should reflect natural rhythms (dao) and that people should retreat from government and activism of any sort, living the simplest life possible without ambition. It served as a direct counterbalance to Confucian activism and extroversion, yet many practiced both systems of thought simultaneously.

● Laozi - a sage that founded Daoist belief system, it is unknown whether he existed or not. He lived during the 6th century BCE, if he existed.

● Daodejing - collected works of Daoism by numerous authors that talked about Daoist beliefs, means “Classic of the Way and of Virtue

● Wuwei - A trait of disengagement from exertions and active involvement in the affairs of the world, and required that individuals refrain from advanced education and personal striving. The less government, the better.

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● Legalism - the political way of thought that employed harsh punishments and focused entirely on the well-being of the state. It relied on strict laws and punishments to maintain order, unlike Confucianism, which sought order through example, and established the principle of collective responsibility before the law. It was very effective, but caused unrest in the people. Resolved the Warring States Period and reunited China. Believed that state relied on agriculture and military

● Shang Yang - was a prominent supporter of Legalism. He also helped establish the Qin Dynasty by providing peasants with larger tracts of lands in order to raise agricultural wealth and support the military. He was the chief minister and was a Legalist writer, but was destroyed after his patron died.

● Han Feizi - A student of Xunzi serving as an advisor in the Qin court who combined Legalist ideas from all over China into a collection of powerful essays on statecraft, a primary example of Legalist doctrine. Fell out of favor with others and was forced to take poison to end his life.

● Qin Shihuangdi - the First Emperor, he unified China during the Warring States period and enabled the standardization of currency, weights, measures, and scripts, among others. He used Legalist standards to subdue his subjects and established centralized, bureaucratic rule, like the Persians. He also built roads and walls, drafted laborers to build infrastructure, and crushed any source of resistance, whether physically or through his burning of books that encouraged thought.

● Liu Bang - the first Han emperor who enjoyed the complete loyalty of his army. He initially attempted to follow a “middle path” of government, attempting to utilize the advantages of decentralized and a centralized government, but after his family failed him and the Xiongnu nomads nearly captured him, he established a centralized government structure.

● Chang’an - Early Han capital, a thriving metropolis● Han Wudi - known as the Martial Emperor, he was a strong proponent of Legalist ideas

while ruling under the Han Dynasty. He continued Qin techniques, such as building roads and canals, and using imperial officers to implement his policies. He established taxes and monopolies and a Confucian educational system to fulfill his huge governmental structure, while pursuing imperial expansion as well. He eventually subdued the Xiongnu.

● Han Dynasty - A ruling dynasty in China that was started by Liu Bang after the fall of the Qin Dynasty. It is divided into an Early and Late period because of intermittent internal rebellion.

● Xiongnu - nomadic peoples from the northwest who sometimes traded with settlements for finished products but posed a problem to the Chinese when they raided them instead. They were superb horsemen but lacked sophisticated weaponry. Their mobility provided a distinct military advantage. Maodun developed a highly disciplined army that prodded the Han into giving them tribute and arranging marriages in the hope of maintaining peace. Eventually tried to raid Chinese cities.

● Ban Zhao - was an educated upperclass Chinese woman during the Han Dynasty. She published a book, called Lessons for Women, arguing for women’s representation in the education system, but nevertheless agreed with the Chinese patriarchal system.

● Wang Mang - the “socialist emperor” who was at first an advisor, but later attempted land reform too hastily and instead caused great dissatisfaction among both sides when he tried to break up the large estates of the rich and give them to the poor

● Yellow Turban Uprising - A revolt in the Later Han period called so because of the distinctive headgear the rebels wore, and caused by dissatisfaction with insufficient land reform. Weakened the Han dynasty and contributed heavily to its downfall.

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Chapter 9: State, Society, and the Quest for Salvation in India

● Mauryan Dynasty - first centralized empire formed in India. Was established by Chandragupta Maurya and utilized a bureaucracy, spies, and connected roads and infrastructure.

● Chandragupta Maurya - first to unite India under a centralized bureaucracy; reigned from 321-297 BCE; empire extended from the Indus to the Ganges; made use of spies; built a bureaucratic administrative center that enabled him to implement policies; took advice from his advisor Kautalya and the Arthashastra

● Arthashastra - an ancient Indian political handbook offering detailed instructions on the uses of power and the principles of government in methods of overseeing trade and agriculture, collecting taxes, maintaining order, conducting foreign relations, and waging war. (Based on Kautalya’s advice)

● Ashoka Maurya - grandson of Chandragupta Maurya; ruled from 268-232 BCE. He first started out as a conqueror conquering Kalinga, a major trade route, but later mended his ways and promoted Buddhism throughout his empire. He communicated his policies by inscribing edicts on pillars and established a tightly organized bureaucracy to promote trade and agriculture. Popularized Buddhism

● Bactria (in chapters 7-9) - modern-day Afghanistan. After the collapse of the Mauryan empire, northern India fell under the rule of Greek-speaking conquerors from Bactria. Bactria was a thriving commercial center linking lands from China in the east to the Mediterranean basin in the west, so Bactrian rule had the effect of promoting cross-cultural interaction and exchange in northern India.

● Kushan Empire -empire embracing most of northern India and central Asia from about 1-300 CE; facilitated commerce between India and other lands through pacification of the silk road; came up with Ghandara style (employed Greek style of painting & sculpture in the depiction of local subjects). Enthusiastic proponents of Buddhism

● Gupta Dynasty - the Indian Dynasty that ruled after the Kushan Empire and was founded by Chandra Gupta. It implemented a decentralized governing style that relied on local rulers to handle most political affairs. Peaceful, it was a time during which many mathematical and scientific advances were made. It fell to the White Huns and split.

● Caste system - Similar to the system in the Vedic age; Brahmins (priests), kshatriyas (warriors and aristocrats), vashiyas (peasants and merchants), and shudras (serfs).

● Varna - As a result of increased trade, many shudras and vaishyas enjoyed prosperity and some became wealthier and more influential than the brahmins and kshatriyas beginning after 600 BCE. This posed as a challenge to the existing social order because the early Aryan beliefs backing the Indian caste system seemed irrelevant now.

● Jati - Subcastes based on occupation (guilds) that maintained social order in India. Members of the same jati organized courts through which they managed community affairs. Jati allowed a SOCIAL NETWORK lolz within guilds where each person supported and provided for the other. Should an individual fail to follow the rules set by the jati, he/she could be expelled and have trouble surviving.

● Siddartha Gautama - The founder of Buddhism, who was born around 563 B.C.E. and originally lived an easy life while only studying. He saw the truth of life after looking at

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old age, a corpse, and a sick man. His views on life changed and prompted him to live as a hermit and meditate to find salvation.

● Buddha - Basically Siddhartha Gautama as stated above^. He left his original life for ascetism around 534 B.C.E. and found peace under “a large bo tree in Bodh Gaya” (pg 179). He became the enlightened one after sitting under the tree for forty-nine days to escape the problem of suffering.

● Four Noble Truths - The core of the Buddha’s doctrine which teaches that life is suffering; desire is the cause of suffering; elimination of desire brings an end to suffering; a disciplined life conducted in accordance to the Noble Eightfold Path brings the elimination of desire.

● Noble Eightfold Path - calls for people to lead balanced and moderate lives, specifically demanding right belief, right resolve, right speech, right behavior, right occupation, right effort, right contemplation, and right meditation.

● Brahmin - Priests who endorsed the existing caste system because it brought them honor, prestige, and a considerable amount of wealth. They performed services deemed necessary for society’s survival and usually received hefty fees in exchange for their services. Began to lose influence after 600 BCE after shudras & vaishyas gained more prominence and people found their rituals and practices irrelevant to their lives.

● Jainism - a religion developed in India which taught the practice of “extreme” asceticism and non-violence, or ahisma, for they believed that everything in the world had a living soul. It became popular amongst lower castes because Jainism rejected social distinctions based on varna and jati, but was difficult to follow closely. Started by Mahavira.

● Dharma - The principles of their religions that individuals were obligated to follow. For Buddhism, it was practicing the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path; for Hindus, fulfilling their duties to their castes

● Bodhisattva - Individuals who had already reached enlightenment, but delayed their entrance into nirvana to help others achieve spiritual perfection.

● Arabic Numerals- Numerals that also included a symbol for zero; allowed for advanced mathematics since it expedited mathematical operations; in the 8th century, Arab and Persian scholars discovered Indian mathematics and adopted “Hindi numerals”; Europeans later called these numbers “Arabic numerals” since they learned them through Arab Muslims.

Chapter 10: Mediterranean Society: The Greek Phase ● Aegean Sea - This body of water is part of the Mediterranean Sea and was frequently

traversed by the Greeks for travel and trade during this time period. ● Athens c. 700 BCE- This polis situated on the Greek Peninsula was known for creating

one of the first democracies where all male citizens could hold public office. After experiencing wealth and land distribution problems, Solon altered the democracy, providing representation for the common classes, cancelling debts, and forbidding debt slavery. Later reformers introduced a salary for officeholders, allowing even less financially privileged to hold public office. Eventually, as part of the Delian League, it became dominant over nearby poleis, but in doing so aroused resentment in them.

● Mycenae 1600 BCE- This settlement of the Mycenaeans was one of their largest and most important and was the namesake for their civilization. They were located in the Greek peninsula, devised Linear B, and lived in a period of conflict.

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● Mycenaeans - These were Indo-European people who came to Mycenae (in 2200 BCE) and traded with the Minoans, building large stone fortresses in the Greek peninsula for protection; they eventually overpowered the Minoan Civilization. More warlike than the Minoan civilization. Fell due to invasions and ensuing chaos.

● Thebes - one of the city states that had a period of dominance for a while after the Athenian surrender after the Peloponnesian War

● Knossos - 2000 BCE A location in Crete which had an enormous palace adorned with frescoes, showing the vibrant life of the Minoans and their advanced engineering skills, such as plumbing and drainage systems. The palaces were also extremely large using their space as residence for rulers and for storing grain collected as taxes. Palace societies like Knossos were the “nerve centers” of Minoan civilization.

● Crete - A Mediterranean island that served as the center of commerce and Minoan society, this region adopted influences from Phoenicia and Egypt. Decline may be from natural disaster but it is unknown. Its geographical location, the bottom of the Aegean Sea, allowed for it to manage most of the trade in its area. Possible location of city of Atlantis.

● The Iliad & The Odyssey - 2 epics written by Homer, these works reflected the condition of a chaotic society in the Eastern Mediterranean riven with conflict, and they recount innumerable episodes of aggression, treachery, and violence alongside heroic bravery and courage. They attest to the comfort of Greek sailors at sea.

● Helot - Servants of Spartan society (consisting of smaller independent lands around Sparta that they conquered) that outnumbered the citizens by more than 10 to 1. While they were not chattel slaves, they were not allowed to leave the land and provided the agricultural labor of Sparta. In order to suppress a growing population of helots, the Spartans devoted their resources to maintaining a militaristic society to prevent rebellion.

● Alexander the Great- A Macedonian leader who inherited the job of invading Persia from his father, Phillip II, when he was 20 and invaded Persia and created a massive empire. He was a great administrator who believed in a policy of tolerance but also kept the Persian satrap system in place. However, he died soon after, resulting in its division, with his generals as successors and rulers of each fraction.

● Socrates - Known as the pivotal figure in the development of philosophy, he was a thoughtful and reflective Athenian driven by a powerful urge to understand human beings and their affairs. He emphasized justice over all other virtues, and was later executed by Greek authority for his unconventional thoughts. He became too radical for the government, because he criticized everything, and was forced to drink poisonous hemlock and commit suicide.

● Plato - The most passionate disciple of Socrates who elaborated on Socrates’ findings and presented his thoughts through dialogues with Socrates being the main character; he gradually formulated them into a vision of the world and its people. He believed that there was an absolute truth known as the World of Forms or Ideas, which all people should strive to emulate. Plato was the one who wrote down Socrates’ ideas. Wrote The Republic, in which he elaborates on his perfect form of gov. where the

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philosophically elite rule rather than the rich. Plato was a serious hipster, “World of Forms”

● Aristotle - The disciple of Plato who did not agree with the theory of Forms or Ideas; he believed that philosophers could rely on their senses to provide accurate information about the world and then depend on reason to get details. Aristotle later went to expand his knowledge in other ideas such as biology, physics, astronomy, psychology, politics, ethics, and literature; his knowledge made him famous for centuries to come. He was the teacher of Alexander the Great.

● Troy - This city in Anatolia engaged in a long conflict with the Mycenaeans known as the Trojan War. According to Homer, the Trojan war started because of the (sexay) Helen, but in reality historians theorize that the Mycenaeans were just trying to protect their only route to obtain grain in the Black Sea, since they could not grow it themselves.

● Ionia - The kingdom west of Anatolia in modern day Turkey whose people held a rebellion against Persian Achaemenid rule in 500 B.C.E., but were suppressed by Darius; it was later conquered by Alexander the Great in 4th century B.C.E.

● Attica - This region denotes the area containing Athens; in the seventh century B.C.E., the aristocracy of Attica became extremely wealthy while the lower classes became unhappy with their lifestyle. This conflict was eventually resolved by Solon, who pulled out those in debt. The geography of Attica was mountainous and hilly causing the development of self-sufficient city states.

● Macedon - was an independent kingdom north of Greece that frequently traded with the Greeks. Although they were originally pastoralists, Philip II later unified the kingdom under one rule and continued on to overtake Greece, after the Greek poleis had been greatly weakened by the Peloponnesian War.

● Sparta - This polis was famous for its military prowess and simple lifestyle; they used helots to do most of the agricultural labor and keep their people supplied with food. Men were bred from a young age for military and wealth was decided by strength rather than actual monetary value.

● Homer - The bard who reputedly composed the Iliad and the Odyssey, two epic poems of Ancient Greece that depict the state of Greek society during the Trojan War and its aftermath. Greeks were depicted as fearless sea warriors.

● Hellenistic empires - These empires formed after Alexander the Great’s death represented the peak of Greek influence in the broader world: the Antigonid Empire in Greece, the Seleucid Empire in Persia, and the Ptolemaic dynasty in Egypt.

● Trojan War - This legendary conflict was between the city of Troy and the Mycenaeans over grain supply and created a period of chaos during this time period. It was caused by aggravations over trade, not just because of Helen.

● Pericles - This extremely popular Athenian leader ruled Athens in a time of prosperity making it become the most sophisticated polis. He financed construction projects that helped the poor acquire jobs. His rule advanced the arts, sciences, philosophies, and overall education of Athens. He instituted a policy of land reform that forgave debt and debt slavery so people could start on a clean slate.

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● Persian Wars - were a series of conflicts between the Achaemenid Empire and the Greek poleis. Although the Greeks scored key victories at the Battles of Marathon and Salamis, the war was never actually resolved because of diminishing resources on both sides.

● Peloponnesian War - was a series of battles among the Greek poleis, specifically between Sparta and Athens. At one point in the conflict, Sparta forced Athens into surrender, but Athens then rebounded to continue battling. This war was also never resolved, since this internal conflict allowed the Macedonian Kingdom to conquer Greece. The battles were the result of many poleis bitter feelings toward Athens and the Delian League. Athens lost its reputation as an intellectual power as a result of its oppressive and cruel behavior toward other communities.

Chapter 11: Mediterranean Society: The Roman Phase● Republic - in 509 BCE, Roman nobility overthrew the last Etruscan king and

established an aristocratic republic; created a constitution with 2 consuls in charge along with a Senate that was supposed to advise the consuls. In times of need, they would appoint one dictator for six months to solve their problems.

● Senate - members were patricians with extensive political experience; advised the consuls and ratified all major decisions.

● Consuls - two people entrusted with executive responsibilities and served one year terms; were elected by an assembly; two consuls helped prevent the rule of one dictator

● Patricians - the wealthy aristocrats and nobles of Rome that held power over the Plebeians

● Plebeians - the lower class including peasants, eventually got say in the government through tribunes but still were inferior. To prevent their uprising, they were granted the right to elect tribunes and eventually dominated the assemblies. Their participation in republican Rome broadened the base of political participation

● latifundium/latifundia - large plots of land upon which worked slaves (almost like sharecropping). These tracts of land were sometimes given as payment to soldiers for military service. The latifundia put many of the smaller private farms out of business (couldn’t keep up with the production levels of the latifundia) and widened the rift between rich & poor.

● Punic Wars - (264-146 B.C.E.) Three devastating conflicts that were fought between the Romans and the Carthaginians that took place because of economic competition and led to other disputes throughout the Mediterranean including conflicts with the Antigonids and the Seleucids; however, Rome finally emerged victorious and powerful.

● Julius Caesar - A Roman dictator who favored liberal policies and social reform, spending enormous sums of money on public entertainment, which helped him build a reputation and win election to posts in the republican government and helped publicize his interest in social reform. He conquered Gaul and named himself dictator. He also centralized military and political functions. He provided employment to the poor through large scale projects, but was considered a tyrant by the elite and was subsequently assassinated.

● Octavian Augustus - 31 B.C.E., the nephew of Julius Caesar. The Senate gave him the title “Augustus” once he had consolidated his rule. His government was disguised

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as a republic, and ruled by centralizing political/military power. He also reorganized the military system. He stabilized the land and enabled the empire to take root. He placed the people loyal to him in all the important positions, and created a new military system where leaders were loyal to the emperor.

● pax romana - “Roman peace,” a term that relates to the period of political stability, cultural brilliance, and economic prosperity beginning with the unification under Augustus and lasting through the first two centuries C.E. (first to middle of third century CE)

● mare nostrum- “Our sea” - term used by the Romans to refer to the Mediterranean Sea due to Roman domination of the Mediterranean. The Romans established sea lanes that linked ports all around the Mediterranean and the Black Sea, turning the area into a Roman lake.

● paterfamilias - A Roman term for the “father of the family,” a theoretical implication that gave the male head of the family almost unlimited authority, including being in charge of most affairs and having legal authority over his wife, children, and workers/slaves. However, these powers were rarely abused tyrannically.

● Bread and circuses - During the 1st century BCE when poverty was widespread in Rome and other large cities of the empire, the government authorities provided food and entertainment to keep the people content. They also used such tactics for political support from plebeians.

● Jesus of Nazareth - a charismatic Jewish teacher who was the major advocate of a new system of moral guidelines and rules in life that compiled into Christianity. He attracted crowds because of his miraculous powers, and he advocated devotion to god and love for other human beings. After his crucifixion, Christianity continued to thrive and spread through missionaries like Paul of Tarsus, although it developed into numerous clashing doctrines.

● Constantine - (ruled from 313 - 337 CE) as the son of Diocletian’s co-ruler Constantius, he was a Roman emperor who built the capital city of Constantinople. He advocated Christianity after he experienced a vision leading him to believe that the Christian God was the reason for all his successes. By converting, he helped further the significance of Christianity for future ages. He ratified the Edict of Milan, which allowed Christians to practice openly.

● 476 C.E - end of Roman government in the western half of the empire. German general Odovacer overthrew Augustus. Rule in the eastern half continued under the Byzantine empire. After the fall of the western half, nomadic peoples occupied various regions of the former western part of the Roman Empire.

● Colosseum - a stadium and sports arena in Rome seating approximately 50,000 people. It regularly hosted gladiator events, chariot races, and other forms of entertainment. It was filled with water to present mock naval battles.

● Bishop of Rome - aka the Pope. He was the spiritual leader of the Christian communities in the western regions of the Roman empire. Along with the bishops of other important cities, he organized local government and defensive measures for their communities. He also mounted missionary campaigns to convert Germanic peoples to Christianity.

Chapter 12: Cross-Cultural Exchanges on the Silk Roads

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● Han Wudi- A Chinese emperor in the year 139 B.C.E. who tried to find allies to help combat the Xiongnu. His conquests simplified trade relations and it became unnecessary to route trade through India. This helped in the opening of the silk roads.

● Monsoon winds- governed sailing and shipping in the Indian Ocean, as traders depended on wind patterns to facilitate maritime movement. Allowed traders to travel farther.

● Chang’an - a major center of government, trade, and culture in China where the Silk Road started from. It was the capital of the early Han empire, but the later Han moved their capital to Luoyang

● Hindu Kush Mountains - a 800 km mountain range that stretched between central Afghanistan and northern Pakistan

● South China Sea - a major maritime trade route that linked China with southwest Asia and India. It was the location of maritime trade in Southeast Asia.

● Guangzhou - city in Southern China where the sea lanes began; sea lanes linked east Asia to the mainland and the islands of Southeast Asia; facilitated trade

● Missionaries - people who went along the trade routes who carried their beliefs, values, and religious convictions to distant lands to convert others

● Expatriate merchants - Merchants temporarily living in another country for work ● Manichaeism - a dualistic religion that synthesized Christianity, Buddhism, and

Zoroastrianism. It was derived from Babylonian prophet Mani (216-272 CE), who promoted ascetic lifestyle. Devout Manichaeans were known as the “elect”, while less zealous, “hearers” led normal lives but supported the elect, and all believed in individual salvation for good and evil.

● Syncretic/syncretism- The blending of different religious beliefs (ie. Manichaeism) Manichaeism was a syncretic blend of Zoroastrianism, Buddhism, and Christianity; Mani claimed to be a prophet of all humanity.

● Nestorians - followers of the Nestorian religion, an early branch of Christianity which emphasized the human nature of Jesus Christ as opposed to a divine nature. Despite being rejected by the Mediterranean church, it spread along the silk roads and introduced strong organizational framework to the churches in southwest Asia.

● Visigoths - Nomads from Scandinavia and Russia who adopted agriculture and drew inspiration from the Romans (adopted laws, Christianity, provided soldiers to Rome). Romans wanted them to serve as buffers on their borders. Eventually they joined the Huns to collapse the Western Roman Empire.

● Huns - Turkish-speaking nomads who, under Attila, invaded Hungary and attacked Roman borders and the Germanic peoples. Their conquer pushed the Germanic people into the Roman empire, causing the western section to fall. They themselves fell apart after Atilla died.

● St. Augustine (354-430 CE) - a major spokesman of the early Christian church who increased the appeal of Christianity to intellectual elites by reconciling the religion to the platonism and stoicism so it would be familiar to educated classes.

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Part 3: The Postclassical Era, 500 - 1000 C.E.

Chapter 13: The Expansive Realm of Islam● Mecca - an Arabian city that was the birthplace of Muhammad. Regarded as a holy city

of Islam, it is the Islamic pilgrimage center when Muslims partake in the hajj. It was also a bustling center of commerce at the time. It also houses the Ka’ba, the main symbol of Mecca’s greatness that pilgrims end their hajj's at. In Modern Saudi Arabia

● Medina - The city that Muhammad and his followers retreated to after they faced increasing opposition from Meccan rulers; “the city of the prophet” In Modern Saudia Arabia

● Caravans - In the post classical era in the realm of Islam, it was a group of people traveling together using camels as a method of transportation. As a result of efficient camel travel, major cities of the Islamic world and central Asia built caravansaries -- inns offering lodging for caravan merchants and care for their animals.

● Bedouins - a nomadic group of pastoral peoples who were organized in family and clan groups, relying on their larger kinship networks for support and survival.

● Muhammad - (570-632) Initially, Muhammad was a merchant, and though he married a wealthy widow and was rather successful, he never fully gained a position of high class or rank. The founder and prophet of Islam, who began conveying his visions to others after he experienced a revelation from the angel Gabriel from Allah. He accepted the prophets of Christianity and Judaism, but considered himself the last and most significant one.

● Allah - the sole god of the monotheistic religion of Islam, he was believed to bring judgment to the world rewarding the righteous and punishing the bad.

● Quran - an Islamic holy book which is the absolute word of law and contains the divine revelations of Allah as presented to Muhammad in a cave by the angel Gabriel.

● Hadith - These are sayings attributed to Muhammad formed by Muslim scholars; unlike the Quran, the Hadith was not the unalterable word of God but was rather a large collection of texts that changed over time.The hadiths were guides used to help interpret the Quran.

● Hijra - Muhammad’s migration from Mecca to Medina in 622, which is the beginning point of the Islamic calendar

● Ka’ba - the main holy shrine in Mecca originally supposed to contain a powerful deity; the destination of Muslims embarking on the hajj, or pilgrimage. It was originally filled with shrines of pagan gods, but then turned into a monument of the Islamic faith after Muhammad overtook Mecca.

● Umma - Literally meaning “The community of the faithful,” this term denotes the community of Muslims bound together by their religion, formed by Muhammad after the hijra

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● Seal of the Prophets - This term refers to Muhammad as the final and greatest prophet through which Allah would reveal his message to humankind; Muhammad believed that although the words of the earlier Prophets such as Abraham, Moses, and Jesus, were true, Allah granted him a more complete revelation of the Islamic faith.

● Jihad - Literally meaning ‘struggle,’ this term refers to a spiritual and moral obligation taken on by some Muslims that requires them to combat evil, spread the word of Islam, or wage war against unbelievers.

● Five Pillars - As the foundation of Islam, they are five obligations that Muslims must follow:

a. Profession of faith (acknowledge Allah as the only god and Muhammad as his prophet)

b. Prayer (pray to Allah 5 times a day facing Mecca)c. Fast during the month of Ramadand. Alms-giving (charity and giving to the poor)e. Pilgrimage, or hajj (making a pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in their life).

● Dar al-Islam - An Arabic term meaning the “house of Islam,” it refers to the larger society of all the lands under Islamic rule spanning from West Africa to East Asia.

● Caliph - Literally meaning “deputy,” this term refers to the succession of Islamic leaders after the death of Muhammad.

● Abu Bakr - Selected by Muhammad’s advisors, he was the first caliph after the death of Muhammad, who was a close friend and devoted disciple of him.

● Shia - the sect of Islam that believed that Ali and all his descendants were the only candidates fit to be caliph. The Shia, despite being the minority, resisted the rule of the Sunni and interpreted the Quran with in-depth analysis to support the ideals of the party. They believed that decendents of Ali were perfect.

● Umayyad - an Arabic dynasty (661-750), with its capital at Damascus, that was marked by a tremendous period of expansion to Spain in the west and India in the east. They preferred Arab aristocrats in high government positions, excluding the many diverse cultural and ethnic peoples in the empire, setting up the Umayyad downfall. Abu Al-Abbas led a rebellion that finally ended Umayyad rule.

● Jizya - Tax in Islamic empires (mainly the Umayyad) that was imposed on non-Muslims. This caused deep resentment among conquered peoples and led to restiveness against Umayyad rule.

● Abbasid - A cosmopolitan Arabic dynasty (750-1258) that replaced the Umayyads; it was founded by Abu al-Abbas and reached its peak under the rule of Harun al-Rashid. The Abassids were not an militaristic empire: they focused more on administration and ways to effectively run the empire smoothly.

● Baghdad - Central authority of Abbasid Dynasty; protected by three walls with the caliph’s palace in the center of the city. The Ulama and Qadis resolved disputes and ensured observance of Islamic values. It was the center of banking, commerce, crafts, and industrial production.

● Ulama - Islamic officials and pious scholars who shaped public policy in accordance to the Quran and the sharia.

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● Qadis - Judges in the Abbasid dynasty who were learned officials and who set moral standards in local communities and resolved disputes.

● Harun al-Rashid - Caliph that reigned during the high point of the Abbasid Dynasty; provided support for artists and writers, gave money to the poor, and sent presents to Charlemagne, ruler of Carolingian empire.

● Sakk - letters of credit that were common in the medieval Islamic banking world. They allowed merchants to draw letters of credit in one city and cash them in another, thus they could settle accounts with distant business partners without having to deal in cash.

● Al-Andalus - The name that the Muslims gave to Spain. A branch of the Umayyad Dynasty stayed in Al-Andalus when the Abbasid Dynasty took over, and kept control over the area.

● Veiling - a custom adopted by Muslim women outside of their homes that was a sign of modesty in upper-class urban women. This practice was already used in Persian societies long before Muhammad and is not specified in the Quran.

● Madrasas - The creation of a school system for higher education, funded directly by the government. This allowed for students to get a more sophisticated learning of Islamic ideals and laws, which in turn allowed the government to recruit literate, rational minds as the foundation for a stronger administrative reign.

● Sufis - Islamic missionaries that did not believe in formal religious teaching. Instead, they led pious, ascetic lives. Muslim theologians did not trust them, but Sufis became popular after the ninth century because they emphasized devotion to Allah above doctrine. Tolerated observance of pre-Islamic customs, such as deities in other faiths.

● Al-Muqaddasi - composed a book called The Best Divisions for Knowledge of the Regions in 985 that discussed the geography of the dar al-Islam. Known as a leading scholar among Muslim geographers.

● Omar Khayyam - A Persian poet who wrote the Rubaiyat (“quatrains”) and is widely known because of translations by Edward Fitzgerald. His works influenced the literary works of the Abbasid dynasty.

● Hindu numerals - Once Muslims were exposed to Hindi numerals which greatly facilitated mathematics, they utilized them in their own calculations. Europeans learned of them through Arab Muslims and thus called them “Arabic numerals.”

Chapter 14: The Resurgence of Empire in East Asia● Xuanzang - a Buddhist monk who slipped past imperial watchtowers and made his way

to India, the homeland of Buddhism to study with the most knowledgeable Buddhist teachers and sages from the purest source.

● Sui - The dynasty after the Han Empire that brought all of China once again under centralized imperial rule with tight political discipline, demanding mandatory labor, and the construction of infrastructure. Most notably, it constructed the Grand Canal.

● Yang Jian - began his rise to power when he was appointed as duke of Sui; when his patron died, a seven-year old boy was named heir. A year later, Yang Jian claimed the throne and Mandate of Heaven for himself and sent military expeditions into central Asia & southern China. By 588, he ruled all of China.

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● Grand Canal - Was an important canal completed in the Sui dynasty by Emperor Sui Yangdi. The main purpose of the canal was connecting the port city of Hangzhou to the capital Chang’an to allow for quicker transportation of goods between the north and the south. It integrated the economies of northern and southern China and served as the principal conduit for integral trade.

● Sui Yangdi - (604-618CE)The second Sui emperor, who completed the Grand Canal, and utilized high taxes and forced labor to pull China into a period of stability. In doing so, he generated much hostility towards his rule and prompted many rebellions.

● Tang - (618-907) A dynasty whose success relied on maintenance of transportation and communications network, distribution of land according to the equal-field system, and a merit-based bureaucracy. It “flexed its military muscles” and dominated parts of Tibet, Vietnam, and the Silla kingdom of Korea, sometimes establishing tributary relationships. Its decline resulted from a string of ever careless and useless leaders.

● Tang Taizong - Second emperor of Tang that murdered two brothers and pushed father to get to the throne. Built a capital at Chang’an. He ended banditry, kept taxes and prices of rice low, and managed an era of stability and prosperity.

● Equal-field system - a system for governing the distribution of land and provided stability in the countryside. Gave land to individuals and families according to land’s fertility. of the land became hereditary possessions and the rest was redistributed. ⅕Unfortunately, a rising population made less land available for distribution, and bribery allowed influential families to keep lands that were supposed to be distributed. Buddhist monasteries also acquired large portions of land.

● Uighurs - Nomadic Turkish people invited by the Tang to quell An Lushan’s rebellion. In return, the Uighurs demanded the right to sack Chang’an and Luoyang after the expulsion of the rebels.

● Song - (960-1279 CE) After a period of warlords ruling China, this dynasty came into power and placed much more emphasis on civil administration, industry, education and the arts than on military affairs.

● Song Taizu - The first emperor of the Song dynasty, who vastly expanded the bureaucracy based on merit, created a very centralized imperial government, in response to the enormous power war lords had previously. It encountered financial problems because of its military spending as well as the large bureaucracy Song Taizu had created.

● Hangzhou - The capital of the south during the Song Dynasty, with over one million inhabitants.

● Li Bai - (701-761) A famous poet from the Tang era. He wrote happy poems and used social life of Chinese cities as a principle theme.

● Foot binding - Basically, the breaking of the ankles/feet of women to limit their mobility and make their feet smaller (which was considered beautiful). Sign of male high status. Symbolizes the heavily patriarchal society.

● Wu Zhao - The concubine of the emperor Tang Taizong until he suffered a stroke in 660. Wu Zhao then took over and became empress herself in 690. Wu Zhao efficiently managed punishment and aristocratic rule by strengthening civil service system, and although she had many opponents, she was able to suppress their power until she became ill and passed power to her son. Patronized Buddhists

● Porcelain - A lighter and higher quality form of pottery. It was exported in vast quantities and it was used by the wealthy and the refined. Stimulated trade.

● Gunpowder - An accidental invention while Chinese alchemists tried synthesizing eternal life potions. The experiment exploded, which prompted the government to first

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use bamboo lances with fire. The Europeans later adopted this “failed” experiment as gunpowder.

● Printing - Employed block-printing techniques where they carved a reverse image of an entire page into a wooden block, inked the block, and then pressed a sheet of paper on top and where they carved images, arranged them, inked them, and pressed the frame over paper sheets. Printing made it possible to produce texts quickly, cheaply and in huge quantities.

● Flying cash - a system of credit which enabled merchants to deposit goods or cash at one location and draw the equivalent in cash or goods elsewhere in china.

● Paper money - a printed currency distributed by the Chinese government which facilitated commercial transactions. As it became popular, the government would print them with serial numbers and warnings to prevent counterfeit notes. Later, the government frequently printed currency representing more than they actually possessed in cash reserves, causing a loss of public confidence in this system.

● Suleiman - An Arabian merchant who made several commercial visits to India and China by ship. An Arab geographer wrote an account of Suleiman describing India and China for Muslims in southwest Asia.

● Dunhuang - Dunhuang was located in western China, and a large Buddhist community emerged there. There were many cave temples decorated with murals of the life of Buddha and the Bodhisattvas. There were also assembled libraries of religious literature and operated scriptoria to produce Buddhist texts.

● Buddhism - Buddhism in China gained many followers because of its high standards for morality, intellectual sophistication, and its promise for salvation. Many monastic communities emerged in China. Monasteries accumulated land, which they cultivated and stored some of their crops for natural disasters, and they practiced banking or other money-lending activities.

● Chan Buddhism - an influential branch of Buddhism in China, with an emphasis on intuition and sudden flashes of insight instead of textual studies

● Pure land - The Pure land school was the location in Mahayana Buddhism where the Buddha resides. The possibility of gaining personal salvation was emphasized, and Wu Zhao followed and promoted the teachings of the school.

● Neo-Confucianism - Confucianism that looked at more metaphysical topics and incorporated Buddhist influences.

● Zhu Xi - The most important representative of neo-Confucianism. He wrote a book called “Family Rituals”, which mainly outlined Confucian relationships and duties in society. However, he also studied a great deal of Buddhist texts and spread the ideas of li (the meaning of spiritual being) and qi (material being).

● Silla - Korean kingdom that entered into a tributary relationship with China, recognizing its sovereignty; this relationship was ultimately beneficial to it, and it opened the path for Korean merchants to trade in China

● Kumsong - capital of the Silla kingdom, and modeled after Chang’an● Viets - people who kept up fierce resistance against Chinese rule, yet eventually

subdued to their authority. They later incorporated many elements of Chinese society and government (such as a Confucian education, tributary relationship, administrative techniques, et al)

● Nara Japan - (710–794 C.E.) a period in which Chinese culture heavily influenced the political structure of Japan. Their rulers adopted a centralized imperial system, a Chinese-style bureaucracy, the equal-field system, and official support for Confucianism and Buddhism; its capital, Nara, was also modeled after Chang’an.

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● Heian - Japanese capital from 794-1185 CE. Japanese royal family served as figureheads, as the real power lay in the hands of the Fujiwara family. Because it did not actually rule, the imperial family survived for a remarkably long time. Japanese writing borrowed heavily from Chinese script, and much writing and literature was in Chinese.

● Tale of Genji - A remarkable work of literature written in Japanese by the lady-in-waiting, Murasaki Shikibu. It tells the story of a fictitious imperial prince, Genji, who enjoys cultivating an ultra-refined lifestyle with his friends, but ultimately becomes melancholy as he ages; a reflection on the sorrows of time.

● Kamakura and Muromachi - The medieval age between courtly and Chinese-dominated Japan, and centralized Tokugawa Japan. Japan developed a decentralized political order and suppressed previously adopted Chinese customs and etiquette, instead opting for a militaristic culture.

● Samurai - Similar to the knights in medieval Europe, samurai were warriors who fought with swords or martial arts to defend the shogun or emperor and to expand their land. In turn, they were offered their surplus food, clothing, and shelter.

Chapter 15: India and the Indian Ocean Basin● Buzurg - tenth-century shipmaster who sailed to Southeastern Asia, India, China, and

east Africa, among other areas, and compiled stories about these places. He recognized a larger world of trade and communication around the known world.

● Harsha - (606-648 CE) King who temporarily restored unified rule in most of northern India. He was tolerant of other faiths, instituted hospitals and free medical care, was a patron of the arts, and often gave free gifts to citizens. His kingdom collapsed after he was assassinated.

● Sind - The Indus River Valley in northwestern India that was the first part of India to come under Muslim rule as a province of the Umayyad Caliphate.

● Mahmud of Ghazni - A leader of the Turks in Afghanistan; this man led several raiding expeditions into India, destroying Hindu and Buddhist sites and building mosques in their place. He was a ruthless warrior, but also a patron of the arts and sciences.

● Sultanate of Delhi - (1200-1500) a Muslim state established by Mahmud’s successors in northern India, which ultimately played a strong role in introducing Islam to India and encouraging its popularity.

● Chola - Southern Indian Hindu kingdom (850-1267), with a decentralized state that dominated sea trade. It maintained a loosely centralized state, which led to its downfall.

● Vijayanagar - (1336-1565) meaning “city of victory,” a Southern Indian kingdom that renounced the Islamic faith in their region, and later fell to the Mongols.

● Monsoons - torrential rains accompanied by winds which were successfully utilized by sailors to travel longer distances in the Indian Ocean, they were given a special name because they occurred in the spring and summer.

● Irrigation - Because in southern India there was no major rivers, they collected rain water in canals for the dry seasons.

● Dhows and junks○ Dhow - Indian, Persian, and Arab ships, weighing one hundred to four hundred

tons, that sailed and traded throughout the Indian Ocean basin○ Junk- Chinese ships that regularly carried 1000 tons of goods○ Both are ships utilized to trade with other regions in the Indian Ocean and

beyond

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● Emporia - warehouses and centers of commerce that thrived in India because of its central location in the maritime trade network. Merchants would come from various places and exchange their goods for other ones at these emporia.

● Axum - an African kingdom centered in Ethiopia that became an early and lasting center of Coptic Christianity. It overtook and expanded to the southern kingdom of Nubia, integrating trade in North and South Africa. Its success is largely attributed to its extensive trading with places such as India.

● Ceylon - Along with South India, regarded as a place of wealth because of the large emporia which thrived there. It was conquered by the Chola kingdom at Chola’s high point.

● Vishnu and Shiva - two prominent gods of the Hindu pantheon who both entertained thriving devotional cults.

● Shankara - southern Indian devotee of Shiva who reviewed all sacred Hindu writings and compiled them into a single, consistent system of thought; believed the physical world was an illusion and mistrusted emotional services and ceremonies; thought logical reasoning led to the understanding of Brahman

● Ramanuja - devotee of Vishnu and a Brahmin philosopher from southern India; believed personal union with deities was more important than intellectual understanding of the ultimate reality; Hindu theology of salvation; inspired many Hindu devotional cults

● Sufis - most effective agents of conversion to Islam in India; the Sufis’ piety and sincerity attracted many people who were looking for a faith that could provide meaning to their lives

● Bhakti - the movement that tried to harmonize Hinduism and Islam by emphasizing the similar moral values they advocated and setting aside their exclusive traits

● Bhagavad Purana - Composed during the 8th and 9th centuries, the Bhagavad Purana is the most influential of the puranas, a body of literature produced by religious leaders at the time. The puranas told stories about the gods and offered instructions for proper methods of worship. Bhagavad Purana literally means “Purana of the Lord.”

● Guru Kabir - a major proponent of the Bhakti movement. He was a blind weaver who taught that Allah, Vishnu, and Shiva all came from the same spirit.

● Funan - (1st to 6th century) first state known to have reflected Indian influence; located in the lower reaches of the Mekong River (Vietnam and Cambodia); it was largely agriculture based and supported Hindu ideals.

● Srivijaya - Southeast Asian kingdom (670-1025), based on the island of Sumatra, that used a powerful navy to dominate trade and supported Buddhism.

● Angkor - a Southeast Asian Khmer kingdom (889-1432) that was centered on the temple cities of Angkor Thom and Angkor Wat. land based state (as opposed to island/sea based)

● Khmers - a group of peoples that dominated the region occupied by modern Cambodia. The Khmer kings built a capital city at Angkor Thom. As they turned to Buddhism, they added temples to its complex of Hindu inspired temples

● Melaka - Southeast Asian kingdom that was predominantly Islamic. Like other southeast Asian states, Melaka gained influence through control of maritime trade.

Chapter 16: The Two Worlds of Christendom● Charlemagne - grandson of Charles Martel and ruler of the Frankish empire from 768-

814 who maintained diplomatic relationships with the Abbaswid and Byzantium empires; his becoming emperor caused many strained/tense relations between the

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eastern and western parts of the Roman empire, as it challenged the power of others, including ecclesiastical authorities

● Germanic invaders - destabilized many attempts to form a centralized imperial power in the region.

● Byzantium - The eastern faction of the Roman Empire that continued Roman traditions after the downfall of the Roman Empire. Its counterpart, the Western faction, disintegrated and succumbed to foreign invaders

● Constantinople - The capital of the Byzantine empire, formerly known as the small village of Byzantium. It enabled Constantine to keep a close watch over the Sasanid empire and was located strategically next to the Strait of Bosphorus, giving him control over trade, and was agriculturally suitable.

● Caesaropapism - a concept relating to the mixing of political and religious authority, as with the Roman emperors, that was central to the church-versus-state controversy in medieval Europe. Introduced by Constantine.

● Justinian and Theodora - (527-565) Byzantine emperor and his wife who were born to low economic status and rose up the ranks of Byzantine bureaucracy. Justinian is best known for the construction of the Hagia Sophia, his law code, and his occupation of Rome, Sicily, Africa, and southern Spain in an attempt to restore the former Roman Empire.

● Hagia Sophia - church constructed under Justinian in Constantinople that is known for its enormous dome and the gold, silver, gems, and lamps that adorned the church. The Ottomans later turned the Hagia Sophia into a mosque.

● Justinian’s Code - written code of Roman law issued by Justinian that did away with inconsistencies and influenced later civil law codes in Europe, Japan, and the U.S (Louisiana).

● Greek Fire - weapon made of sulphur, lime, and petroleum that was very difficult to extinguish and thus helped the Byzantines repel Muslim invaders on land and at sea.

● Theme - Byzantine system of placing imperial provinces under emperor-appointed generals who oversaw military defense and administration of the province using an army of free peasants.

● Franks - A Germanic people that successfully built an empire that maintained diplomatic relationships with the Byzantine and Abbasid empires and converted to Christianity, winning the support of the former Roman empire, the pope, and the western Christian church.

● Carolingians - a Germanic (and Frankish) dynasty that was named after its creator, Charles Martel, and was a particular victim of the Vikings’ raids because they lacked a navy. They faced internal pressures from divisions between Charlemagne’s 3 grandsons and external pressure from Muslims, Magyars, and the Vikings.

● Missi dominici - a group of imperial officials that reviewed the accounts of local authorities in each jurisdiction and checked the authority of the counts. Like “the eyes and ears of the king” of Persia that traveled around and reported to the emperor the condition of the empire.

● Vikings - a Germanic people from Scandinavia that frequently raided European settlements, cities, and monasteries for wealth. They had shallow-bottomed boats, sails, and oars, which allowed them to navigate both up rivers and across oceans.

● Louis the Pious - Charlemagne’s son, who held the empire together but lost control of local authorities. His three sons quibbled for power and divided the empire, severely weakening it.

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● Magyars - Invaders from the east, descendants of Hungarian nomads, who were expert horsemen and raided settlements in Germany, Italy and southern France.

● Silk - By the late sixth century, Byzantine silk matched the quality of Chinese silk, and Byzantium became the primary producer of silk to the Mediterranean basin. The government closely monitored its production and set down regulations so that monopoly by a few could not happen.

● Heavy Plow - the small plow used in light Mediterranean soils did not work well in the heavy, moist soils in the north, so the heavy plow, despite being more expensive and requiring more energy, came into use and contributed to greater agricultural production.

● Norse - mariners, related to the Vikings, who used the same routes to alternately plunder and participate in trade and commerce. They played a crucial role in trade, sailing up/down Russian rivers and linking the Carolingian empire with the Muslims, and transporting silver that was essential to the western European economy.

● Byzantium (social) - most urbanized society, complete with lavish fountains, courtyards, mansions, libraries, etc. Women wore veils and lived apart from men.

● Feudalism - popular custom after disintegration of Roman empire in which powerful, self-sufficient manors controlled by wealthy landowners exchanged plots of land within the manor for labor (fief) from a large number of peasants, known as serfs. Oversimplification of society in western Europe.

● Papacy - Claimed spiritual authority over all the lands. At first, they cooperated with the Byzantine emperors, but began to act more independently after the late sixth century to strengthen the western Christian church and separate it from the eastern Christian church

● Pope Gregory I - Individual most responsible for separating the two churches. He mobilized local resources and defended the city of Rome from from the Germanics. Reasserted the notion that the bishop of Rome was the ultimate authority. Emphasized penance, which required individuals to confess their sins to priests and atone by penitential acts. This gave the Roman church more influence over the lives of individuals.

● Patriarchs - Leader of the Greek Eastern Orthodox church, which in 1054 officially split with the Pope and the Roman Catholic church

● Iconoclasm - An ecclesiastical policy that sought to destroy “icons,” preventing the worship of idols. Emperor Leo III started by destroying religious images and prohibiting their usage. This started many protests and riots among the laity.

● Asceticism - the act of committing oneself to a life full of frugality and strict guidelines; in Christianity this mostly manifested in monasteries.

● St. Basil and Benedict - Two patriarchs, Basil from Byzantine and Benedict from Western Europe, who reformed monasteries and increased their influence by providing discipline and a sense of purpose where followers would follow an ascetic life. The main virtues became poverty, chastity, and obedience.

● St. Scholastica - The sister of St. Benedict and a nun. Through her influence, an adaptation of the Benedictine rule soon provided guidance for the religious life of women living in convents.

● Monasticism - A religious way of life characterized by the practice of renouncing worldly possessions to fully devote oneself to spiritual pursuits.

● Missionaries - monks who aimed to spread Christianity in the larger world. Pope Gregory I sent missionaries to the Germanic kingdoms and faced resistance. Byzantine

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authorities sent missionaries to Balkan and Slavic lands, the most famous of which were St. Cyril and St. Methodius for they devised the Cyrillic alphabet.

● Schism - (1054) A “division” referring to the split between the Eastern Orthodox Church and Roman Catholic Church, this split continues to this day.

Part 4: The Acceleration of Cross-Cultural Interaction, 1000 - 1500 C.E.

Chapter 17: Nomadic Empires and Eurasian Integration

● Shamans - Turkish clans revolved themselves around religious specialists or shamans who were thought to have supernatural powers of being able communicate with the gods.

● Temüjin - A Mongol born into a noble family, who early on in his life experience political strife because his father was a prominent warrior. Through the successful employment of steppe diplomacy, he broke up all the Mongol tribes and became Chinggis Khan in 1206. He formed a new Mongol confederation based on ability and loyalty, and utilized its military power to conquer northern China, central Asia, and Persia.

● Khubilai Khan - One of Genghis’ grandsons, he established the Yuan Dynasty in China, worked to improve the welfare of his subjects, and promoted Buddhism. However, he had little success conquering lands beyond China.

● Ilkhanate - Mongol rule in Persia established by Khubilai’s bro Hülegü that fell due to financial issues (like paper money failing) and internal conflict and unrest. The Mongols assimilated to Persian cultural traditions, adopting Islam, and allowed Persians to govern as long as they did the job right.

● Yuan - Established by Khubilai Khan, it eventually fell due to financial issues and internal conflict as paper money gradually lost its value and rebellions surged.

● Tamerlane - A Turkish conqueror with a limp and a charismatic personality, he had extended his authority throughout the khanate of Chaghatai by 1370 and conquered the region b/n Persia & Afghanistan, providing him with tax revenue. He ruled by accepting taxes and tributes through appointed leaders and allies.

● Ming Yongle - Emperor of the Ming Empire (1402-1424) who moved the capital of China from Nanjing to Beijing. Started to undo the damage caused by neglect from the Yuan dynasty.

● Khan - The universal ruler who ruled indirectly through the leaders of allied tribes.● Battle of Manzikert - This battle, in which Saljuq forces devastatingly defeated the

Byzantine army, marked the start of little resistance to Turkish groups entering Anatolia.● Saljuqs - a Turkish ruling clan that converted to Islam and rose within and eventually

overshadowed the Abbasid dynasty, with its sultans controlling the dynasty. Other Saljuq Turks infiltrated Anatolia and seized control from the Byzantines.

● Khanbaliq - The Mongol capital near Beijing, captured from the Jurchens in 1215.● Golden Horde - A Mongol tribe that overran Russia, Poland, Hungary and Eastern

Germany. They maintained a tributary relationship with Russian cities and agricultural

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provinces, but lost their hegemony in Russia when they were ejected by Moscow’s princes in the mid-15th century.

● Uighurs - A literate, highly educated people who lived mostly in oasis cities along the silk roads and provided many of the civil servants and soldiers of the Mongol empires.

● Marco Polo - A Venetian traveler who lived at Khubilai Khan’s court and observed Mongol rule, military tactics, and life in Asia in the late 13th century.

Chapter 18: States and Societies of Sub-Saharan Africa

● Ife and Benin - Small city states, governing through family relationships & political alliances, that arose after population growth strained resources and prompted more conflict -> need for military -> more formal structure of government.

● Kongo - A larger kingdom that arose in the Congo River Basin with a royal currency system of cowrie shells, a king, officials, six provinces managed by governors, and local government provided by chiefs. It was probably the most centralized of the Bantu kingdoms.

● Jenne-jeno - an early center of iron production and trade, it was once commercially prominent in west Africa, and inspired the foundation of Timbuktu.

● Timbuktu - ● Sundiata - The “lion prince” of Mali who helped transform his home village of Niani to a

major commercial center and expand the empire to include Ghana as well as other neighboring kingdoms.

● Kin-based societies - Early Bantu societies governed themselves mostly through family and kinship groups, depending on male heads of families for a village’s ruling council and/or a village’s chief. Ethnic loyalties also played a part in determining districts.

● Kilwa - A Swahili city-state that relied on agriculture, built multi-story stone buildings, used copper coins, and enjoyed tremendous prosperity from the gold, slave, and ivory trades.

● Zimbabwe - A Swahili kingdom, whose capital, Great Zimbabwe, featured a large stone complex, and whose rulers controlled and taxed the trade of gold, ivory, and slaves through the region, just like every other state in this chapter, except it obtained it through Indian Ocean trade.

● Diviners - Religious specialists who mediated between humanity and supernatural beings. They consulted with oracles and presented solutions to misfortunes of individuals or groups encountered.

● Ghana - The most important commercial site in west Africa, it gained much wealth from its importance as the center of the gold trade by taxing and controlling it. Its kings adopted Islam but did not force it upon their subjects.

● Mali - A West African state that controlled and taxed almost all trade passing through the region, honoring Islam as well.

● Koumbi-Saleh - The capital of Ghana, with stone buildings, an army of as many as 200,000 men, and over a dozen mosques. It supported many qadis and Muslim scholars.

● Mansa Musa - A Mali king who, on his pilgrimage to Mecca, distributed insanely lavish gifts to his hosts along the way, illustrating Mali’s great wealth from the gold trade. He

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also was enthusiastic about Islam and built mosques, established religious schools and brought in distinguished teachers.

● Swahili - A people on the east African coast who traded gold, slaves, ivory, and other exotic local products and contributed to a massive volume of trade in the area.

● Ibn Battuta - Islamic scholar and writer who recorded information about all of the cultures and societies he visited during his travels around most of the Islamic world

● Zanj Revolt - A major uprising conducted by Abn il Muhammed. Slaves were unhappy with their status as “property” and the slave trade.

● Axum - A Christian kingdom in Ethiopia which experienced little contact with other Christian societies, and as a result reflected local interests. Rock shrines, amulets, and charms represented this continued tradition.

Chapter 19: The Increasing Influence of Europe● Holy Roman Empire - The empire established in western Europe created by the

papacy to unite all of Christendom; during this time the power struggle between the German princes and the popes diminished the effectiveness of the empire.

● Normans - A group of peoples who settled in Normandy and eventually conquered England under William the Conqueror and tightly centralized and ruled the region.

● Venice - prominent in the commercial life of the eastern Mediterranean; Venetian merchants saw the 4th crusade as an opportunity to strengthen their position against Byzantine competition; in 1204, Venetians sacked and conquered Constantinople

● Saljuqs - A Turkish clan that defeated the Byzantine empire at the battle of Manzikert, opening the way for it to freely enter Anatolia.

● Otto II - Otto of Saxony, originally a king in northern Germany, expanded his kingdom and aided the church in Italy, prompting Pope John XII to proclaim him emperor of the Holy Roman Empire in 962 CE.

● Investiture contest/controversy - The conflict between the papacy and the emperors of the HRE concerning who had the right to name important church officials to their positions.

● Frederick Barbarossa - “the red beard” (1152-1190); occupied southern Germany and eventually absorbed Lombardy in northern Italy; popes did not want Barbarossa to dominate Europe so at the end of Barbarossa’s reign, he was forced to relinquish his rights to Lombardy

● Hugh Capet - After the last of the Carolingians died, French nobles elected Hugh Capet to serve as the monarch of France. Eventually, his descendants expanded their rule and created the Capetian empire.

● William of Normandy - the Norman king who invaded England in 1066● Iberia - The peninsula where modern day Spain and Portugal are located, was first

mostly Muslim but was later conquered by Christians● Urbanization - Conversion of towns/villages into “modern” cities due to increasing

population● Hanseatic League - association of trading cities stretching from Novgorod to London;

dominated trade in grain, fish, furs, timber, and pitch

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● Three Estates - “Those who pray, those who fight, those who work”; society was neatly divided into the clergy, the nobility, and the working class of peasants/tradespeople/merchants, the former two of which had privileges and rights withheld from the working class.

● Chivalry - informal but widely recognized code of ethics and behavior considered appropriate for nobles; a noble who observed the code devoted himself to order, piety, and the Christian faith

● Troubadours - A class of traveling poets, minstrels, and entertainers whom aristocratic women enthusiastically patronized for their songs about gentle relationships between men and women.

● Guilds - Groups of tradespeople who bonded together and set standards for quality and price in their specific profession. Some guilds allowed women, and some even had exclusively female memberships.

● Scholasticism - A cult created on the basis of synthesising Aristotle’s theories and Christian theology.

● St. Thomas Aquinas - (1225-1274) scholastic theologian who combined Aristotle’s rational power with the teachings of Christianity; synthesized reason and faith to try to rationally prove that God exists

● Saints - human beings who had led such exemplary lives that God held them in special esteem; had considerable influence with heavenly authorities; medieval Europeans prayed to them to look after their spiritual interests and ensure their admission to heaven

● Mendicants - friars who had no personal possessions and would beg for food and other items; active in towns and cities; addressed large amounts of recently arrived migrants who the urban churches and clergy weren’t able to take care of

● Heresy - unorthodox practices/beliefs that clashed against the Church’s beliefs; an example would be disobeying the Ptolemaic geocentric model of the universe (which is what Galilieo and Newton did) and adhering to the Copernican heliocentric model of the solar system/universe

● Baltic Colonization - the Roman Catholic Church’s establishment of its presence in the Baltic region, which mainly occured through the Crusades

● Reconquista - “reconquest of Spain”; refers to the Christian forces’ recapture of Spain from the Muslims;began in the 1060s and ended in the first half of the thirteenth century; only the kingdom of Granada remained Muslim after the reconquista; they also captured Sicily from the Muslims.

● Crusades - refers to a holy war; huge expeditions that Roman Catholic Christians mounted in an effort to recapture Palestine and the holy city of Jerusalem from the Muslims

Chapter 20: Worlds Apart: The Americas and Oceania● Tenochtitlan - located on an island where the Mexica settled, it became their capital;

the site offered several advantages: plentiful supply of seafood, allowed them to

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develop an efficient agricultural system that led to surplus, and the Lake Titicaca where the city was located served as a natural defense from invaders

● Toltecs - Settled 31 miles northwest of Mexico city in their capital of Tula. Maintained a large and powerful army and made a regional empire, population grew to 60,000 (950-1150CE). Fell in 1175 due to nomadic incursion and civil conflict.

● Mexica - aka the Aztecs; extremely harsh conquerors that demanded tribute from various surrounding societies; had a strictly warrior society in which the military and priestly classes dominated political life; ritual bloodletting played a major role in religion

● Tula - Capital of the Toltec empire, created 800 CE and is 31 miles NW of modern-day Mexico City. Huge population growth from 950-1150 CE, and ultimately fell in 1175 due to nomadic incursion and internal civil conflict due to migrants.

● Chinampa - Also referred to as the “floating gardens,” it was the rich and fertile muck from the bottom of a lake and built into small plots of land; Mexica cultivators were able to harvest seven crops a year because chinampas were so fertile

● Calpulli - Mexica clans or groups of families claiming descent from common ancestors; groups organized their own affairs and allocated community property to individual families

● Bloodletting - Rituals executed by the Aztecs to gain favor with the gods so their agricultural/military pursuits might become successful. Bears resemblance to the Mayan ritual of execution via ball game, but had a more serious religious aspect to it.

● Huitzilopochtli - Aztec war god to whom bloodletting and execution rituals were often directed to

● Iroquois - lived in the Mississippi river woodlands with five main Iroquois nations● Cahokia - largest surviving mound built by the mound building people in the eastern

North America ● Chucuito - Incan regional state. Their diet consisted of potatoes and they traded for

maize.● Chimu - Incan regional state with a capital at Chanchan. It was organized with clans

living at each block based on status; indicated social structure.● Incas - Powerful South American empire that reached its peak in the fifteenth century

during the reign of Pachacuti Inca and Topa Inca● Qiupu - mnemonic aid; an array of small cords of various colors & lengths, all

suspended from one large, thick cord; used to keep records since Incas did not have a system of writing

● Cuzco - “navel of the universe”; served as the administrative, religious, and ceremonial center of the Inca empire; huge plaza in the center surrounded by buildings made of red stone; residents included rulers, nobility, administrators, high priests, and hostages of conquered people; The administrative, religious, and ceremonial center of the Inca Empire.

● Ayllu - political and social family units of Incan civilization; kind of like tribes or clans but they later extended to have several families in one Ayllu

● Inti - Incan sun god; patron deity of Incan Empire● New Zealand - aboriginal (the last large, habitable region of the earth to receive

members of the human species during the first millennium C.E.)● Easter Island - ● Maori - New Zealand people whose diet consisted of sweet potatoes.

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Chapter 21: Reaching Out: Expanding Horizons of Cross-Cultural Interaction

● Ibn Battuta: one of the best known Muslim travelers; served as a qadi (Islamic judge) in Delhi and the Maldive islands; worked zealously to promote proper observance of Islam; offered advice to rulers about government, women’s dress, and the proper relationships between genders

● Melaka: in modern Malaysia, founded in the 1390s, Melaka became the principal clearinghouse of trade in the eastern Indian Ocean; the city policed the Strait of Melaka and maintained a safe market for merchants. They also levied reasonable fees on goods exchanged there. Grew extremely rich due to its central location in trade.

● Marco Polo: (1253-1324); Venetian traveler who went to Mongol China, where Khubilai Khan took a liking to him; Khubilai supported Marco’s mercantile interests, sent him on diplomatic missions and may have given him an administrative job; Marco was also a gifted storyteller, and his stories helped encourage Europeans to participate in the trade network of Eurasia.

● Rabban Sauma - A Turkish Nestorian Christian priest sent by the Mongol ilkhan to attract support from Europe in his project of invading and capturing Jerusalem. Rabban Sauma met with and was well-received by the European kings and the pope but did not attract support for the ilkhan.

● Sharia: prescribed religious observances and social relationships based on the Quran; placed importance on legal scholars and judges in Islamic societies

● Qadi - an Islamic judge, see Qadis. Most notably, Ibn Battuta was a qadi.● Missionaries - people of a certain faith who conducted efforts to attract converts to the

faiths in other lands. During this time period, Sufi and Christian missionaries traveled long distances to spread their religions. Both successfully attracted converts; Sufis were flexible, and Christians made progress that had been conquered by Europeans for a long time.

● John of Montecorvino - An Italian Franciscan Roman Catholic missionary who went to China to attract converts to Christianity. Although popular and the archbishop of Khanbaliq, he was unsuccessful in getting long-term Chinese converts.

● Sugarcane - A juicy plant whose sap is the source of refined sugar. Sugarcane had been in large-scale cultivation in the Abbasid caliphate and was spread to Europe during this time period. Before this time, Europeans had relied on honey and fruits to sweeten their foods. Plantations increased the demand for slaves.

● Gunpowder - Mongols helped to spread gunpowder technologies west from China; gunpowder had reached Europe by the mid-thirteenth century. By the early 1500s, armies had primitive cannons, which they used in sieges to blow holes in the defensive walls of cities

● Bubonic Plague - Starting in southwest yunnan China, the bubonic plague was an epidemic disease that inflamed the lymph nodes. It at first infected only rodents, but soon spread to humans by means of fleas. The many trade routes connecting the eastern hemisphere facilitated the spread of the plague, which killed 60-70% of human victims.

● Ming Dynasty - (1368-1644) The dynasty that emerged after the fall of the Mongols’ Yuan dynasty. It was ruled by Emperor Hongwu, who reestablished a government on

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the model of traditional Chinese dynasties, such as Confucian educational and civil service systems. In doing so, Hongwu tried to eradicate all signs of the recent nomadic occupation by discouraging Mongol cultural aspects. Economic recovery involved repairing irrigation systems, increase in agricultural production, and specific Chinese goods. It relied on mandarins and eunuchs and was extremely centralized.

● Hongwu: took over after the Yuan dynasty collapsed; spent most of his youth as a beggar. Military commanders noticed his size and strength and later, he led the rebellious forces against the Yuan dynasty. He proclaimed himself Emperor in 1368, established the Ming dynasty, and set about creating a tightly centralized gov’t.

● Mandarins - A special noble class of Ming officials who were sent out to ensure that local officials implemented imperial policy.

● Eunuchs - Castrated men who served as imperial advisors and officials, who were depended upon by Ming rulers because they could not start a family and thus a power base with which to challenge them.

● Yongle - (c. 1400) second emperor of the Ming Dynasty who commissioned the Yongle Encyclopedia, a 23,000 scroll-long anthology containing all significant works of Chinese history, philosophy, and literature. Signifies the desire to learn which was a part of the cultural flourishing that occurred in the Ming dynasty.

● Hundred Years War (1337-1453) - series of battles between France and England over lands in France. The war’s expenses led to direct taxation and the formation of large powerful armies.

● Novgorod - trading hub of fur on the Baltic, member of the Hanseatic League, formerly an independent, autonomous city-state before being annexed into Muscovy by Ivan the Great (around 1480).

● Renaissance - A time of artistic and intellectual creativity where painters, sculptors and architects drew inspiration from the Greco-Roman works rather than the medieval art.

● Humanists - Those of a movement inspired by the individual and a new interpretation of Christianity. It was spurred by the increasingly urban and commercial atmosphere of Europe, teaching that asceticism and retreating from society were not necessary to be a devout Christian. Revival of the humanitites.

● Mirandola - An Italian humanist who wrote Oration on the Dignity of Man. He tried to harmonize the teachings of Plato, Aristotle, Judaism, Christianity, Islam, and Zoroastrianism. Unsurprisingly, he failed, but his endeavors reflected the Europeans’ desire to understand the larger world.

● Zheng He - Chinese eunuch Muslim explorer who, commissioned by Emperor Yongle, embarked on a series of expeditions between c.1400-1430 around the Indian Ocean basin, displaying Chinese power and might; his fleets of huge ships sailed the Indian Ocean both to trade with and impress foreign peoples. His travels mark the height of Chinese ocean trade

● Prince Henry (the Navigator) - (1400s) A Portuguese prince who embarked on a campaign to spread Christianity and increase Portuguese influence on the seas. He colonized various Atlantic islands but not much else. He launched an ambitious exploration campaign to find an eastern route to Asian markets. Seized Ceuta on the Strait of Gibraltar, a major stronghold regulating passage between the Mediterranean and the Atlantic.

● Slave Trade - (1450s) trade that occurred between west Africa and Europe after the Portuguese explored the west African coast. African commerce in slaves increased due to demand in Europe for use on sugar plantations on islands in the Atlantic Ocean.

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● Vasco de Gama - A Portuguese explorer who rounded the Cape of Good Hope, made his way to Calicut, and returned with a hugely profitable cargo of spices.

● Bartolomeu Dias - (1488) Portuguese explorer who reached the Cape of Good Hope first but was forced to return home. He proved that it was possible to sail to the Indian Ocean from Europe.

● Cristoforo Colombo (Christopher Columbus) hoped to reach Asia by sailing west. His plan was rejected by the Portuguese king, but was sponsored by Spain. In 1492, He led three ships to the Caribbean and believed he was near Japan. His discoveries prompted other mariners to follow him to explore America. Colombus’ main goals were to find new trade routes and goods along with spreading his faith to other societies.

Part 5: The Origins of Global Interdependence, 1500 - 1800

Chapter 22: Transoceanic Encounters and Global Connections

● Vasco da Gama - A Portuguese explorer who departed Lisbon in 1497. He followed in the footsteps of Bartolomeu Dias and sailed around the Cape of Good Hope toward India, where he set up a trading post at Calicut. This accomplishment by the year 1500 basically began the Indian Ocean spice trade that lasted for many centuries.

● Portugal - European country that was one of the first (or was the first) to try to directly trade with India and the other east Asian countries via sea trade. Their people were known for their seafaring skills and technologies.

● Prince Henry - A prince of Portugal who sponsored a series of voyages down the west African coast quickening the pace of European exploration.

● Lateen sails - Triangular sails that allowed mariners to utilize side and back winds; they allowed sailors to reach their destination and then return safely. Efficient and safe overseas travel led to an increased amount of trade and exploration.

● Compass - A Chinese (Tang or Song) invention that allowed sailors to confidently sail far from the coast to explore; sailors could determine their bearing/direction in the Mediterranean, Atlantic waters.

● Astrolabe - A cross-shaped tool that was used for determining latitude. It was another invention that allowed sailors to travel away from the coast and still be able to return without getting lost.

● Volta do mar - This concept involved following trade winds to reach a destination, instead of sailing in a straight line directly against opposing winds. Allowed for more reliable, faster, and safer travel throughout the world.

● Cristoforo Colombo - (Christopher Columbus) hoped to reach Asia by sailing west. His plan was rejected by the Portuguese king, but was sponsored by Spain. In 1492, He led three ships to the Caribbean and believed he was near Japan. His discoveries prompted other mariners to follow him to explore America. Colombus’ main goals were to find new trade routes and goods along while spreading his faith to other societies.

● Taino - The native Americans that Columbus mistook for Indians.

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● Ferdinand Magellan - a Portuguese navigator who decided to pursue Columbus’s goal of establishing a western route to Asian waters. Magellan and his crew found a strait on the coast of South America which lead to Pacific waters. Despite having faced foul conditions, Magellan and his crew completed the first circumnavigation of the world.

● Circumnavigation - Magellan’s crew accomplished this by sailing all the way around the world. Out of the five ships that started the voyage, only one returned.

● James Cook - A Pacific explorer who led three expeditions to the Pacific discovering and exploring many islands of the Pacific. He died in a fight with the people of Hawaii.

● Seven Years’ War - English and Prussia vs. the Dutch, France, and Spain. Spurred by commercial rivalries/competition of overseas control, combined with political differences amongst European countries.

● Afonso d’Alboquerque - The commander of the Portuguese naval forces who sought to control Indian ocean trade by forcing merchant ships to purchase safe-conduct passes. However, the Portuguese navy did not have enough vessels to actual gain hegemony over the Indian Ocean basin.

● Goa - An important port on the east coast of India; Alfonso d’Alboquerque seized this port in 1510 (as well as other ports such as Hormuz, Melaka) so that he could control the Indian Ocean trade; Portugese capital until India reclaimed it later on.

● VOC - The United East India Company, the Dutch counterpart of the English East India Trading Company. It was an especially powerful joint-stock company that provided much economic stability to its investors, and which was established in 1602.

● Philippines - Conquered by the Spanish. The Spaniards’ effort was paid off when they later became avid Christians.

● Manila - A Spanish multicultural port city established in the Philippines. It was an entrepôt for trade, particularly in Chinese silk.

● Siberia - The place people are sent when their governments don’t like them. <~LOL The place in northcross-cultural eastern part of modern Russia/Eurasia.. Despite the frozen lands and dense forests, many hunters still go there to hunt fur (:c).

● Columbian Exchange - The mutual exchange of food crops, animals, and diseases across the Atlantic Ocean and between the Americas and Europe. *Major example of interaction/trade!* Helped to increase populations and eventually spur economic growth once again after the recovery from the Black Death.

● Population Growth - An effect of the Columbian exchange, due to the introduction of new, nutritious crops to both sides of the Atlantic and the resulting variation in diet.

● Migration - An effect of the Columbian exchange, which involved the spread of human populations through transoceanic migrations, whether voluntary or forced. This includes Europeans traveling to the Americas, the Pacific islands, Australia, and south Africa. Africans and Asians also migrated to various destinations.

Chapter 23: The Transformation of Europe ● 95 Theses - a document written by Martin Luther denouncing the sale of indulgences in

the Roman Catholic church. As a result, his views were determined to be erroneous and Luther was excommunicated from the Roman church.

● Martin Luther - (1483-1546) a German monk who denounced the Roman Catholic sale of indulgences, a practice which he believed displayed the moral corruption, greed, and hypocrisy of the clergy. Proclaimed the Bible as the only source of true religious authority. His challenge to the church, and his belief that his faith was the true faith kick-started the Protestant Reformation.

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● John Calvin - French lawyer (1500s) who organized a Protestant community in Geneva in Switzerland, promoted a strict code of morality and discipline, and published Institutes of the Christian Religion, which codified Protestant teachings. Geneva became an active missionary community. Introduced concept of predestination.

● Council of Trent - 1550s, assembly of bishops, cardinals, and high church officials that met to define Catholic theology based on Thomas Aquinas’s scholastic philosophy. The assembly set stricter standards of morality for church officials and established schools/seminaries to train priests. A major act of the Catholic Reformation in response to growing popularity for the Protestant Reformation.

● Catholic Reformation - In response to the Protestant Reformation, sought to define points of the doctrine to clarify differences between Roman and Protestant churches to persuade Protestants to return to the Roman church and deepen the sense of spirituality and religious commitment.

● St. Ignatius Loyola - A Basque nobleman (after turning from military to religion) who sought to extend the boundaries of the reformed Catholic church by founding the society of Jesus (the Jesuits).

● Jesuits - The name given to members of the Society of Jesus; they completed a rigorous and advanced education, making them extraordinarily effective missionaries for the reformed Catholic faith. They also served as counselors to kings and rulers, using their influence to promote policies that benefited Roman Church.

● Witch hunting - Represented the religious tensions of the time. A convenient explanation for any unpleasant turn of events. Church courts tried large numbers of witches, but usually had non-lethal punishments. Secular courts condemned and executed the majority of witches.

● Thirty Years’ War - The conflict between Protestantism and Catholicism culminated in these religious wars in a massive continental conflict after the Holy Roman Emperor attempted to force his Bohemian subjects to return to the Roman Catholic church. It was resolved by the Peace of Westphalia.

● Charles V - Head of the Holy Roman Empire, ruling each land according to local customs. He used his army for putting down rebellions, and faced constant opposition from neighboring French kings who allied with Muslim Ottoman Turks and German Lutherans against him. Attempted to reunite the HRE, but was not able to extend his authority throughout Europe or even establish a lasting imperial legacy.

● Holy Roman Empire - An empire stretching from Germany to northern Italy that had the potential to become the preeminent political authority in the sixteenth century, but was pressured by princes and and foreign threats.

● Habsburgs - A family with extensive land holdings in Austria, which were passed to Charles V, that dominated the Holy Roman Empire during the 16th century.

● Spanish Inquisition - A powerful royal institution founded by King Ferdinand and Queen Isabel, it rooted out heresy and opposition to the Catholic church in Spain and deterred nobles from adopting Protestantism in Spain. A prominent example of monarchs using the religious tensions of the time for their own benefit.

● English Civil War - A civil war, fueled by disagreement between Puritan members of Parliament and King Charles I over some aspects of the Anglican church (like how it had some Roman Catholic practices that Puritans tried to extinguish earlier), that resulted in Oliver Cromwell rising to power in place of the beheaded king.

● Glorious Revolution - Cromwell’s Puritan regime became a dictatorship, so Parliament soon re-instituted the previous monarchy. This brought back tension between the king and parliament, leading to the deposition of King James II and a more cooperative monarchy under Queen Mary and King William of Orange. The result of this revolution

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was that the kings were required to rule in cooperation with parliament, giving more political say to nobles and merchants.

● Louis XIV - The Sun King of France, he declared that he was backed up by divine right, built a palace at Versailles to weaken nobles, and maintained an absolute monarchy with the help of Cardinal Richelieu, who rooted out possible opposition and crushed it.

● Versailles - A royal hunting lodge built by Louis XIV for the purpose of maintaining control over the nobles; they were provided with luxuries and entertainment in return for Louis XIV’s absolute power. The method he used to ensure his absolutism and minimal competition with or challenges by the nobles.

● Peter I - A Romanov tsar, Peter the Great, who worked to transform Russia based on western Europe; he ordered better training, arms and pay for soldiers, made aristocrats study, began constructing a navy, and reformed tax collection. An absolute monarch.

● Catherine II - Attempted social reform by improving serfs’ working conditions. But she halted those attempts when rebellions arose, and instead made sure that Russia remained a tightly centralized state.

● Peace of Westphalia - series of peace treaties that ended the Thirty Years’ War and laid the foundation for a system of competing sovereign states. Did not end conflict, as France soon initiated the 7 Years’ War against Spain. It dictated that all countries would regard each other as sovereign equals.

● Balance of Power - When one state began to rise in power or wealth, other states would form coalitions against it to prevent domination by one over all the others.

● Capitalism - Individuals pursuing accumulation of wealth. Involves ideas of free market, private parties, determined by supply and demand, profit.

● Joint-stock companies - Shareholders bought stock, dividing risk and loss among multiple individuals and funding ventures. The English East Indian Company and the Dutch Vereenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie (VOC) were two prominent examples. The government supported them and ensured their security to encourage colonialism.

● Putting out - The capitalist practice of shifting raw materials to rural areas to be processed into manufactured goods. The cost was cheap, put money into the countryside, and resulted in much profit. Exemplifies the correlation between economic efficiency and resulting profits.

● Russian serfdom - With the advent of capitalism, the extent of Russian serfdom increased until they were nearly slaves. They made capitalism possible in eastern Europe because of the cheap labor and raw materials they provided.

● Profit - An economy motivated solely by profit worried moralists and unnerved guilds. Deep social strains manifested in violence (witch hunts, bandits, muggers).

● Copernicus - Developed a new model of the universe with the sun at the center, contradicting the previous Ptolemaic view of the universe supported by the church. Woke up many astronomers to leave old beliefs and seek out new research.

● Adam Smith - Scottish philosopher who held that society would prosper when individuals pursued their own economic interests; represents influence of capitalism; wrote the book An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations; championed free, unregulated markets & capitalist enterprise as the principal ingredients of prosperity.

● Galileo Galilei - Found blemishes on the sun and moon, discovered moons of Jupiter, and determined new facts about falling bodies through rational analysis. Faced scorn from scientists who subscribed to Aristotelian beliefs. also a really good band.

● Isaac Newton - Used accurate observation and mathematical reasoning to synthesize astronomy and mechanics. Developed theories on gravity, ebb/flow of tides, and planetary orbits. His work inspired other scientists to construct fresh approaches for

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new discoveries. The telescope was a important tool that helped him see sunspots, the moons of Jupiter, and mountains of the moon.

● William Harvey - English physician who discovered blood circulation and studied human anatomy and reproduction. Used science to try to explain the innate inferiority of women.

● Emilie du Chatelet - Mistress of Voltaire who had an exceptional education as a child. As a physicist and mathematician, she translated Newton’s Principia Mathematica into French and wrote extensively on calculus/geometry. Was a part of the women who also had significant contributions to the scientific enlightenment.

● Enlightenment - an intellectual and cultural transformation that took place in western Europe; astronomers & physicists rejected classical Greek & Roman authorities and instead, based their understanding of the natural world through direct observation & mathematical reasoning. Extended to political science and philosophy, in using rational analysis to evaluate society.

● Voltaire - French philosopher who championed individual freedom and attacked institutions that sponsored intolerant and oppressive policies; he specifically targeted the French monarchy and the Roman Catholic church.

● John Locke - (1632-1704) an influential political theorist, examined the nature of political justice; also curious about how humans acquired knowledge; argued that people are born as a blank slate and that experiences shape who a person is.

● Deism - The humanist belief that there is a god, but one unidentified with any existing organized religion.

Chapter 24: New Worlds: The Americas and the Oceans

● Dona Mariña - An Aztec woman who allied with Hernan Cortes and the Spanish conquistadors. She served as a translator and provided critical information that aided the European conquest of the Aztec Empire. Known as La Malinche, or the traitor, by indigenous peoples, for helping the Spanish.

● Taino - A native people that the Spanish encountered upon colonizing the Caribbean, quickly exploited, and defeated with smallpox. Their society was both agricultural and trade-based, particularly of glass, beads, and metal tools.

● Encomienda - a forced labor draft imposed on the Taino and Aztecs by the Spanish. They initially promised health and security in exchange for labor, but later exploited the free work force. The Spanish regarded themselves as “encomenderos”, or the settlers. Revolts later turned the mandatory encomienda into a means of repaying debt.

● Smallpox - Kills pretty much all the native Americans it comes into contact with, gives invading Europeans an upper edge.

● Hernan Cortes - Spanish conquistador who overthrew Motecuzoma II to conquer the Aztec society of Mexico. Used epidemic disease, superior weapons/horses, and native allies like Doña Marina to overpower the Aztecs.

● Conquistadores - Spanish conquerors who overtook regions of Mexico, Central America, and South America for economic gain.

● Francisco Pizarro - A Spanish conquistador who took advantage of smallpox and local political divisions to topple the Inca emperor Atahualpa, seize control, and loot the Peruvian empire.

● Brazil - The Portugese established control in Brazil, as per the Treaty of Tordesillas. The region was extremely profitable for its sugar mills.

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● Mestizo - refers to the “mixed” society established by the Spanish and Portugese colonists. Since they were dominantly male, they inevitably mingled and intermarried with the natives, creating an ethnically blended society. Reflects the cross-cultural interactions due to the large amounts of colonization.

● Peninsulares - Colonists from Europe; were at the top of the social hierarchy in the Americas

● Creoles - second generation Europeans who were born in the Americas. They are right below the Peninsulares but still pretty high class.

● Potosi - A collection of silver mines that the Spanish exploited heavily, along with the native peoples.

● Mita - Spanish forces drafted native laborers into the Potosi mines using this system. Their working conditions were extremely harsh, and they received minimal payment.

● Silver - silver extracted from American mines provided revenue for the Spanish government and returned large sums of individual profit. Europeans often traded slver for Asian luxury goods, such as silk, spices, and porcelain.

● Quinto - the one-fifth of the silver that Spain kept for itself; helped Spanish kings finance a powerful army and bureaucracy

● Hacienda - an estate that produced food for its own use as well as for sale to local markets; products were mostly of European origin such as wheat and grapes; the encomienda system was implemented in these estates.

● de Ayala - a native of Peru who wrote a 1200 page letter to King Philip III of Spain asking for protection for native people against the greedy colonists; his letter ended up in Denmark for some reason.

● Fur Trade - the most lucrative venture for Europeans in North America and Canada. Colonists traded Native American beaver pelts for blankets, firearms, and iron pots; but the high demand led to severe decline in wildlife populations as well as the Beaver Wars.

● Engenho - The Brazilian sugar plantation version of an encomienda, except with imported African slaves and business-knowledgeable Portuguese managers. Required specialized skill and was economically complex. Basis of Portuguese society in Brazil since sugar was the primary cash crop of the region.

● Tobacco - A cash crop of the Americas, specifically the English colonies of Virginia and Carolina. Slaves brought over the ocean from Africa worked on plantations that grew this crop for a large profit. Europeans learned of it through native Americans, became addicted, and used it for pleasure and “health benefits.”

● Virgin of Guadalupe - the Mexican version of the Virgin Mary. According to legend, the peasant Juan Diego saw the Virgin Mary at a hill, which became a sacred pilgrimage site. Ever since, the Virgin of Guadalupe became an icon of Mexican Catholicism. Diffusion of cultures (American + European).

● Australia - Because its indigenous population was still a hunter-gatherer society, Australia did not attract much attention for a while. But after English explorer James Cook’s expedition, the British colonized Australia to store their criminals.

● Guam - one of the few Pacific islands to draw European interest. Colonized by Spain, who initially conducted peaceful trade with the native Chamorros, but later employed violence and disease to conquer the people and impose Catholicism.

● Hawai’i - James Cook initiated contact with Hawaii, where he peacefully traded iron weapons for livestock/provisions at first. However, during his second encounter, the angered natives killed Cook over trading disputes.

Chapter 25: Africa and the Atlantic World

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● Sunni Ali - overthrew the Mali Empire and united local states to form Songhay Empire.● Kingdom of Kongo - centralized empire in southwestern Africa. Developed diplomatic

ties with Portuguese, who promised military support/weaponry in exchange for King Alfonso’s adoption of Christianity and products like copper, ivory, and slaves. Eventually, the Portuguese overtook Kongo and exploited it for slave trade.

● Manioc - An American grain that grew very well in African soil and led to substantial population growth. It became like a substitute for flour.

● Maroons - slaves who ran away from their masters; gathered in mountainous, forested, or swampy regions and built their own self-governing communities; raided nearby plantations to gather arms, tools, provisions, and even slaves to support their community

● Antonian movement - Dona Beatriz, an aristocratic woman, declared that St. Anthony was using her to spread his message. Preached that Jesus Christ was a black man, that heaven was for Africans, and that Africa was the holy land. Her movement seriously caused European missionaries trouble. Reflects the syncretism in Africa.

● Middle passage - The trans-Atlantic journey during which slaves were transported below the decks of incredibly cramped ships. They were treated cruelly and horribly; mortality rates sometimes exceeded 50% on some of the first trips, but then fell to around 5% as conditions improved.

● Plantation societies - society of slaves who worked on plantations to produce cash crops like tobacco/cotton/indigo and provide food for local communities. The working conditions differed from plantation to plantation.

● Creole languages - African slaves imported to foreign locations spoke these types of mixtures of African and European languages.

● Olaudah Equiano - A freed slave that wrote many pieces condemning the practice, whose works heavily influenced the antislavery movement in Britain.

● Call-and-response - An aspect of African music that emerged in black slave communities in North America and continues to influence music today.

● Queen Nzinga of Ndongo - Led spirited resistance against the Portuguese forces and their slave trade; nearly fully assumed the role of a man, but Portuguese settlers defeated her and conquered Angola.

● Songhay - an empire governed with provincial leaders, an army, and imperial navy. Traded extensively with Arabs and adopted Islamic religion and schools.

Chapter 26: Tradition and Change in East Asia● Manchus - Rulers of the Qing dynasty who actively promoted a return to traditional

Chinese culture, just like the Ming dynasty. Successfully conquered China because of the high corruption and civil displeasure with Ming rulers.

● Forbidden City - The luxurious residence of the emperor in Beijing. Emperors often enjoyed entertainment and harems here, instead of attending to governmental responsibilities.

● Qing Kangxi - A Qing emperor who was highly educated in and an avid proponent of Confucian study. He conquered Taiwan and some of central Asia and evacuated the southern coastal regions of China in 1661 in an attempt to end maritime activity. He was a Confucian scholar and a voracious reader who sought to apply Confucian teachings to his policies (he organized flood control and irrigation projects)

● “Son of Heaven” - One designated by divine powers to maintain order on Earth. His written name was taboo throughout the kingdom and those who met him had to perform

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the kowtow or face severe punishment. This way, Ming and Qing emperors were able to legitimize their rule and supreme authority.

● Qing Qianlong - The grandson of Kangxi who projected Chinese influence onto nearby states and was a sophisticated and learned man. During his reign, the state was wealthy and well-organized, though he gradually paid less attention to imperial affairs.

● Scholar-bureaucrat - A class above the gentry, they were highly educated officials who played an integral role in government.

● Manila galleons - Spanish ships that carried goods from the Spanish base in the Philippines 1up to Asia. Reflects large extent of trade.

● Matteo Ricci - A Roman Catholic missionary who brought mechanical clocks to the capital in vain hopes of wooing Emperor Wanli into converting to Christianity. Spread the achievements of Europe and China between each other through his missions.

● Francis Xavier - A Jesuit who opened a missionary in Japan and helped jumpstart the early success of Christianity there.

● Bakufu - “Tent government,” established in 1600, ruled by Tokugawa Ieyasu. Its primary concern was maintaining stability and security, and to do so it sharply closed off foreign relations in 1630; the way gov’t was run under a shogun

● Shogun - A Japanese military governor who received political rights and large estates in exchange for military service, acting like a temporary political authority for the emperor, who was in reality a figurehead. A major political figure in Tokugawa Japan.

● Daimyo - Powerful territorial lords who exerted absolute control over their domains, which functioned like states. They learned about gunpowder weapons and used them in conflicts. The shoguns enforced “alternate attendance” to keep control over them.

● Shinto - An indigenous Japanese religion promoted by scholars of “native learning” during the eighteenth century alongside folk traditions, much like the Ming advocated a return to traditional Chinese culture before the Yuan.

● Samurai - Ranked alongside the shoguns and daimyo as the most privileged class of Japanese society during the Tokugawa era, according to Confucian precepts. Were later encouraged to become scholars because the Bakufu feared development of independent armies that would challenge their rule.

Chapter 27: The Islamic Empires● Shah Jahan - 1600-1660 Fifth Mughal Emperor who built the Taj Mahal for his wife -

Mumtaz Mahal. His reign is referred to as the Golden Age of the Mughals as it experienced a decent amount of peace and a large increase in architecture and the arts. He also is accredited with building the Red Fort, the Peacock Throne, and the Pearl Mosque.

● Taj Mahal - Means “crown of palaces.” Built by Shah Jahan as a tomb for his wife Mumtaz Mahal. Supposed to be a representation of Allah’s rising of the dead on judgement day. Highlights the wealth and the Islamic foundations of the Mughal Empire at this time.

● Ottoman - An Islamic empire which was distinguished by its multi-ethnicity that was founded by Osman Bey and continued in dynastic succession from 1289 to 1923. Its location on the borders of the Byzantine Empire allowed them to wage holy war.

● Safavid - A Shiite, Islamic Empire occupying most of present day Iran that used propaganda and ancestral relations to portray their importance. Its leader, Ismail, utilized twelver Shiism and manipulated propaganda to win support.

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● Mughal - Being the Persian term for “Mongol,” this was the Islamic dynasty that ruled almost the entire Indian subcontinent from the sixteenth to the eighteenth century, and that was famous for one of its emperors, Shah Jahan, constructing a great, white monument known as the Taj Mahal.

● Akbar - One of the Mughal emperors who is considered the real architect of the Mughal empire; he consolidated centralized monarchical power, but also encouraged the elaboration of a syncretic religion that focused attention on the various religions of India and placed emphasis on the emperor.

● Süleyman the Magnificent - The greatest sultan of the Ottoman Empire who pushed for imperial expansion in both southwest Asia and Europe. Under Suleiman, the Ottomans became a major naval power and kept the rival Habsburg empire on the defensive throughout his reign.

● Osman Bey - The founder of the Ottoman dynasty who migrated to Anatolia in the thirteenth century. His dynasty lasted until 1923. He made use of the ghazi to effectively conquer and consolidate his empire.

● Selim the Grim - A sultan of the Ottoman dynasty who ruled Egypt and Syria. Reigned before Suleyman.

● Mehmed II - An Ottoman ruler who sacked Constantinople in 1453, working energetically to stimulate its role as a diverse and prosperous commercial center. He considered himself the ruler of Europe and Asia.

● Shah Ismail - The founder of the Safavid Empire who promoted Twelver Shiism and was badly defeated at the Battle of Chaldiran. Also considered a hidden imam.

● Ghazi - Muslim religious warriors; what Osman and his followers sought to become● Janissaries - The Christian boys (Balkans) from the devshirme that were chosen as

slaves of the Sultan for the military and forced to convert to Islam. The Janissaries were a formidable force that greatly aided the expansion of the Ottoman Empire.

● Istanbul - The new name for the city of Constantinople under the Ottoman Empire. The city grew to be a prosperous commercial center.

● Mohacs - (battle of) refers to the Ottoman battle where the Ottomans killed the king of Hungary (while led by Suleiman)

● Twelver Shiism - A form of Shiism that held that there were 12 infallible imams after Muhammad (starting with Ali); and that the twelfth would one day return to take power. This religion was primarily spread by Shah Ismail in the Safavid empire.

● Aurangzeb - An emperor of the Mughal empire under whom the empire reached its greatest extent. Aurangzeb struggled hard to conquer all of India, but he faced constant rebellion and religious tension. Unlike Akbar, Aurangzeb was a devout Muslim and he also rejected religious tolerance, reinstating the jizya head taxes.

● Isfahan – capital and commercial center of the Safavid empire promoted by Shah Abbas. Privileges were given to foreign merchants, Christian monasteries were established.

● Goa – Christian mission founded by the Portuguese in India; reflects the desire of Europeans to spread Christianity and enforce religious conversions throughout the globe

● Jizya – head tax paid by non-Muslim communities in Muslim empires in exchange for being able to freely practice their religion and handle their own affairs

● Wahhabi – religious movement in Saudi Arabia promoting the purification of Islam● Sunni – branch of Islam that believed that any dedicated Muslim could become Caliph● Shiite – branch of Islam that believed that Ali and his descendants were the rightful

caliphs

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● Piri Reis – Ottoman cartographer and admiral who produced large-scale maps in Book of Seafaring, which included European knowledge, demonstrated some intellectual development despite Islamic cultural conservatism

● Printing Press – brought from Europe, initially experienced a backlash from religious conservatives who preferred the beauty of handwritten books; exemplifies the fear that Islamic conservatives had of the introduction of new technologies, since they worried the traditional stability of the empires would decline

Part 6: An Age of Revolution, Industry, and Empire, 1750 - 1914

Chapter 28: Revolutions and National States in the Atlantic World

● Declaration of Independence - a unanimous document that the United States Congress developed on July 4th, 1776, which expressed the ideas of John Locke and the Enlightenment, represented the idealism of the American rebels, and also influenced other revolutions.

● Estates General - an assembly that represented the entire French population through groups known as estates. In the ancient regime, it consisted of three estates -- Roman Catholic clergy, nobles, and the rest of the population (serfs, peasants, urban residents); primary form of political rule before the French Revolution

● National Assembly - group formed by the 3rd estate’s seceding from the Estates General, created new constitution, and advocated “liberty, equality, and fraternity”

● Guillotine - a French invention that was supposedly a humane way to execute its victims by quickly severing their heads, replaced hanging and beheading; frequently used by the Jacobins (the party of Robespierre) and the Convention, to root out enemies

● “Cult of Reason”: the Jacobins’ secular alternative to Christianity; wished to eliminate all Christian influence; created a new calendar and glorified the working class

● Napoleon: an ambitious French military leader who overthrew the Directory and set up a new government, the Consulate. He declared himself emperor in 1802, establishing an empire which stretched from Spain to Poland. Despite his approval of Enlightenment ideals of equality, he was no advocate of intellectual freedom or representative government. Yet, he brought political stability to the previously chaotic France.

● Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen: proclaimed the equality of all men, that sovereignty resided in all people, and asserted individual rights to liberty, property, and security; created by the National Assembly and reflected influence of American revolutionary ideas

● Louis XVI: (1774-1793) a French king who wanted to increased taxes on the French nobility, which had long been exempt from many levies. This sparked outrage amongst the upper estates, and ultimately led to the creation of the National Assembly and the

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French revolution. He was later executed when the Convention found him and his wife guilty of treason. (One of the causes of the French revolution)

● Civil Code of Napoleon: revised body of law; helped stabilize French society; established a merit-based society in which individuals qualified for their talents rather than their birth or social standing; affirmed political and legal equality for all adult men

● Olympe de Gouges: revolutionary; strong advocate of women’s rights; wanted to raise the standing of women in French society - more education, equal rights in family property; published a Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen (same rights for women that men were granted in August 1789); her declaration got little support, though; executed by the Jaboins in 1793 for her persistent crusade for women’s rights; based on Enlightenment ideals for freedom and equality

● Simon Bolivar- Bolivia: Creole elite who led the movement for independence in South America; took up arms against Spanish rule in 1811; crushed the Spanish army in Colombia; goal was to join all former Spanish colonies into a big confederation (like the US); died of TB while on his way to self-imposed exile in Europe

● “Gens de couleur”: “people of color;” mulattoes or blacks; were artisans, domestic servants, or overseers; some owned small plots of land and slaves; made up part of the population in Saint-Domingue; involved in many slave revolts

● Toussaint Louverture - a former slave and effective military leader who led the Haitian revolution. He stopped short of declaring independence because he did not want to provoke Napoleon into attacking the island, but ultimately Louverture was sent to jail and died. ; largely responsible for the success of the Haitian slave revolts

● Saint-Domingue : French colony that occupied Haiti; one of the richest colonies in the Caribbean; produced sugar, coffee, and cotton, which accounted for almost one third of France’s foreign trade

● Caudillos : Local charismatic strongmen allied with the creole elites and were granted military authority by the newly independent states of Latin America.

● Congress of Vienna: The gathering of European diplomats in Vienna and Austria that defeated Napoleon previously and tried to restore the original political and social order in parts of Western Europe.

● Zionism: a movement which sought to establish a home for the Jewish people in Palestine; organized by Theodor Herzl; provoked resentful nationalism among Palestinian Arabs displaced by the Jewish settlers

● Edmund Burke: English political philosopher; condemned radical or revolutionary change → thought it led to anarchy; thought society was a compact between people’s ancestors, the present generation, and their descendants

● JS (John Stuart) Mill: English political philosopher, economist, and social reformer; promoted the freedom of individuals to pursue economic and intellectual interests; wanted to tax the wealthy to prevent them from threatening individual liberties; he advocated universal suffrage as the most effective way to advance individual freedom

● Liberalism : welcomed change and progression in the best interests of society; championed Enlightenment values of freedom and equality → thought it led to higher standards of morality and increased prosperity; usually favored republican forms of government

● Mary Wollstonecraft: wrote A Vindication of the Rights of Woman; argued that women had all the rights that Locke had granted to men; giving an education to women would allow women to contribute to society

● Giuseppe Mazzini: formed a group called Young Italy that promoted independence from Austrian and Spanish rule and called for the establishment of an Italian state;

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inspired the development of nationalist movements in Ireland, Switzerland, and Hungary

● Cavour & Garibaldi - Italian political leaders whose nationalistic efforts ultimately unified Italy by expelling previous Austrian rule. Cavour combined forces with nationalist advocates of independence in northern Italy, while Garibaldi later led a unification movement in the south.

● Ancien Regime - the “old order” or society which existed before the French Revolution. It consisted of three estates or political classes: the Roman Catholic clergy, nobles, and the rest of the population (serfs, peasants, urban residents).

● Nationalism - a political ideology; involves a strong identification of a group of individuals, where people share common languages, customs, cultural traditions, values, religious beliefs, and/or historical experiences, creating a sense of national unity

● Otto von Bismarck: believed that war solved problems better than an organized, structured government (with elections and speeches for ex. …); primpe minister of Prussia; reformed and expanded the Prussian army; between 1864-1870, he intentionally provoked 3 wars with Denmark, Austria, and France; Prussian army won all three; increased German pride; led to the unification of Germany; prime minister of Prussia who used war and technology to unify Germany

Chapter 29: The Making of Industrial Society● Marx - A German socialist (1818-1883) who believed that the proletariat had to force a

rebellion against the bourgeoisie in order to free themselves from oppression. In the Manifesto of the Communist Party, along with Engels, he aligned his ideas with communism.

● Socialists - A prominent group of thinkers that denounced the current system of industrial capitalism that created economic and social inequality and encouraged the exploitation of the working class. Encouraged communities held together by work according to personal temperament.

● Deforestation - Before coal, wood was used as the main fuel for iron producing, home heating, and cooking, leading to deforestation, pollution, and shortages of wood (esp. in Britain).

● Coal - Used in Great Britain as substitute to wood due to the fortuitous position of the deposits in Britain’s economic center. Fed into industrialization and new technology.

● Cotton - Cotton cloth was better in all aspects compared to wool, which created a demand for calicoes despite recent legislation prohibiting the sale. New industrial breakthroughs that sped up the weaving and spinning of cotton increased production.

● Steam engine - An engine powered by steam pushing on a piston that supplied the same amount of power as a group of people combined. The steam engine was prevalent in the textile industry, where greater productivity meant lower consumer prices.

● Factory system - replaced the putting-out system; divided labor into multiple tasks where each worker only performed one task repeatedly and monotonously

● Luddites (1800)- A group which protested the negative social effects of factories and covertly destroyed machines, and won popular support because they didn’t harm people. Eventually suppressed by the British government. Represents the growing discontent within the working class with the negative effects of industrialization.

● Owner class - The class that owned businesses and factories and profited handsomely by exploiting the working class.

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● Wage earners - middle/working class, whose livelihoods depended solely on their wages received by the owner class in factories; an effect of industrialization

● Bismarck (1800-1900) - their government sponsored rapid industrialization in Germany; encouraged the development of heavy industry to strengthen military capacity as well as the formation of huge businesses. Additionally, he improved workers’ conditions by establishing social security and medical insurance.

● Eli Whitney - Invented the cotton gin, created interchangeable parts used for firearms.● Henry Ford - Created the assembly line, in which laborers focused on one section of a

conveyor belt. Greatly increased the efficiency of automobile production, reducing costs and allowing many people to buy cars.

● Corporations - most common form of business organization in industrial societies; controlled most businesses requiring large investments in land, labor, or machinery. Because corporations were owned by a group of individuals who shared stocks, the profits were split and risks were reduced.

● Monopolies - A situation in which one party, a business or a state, controls completely and faces no competition within a certain industry, that allows that party to control prices entirely.

● Trusts/cartels - Unions of companies all working together to establish a monopoly and mutual benefits for the group.

● Vertical/horizontal organization (monopolies)○ Vertical: a company would control all of the processes in one industry○ Horizontal: a group of companies (or company) would control a step in the

process for an industry● Population growth - With industrialization, lower food prices, higher standards of

living, and medical advancements, populations exploded in Europe and North America, the latter due to European immigrants escaping crowded cities. Mortality rates fell faster than fertility rates.

● Urbanization - An increasing number of people from rural areas moved to cities to work in factories, resulting in the expansion and development of numerous large cities. At first, sanitation, shoddy tenements and overcrowding presented issues; however, governments later addressed them.

● Pollution - The implementation of industrialization resulted in much air and water pollution from factory processes, leading to much disease.

● Migration - Increasing amounts of people moved from rural areas to the city to work in factories or people moved from Europe to the Americas for work.

● Captains of industry - Those in control of corporations and industries, who profited greatly from industrialization and were very wealthy, powerful, and influential.

● Working class - The class that labored in factories and suffered from safety issues, low wages, and squalid conditions, and eventually began lobbying for better conditions and wages. Working class women typically served as domestic servants in middle-class households, though some still worked in factories (typically textile industry).

● Middle class - An expanding class of those with medium prestige and education such as small factory owners, skilled employers, and accountants, that increasingly became wealthier. Middle-class women were expected to be dependent on their husbands and to do their duty as good wives and mothers.

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● Utopians - Socialists (Robert Owen, Charles Fourier) that believed in establishing ideal model communities held together by love and not coercion.

● Communist manifesto – A document written by Marx and Engels where they aligned themselves with the communist . Argued that history was just the struggle between classes. Idea of a revolution, where the workers could have control over the economy, and everyone would be equal.

● Trade unions - Unions that lobbied for improved conditions and wages for workers. Were at first perceived by employers and governments as trying to stifle trade.

Chapter 30: The Americas in the Age of Independence

● Manifest Destiny - The idea that the United States was destined, even divinely ordained, to expand from Atlantic seaboard to the Pacific and beyond. This was often used to justify U.S. annexations and encroachment on indigenous territory.

● Indian Removal Act (1830) - The United States government wanted to move all Native Americans west of the Mississippi River into “Indian Territory” (Oklahoma). Among those affected were the Cherokees who suffered an 800 mile migration known as the Trail of Tears.

● Mexican - American War (1846-1848) – US forces began the war by annexing Texas and ended the war with the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, which gave the US half of Mexico’s territory in exchange for $15 million. Generated lots of Mexican nationalism and disdain for the US.

● Missouri Compromise (1820) –was a series of political compacts attended to maintain a balance between free states and slave states as the government admitted new states to the United States.

● Civil War – 11 southern states seceded because of ideological differences in economic systems and slavery. Northern states won and ended slavery under Lincoln’s Emancipation Proclamation and introduction of the 13th Amendment. Was followed by a reformation in the south that crumbled after northern armies finished occupation.

● Canadian Dominion – US’s westward expansion pushed Canada toward political autonomy. Was formed by the British North America Act of 1867, which joined several provinces into the Dominion of Canada. Was a bloodless union.

● War of 1812 – Stimulated a sense of unity despite internal conflicts between the French and British. US declared war against Britain and tried to enter Canada, but was repelled; promoted Canadian nationalism and covered up internal differences.

● Simon Bolivar – He worked toward the establishment of a confederation of Latin American states, which never came to be.

● Creole Elites – a continuing trend in Latin American society from protoindustrial times; established republics with written constitutions. They responded enthusiastically to Enlightenment values but could not effectively put them into practice due to lack of experience; dominated newly independent states and prevented mass participation in public affairs

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● Juan Manuel de Rosas – caudillo who ruled Argentina (1829-1852); violently quelled rebellions, restored order, ruled as a despot through his army, and attained great popularity through personality.

● Caudillos – regional military leaders who seized power in Latin America, appealing to the discontent of the masses and populist sentiments.

● La Reforma – a liberal reform movement led by President Benito Juarez in the 1850s aimed to limit the military and Roman Catholic church’s social power; aimed to create a rural middle class, principles set in the Constitution of 1857. Land reform was ineffective and much land still ended up in the hands of a rich few.

● Porfirio Diaz – (1830-1915) Dictator who ruled during the Mexican revolution and attempted to implement reform to make Mexico more industrialized and modern. Was unpopular as only the oligarchy benefited.

● Mexican Revolution (1910-1920) – Middle- and lower-class Mexicans joined in guerrilla warfare to attempt to remove system of landed estates; followed Zapata and Villa. Ended after Zapata was killed by gov’t forces in 1919. The Mexican Constitution of 1917 implemented only a little reform.

● Emiliano Zapata – (1879-1919) leader in the Mexican revolution, embodied ideals of indigenous Mexican masses; confiscated hacienda lands, redistributed lands to peasants

● Pancho Villa – (1880-1920) fellow agrarian rebel with Zapata; attacked and killed US citizens in retaliation for US support of Mexican government officials

● Migration – Canada and the US absorbed many European migrants who became large components of either country’s labor force

● Railroads – Drastically changed the organization of people and time zones, and allowed for greater prosperity, progress, and efficiency of transportation.

● National Policy – Canadian program of economic development to attract migrants/build national transportation systems; the transcontinental Canadian Pacific Railroad was built with British investment, completed in 1885. (led to some conflicts with indigenous peoples and trappers and caused environmental pollution.) It allowed for Canada to have only limited dependence on the British for their economy.

● Investments – British invested heavily in both US and Canada; US investment in Canada grew in nineteenth century though still dwarfed by Britain’s. British investment in Latin America led to their strong control of those economies.

● Dawes Severalty Act – (1887) US government divided land from collective tribal possession and gave to individual families in order to promote family farms; caused indigenous land control and cultural practices to diminish.

● Reconstruction – social/political reforms forced upon the south by the northern states; extended civil and voting rights to freed slaves. But after the troops left, southern states took back all rights from the former slaves and created a segregated society.

● Seneca Falls – a convention in 1848 where feminists issued a “declaration of sentiments” modeled on the Declaration of Independence, demanding equal political/economic rights for U.S. women

● Metis – individuals of mixed European and indigenous ancestry. Metis and native peoples rose up against foreign settlers in western Canada.

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● Louis Riel – a metis who emerged as a leader of the metis-indigenous people group of western Canada; created a regional army and assumed the presidency of a provisional government in 1870. 1885, he organized a military of metis/natives and led the Northwest Rebellion; executed by authorities for treason.

● Sarmiento – (Domingo Faustino Sarmiento) Latin American spokesperson who identified with Europe and was influenced by the Enlightenment; he despised caudillo rule and argued that only urban domination of the countryside allowed for social stability

● Gauchos – “Cowboys” found throughout the Americas who were seen as a symbol of Latin American identity and appealed greatly to society. Eventually became displaced as the need to herd animals diminished and internal conflicts caused them to become drafted into armies.

● Soldaderas – female soldiers or supporters of soldiers who demonstrated the most extreme forms of female activism.

Chapter 31: Societies at Crossroads● Taiping Rebellion - (1850-64) rebellion in China led by Hong Xiuquan calling for the

transformation of Chinese society, starting with the overthrow of the Manchus and the establishment of equality for all subjects.

● Janissaries - elite corps of soldiers in the Ottoman Empire who resisted remodelling of the Ottoman army based on European models

● Muhammad Ali - (r. 1805-48) ruler of Egypt after taking power after Napoleon left Egypt. He hired Europeans to train his troops and promoted industrialization in Egypt. He would have captured the Ottoman Empire if it weren’t for European concern for the balance of power.

● Capitulations - series of Ottoman treaties with European powers to provide extraterritoriality to European visitors. Capitulations also led to European economic exploitation through the establishment of European tax-exempt banks and commercial enterprises.

● Mahmud II (r. 1808-1839) - Took power after the Janissaries overthrew Selim and his successor. Continued Selim’s reforms while disguising them as a restoration of the traditional Ottoman military. Killed the Janissaries, reformed the military, created a new education system, and took away power from the ulama and the elites.

● Tanzimat (1839-1876) - era of more radical reform drawing inspiration from Enlightenment thought and European constitutions. Tanzimat reformers proposed new legal codes and issued decrees safeguarding individual rights and devised an education system for primary and secondary schools and universities.

● Young Ottomans - group that opposed Tanzimat reforms, desiring even more radical reforms, including the establishment of local autonomy, political decentralization, and a constitutional government.

● Young Turks (1889) - organization calling for universal suffrage, equality, freedom of religion, free education, secularization of the state, and emancipation of women. The

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Young Turks dethroned Abdul Hamid and established a puppet sultan. With control of the government, the Young Turks made Turkish the official language of the empire.

● Crimean War (1853-1856) - war between Russia and European forces after Russia invaded the Ottoman empire. Revealed the weakness of the Russian empire compared to European powers.

● Russian Serfs - class of Russian society consisting of peasants bound to the land. Emancipated in 1861, but lack of opportunity kept them in debt for the rest of their lives and fueled unrest

● Witte System (1893) - Introduced by minister of finance Count Sergei Witte, it was an attempt to industrialize Russia through railway construction (trans-Siberian), remodeling of state banks, high protective tariffs, and large foreign loans.

● Nicholas II (r 1894-1917) - ascended to the throne after the assassination of Alexander II. Used oppression and police control as a means of suppressing revolutionary movements. Deflected attention through expansionist wars against Japan.

● Revolution of 1905 - widespread demonstrations, strikes, and violence throughout Russia, leading to the establishment of the Duma. Eventually suppressed with force.

● Opium War (1839-42) - conflict between Britain and China after Chinese officials cracked down on the opium trade. Revealed the large difference between European and Chinese military strength. Led to unequal treaties

● Cohongs - specially licensed Chinese firms that sold goods and set prices (due to govt. regulations) which foreign merchants could trade with

● Treaty of Nanjing (1842) - treaty signed at the end of the Opium War ceding Hong Kong to Britain, opening five more ports to foreign trade, granting favored nation status to Britain, and granting extraterritoriality to British subjects. Weakened Chinese control.

● Self-Strengthening Movement (1860-1895) - reform program to blend Chinese culture with European industrial technology, building shipyards, railroads, weapons industries, steel foundries, and science-focused academies. Met obstacles in imperial govt.

● The Hundred Days Reforms (1898) - reform movement headed by Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao which impressed Emperor Guangxu and motivated him to transform China into a constitutional monarchy, guarantee civil liberties, root out corruption, reform the education system, modernize military forces, and stimulate the economy. Snuffed out by Cixi, who imprisoned Guangxu.

● Boxer Rebellion (1900) - antiforeign uprising that killed foreigners and Chinese Christians, besieging foreign embassies.

● Meiji Restoration (1868) - reformation of Japan under the Emperor Mutsuhito, industrializing Japan, modernizing its government as a constitutional monarchy, and revamping the tax system.

● Japanese Constitutional Government (1889) - constitution establishing a legislature (the Diet) and a constitutional monarchy. Command of the armed forces was given to the emperor, who also appointed a prime minister and a cabinet. The legislature was purely an advising body. Individual rights were recognized, although only 5 percent of the adult male population could vote. Effective power was still in the hands of the emperor.

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Chapter 32: The Building of Global Empires● White Man’s Burden - The idea that, as the superior race, Europeans were obligated

to civilize the rest of the world (through imperialism).● Cecil Rhodes - (1850-1900) English entrepreneur, adventurer, and politician who set

up colonies and mining businesses in Africa. Controlled a huge diamond monopoly in Africa and promoted English imperialism.

● Steam-powered gunboats - invented by British engineers in the 1830s, steam-powered gunboats increased the reach of the navies of the imperial powers. Ships whose versatility allowed them to travel in any direction and at a faster speed.

● Social Darwinism - the adoption of Darwin’s theory of evolution to support ‘scientific’ racism, the idea that other races were inferior to Europeans, therefore justifying imperialism. Popular after the 1840s.

● Maxim guns - Rifle machine guns that fired eleven bullets per second adopted in 1880. An example of new technology that lead to new types of warfare such as trench warfare.

● Sepoy revolt - (1857) revolt among British-employed Indian troops after rumors circulated that cartridges were lubricated with pig and cow fat, which was offensive to both Hindus and Muslims. Defeated by Britain. Exemplifies the unrest in the colonies controlled by European powers during the age of global imperialism.

● Livingstone and Stanley - two of the earliest European adventurers who charted interior regions of Africa. Livingstone was a Scottish minister who was looking for suitable mission sites; Stanley was an American journalist who followed Livingstone. King Leopold II of Belgium later employed Stanley to establish the Congo Free State.

● Boer war (South African war) - (1899-1902) War between Afrikaners (the original European migrants) and British migrants who flocked to the Afrikaner portion of South Africa after the discovery of minerals.The British government emerged victorious and united South Africa.

● Maoris - indigenous peoples in New Zealand who experienced drastic population decline after the arrival of the Europeans due to epidemic diseases. The Maoris were also pressured into the Treaty of Waitangi (British), leading to the New Zealand Wars over land confiscations.

● Panama Canal - canal across the isthmus of Panama in northern Columbia constructed in 1914 after U.S. intervention in the region. US government supported an uprising in the region after local gov’t refused to give the land to them; facilitated travel/trade.

● Roosevelt Corollary - An addition to the Monroe Doctrine (added in 1904) in which the U.S. claimed the right to intervene in the affairs of other nations in the western hemisphere if the U.S. deemed it necessary in order to protect U.S. investments.

● Battle of Omdurman - (1898) battle between Sudanese and British. Lopsided victory in favor of the British due to technology gap. Allowed for British colonial rule in Sudan.

● Breech-loading rifles - new firearms in the 1850s that increased accuracy and reliability of muskets

● French Indochina - French SE Asia colony consisting of Vietnam, Cambodia, Laos. The French introduced European education, emphasized conversion to Christianity, and like Britain, imposed European administration.

● Suez Canal - canal from the Mediterranean to the Red Sea in Egypt. Occupied by the British in 1882 after unrest in Egypt because it was crucial to communications w/ India.

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● Indian National Congress - (1885) forum for educated Indians to voice opinions on public affairs to colonial officials, spanning from poverty to the transfer of wealth from India to Britain to tariffs to racism to disaster relief. joined with the All-India Muslim League in 1916.

● Monroe Doctrine - A 1823 proclamation from the US that warned European powers against imperial expansion in the Western Hemisphere.

● Russo-Japanese war - (1904-5) war between Russia and Japan. Japanese navy defeated the Russian Baltic fleet, winning international recognition as a major imperial power. Also won the southern part of Sakhalin island, railroad and economic interests in Manchuria. Victory in this war transformed Japan into a major imperial power.

Part 7: Contemporary Global Realignments, 1914 to the Present

Chapter 33: The Great War: The World in Upheaval● Archduke Franz Ferdinand - was the heir to the Austro-Hungarian empire; his

assassination served as the catalyst for the World War I. ● Pan-Slavism - a 19th century movement that stressed the ethnic and cultural kinship of

the various Serbian peoples in eastern and east central Europe; sought to unite these people politically; supported by the Russians as an attempt to weaken the Austro-Hungarian empire; led to conflict between Austria-Hungary/Germany VS Russia/Slavs

● Triple Alliance - (aka the Central Powers) comprised of Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy. Began as a Dual Alliance between Germany and Austria-Hungary, but Italy joined later in fear of France. The Alliance was strained by conflicting relations with the Ottomans and intentions in the Balkans.

● Triple Entente - (aka the Allies) comprised of Russia, Britain, and France as a retaliatory display of power towards the formation of the Triple Alliance. Russia was in fear of Germany, and Britain signed agreements with France and Russia; eventually, agreements between all 3 nations were put into a military pact in 1914.

● Schlieffen Plan - created by General Count Alfred von Schlieffen in 1905, called for a knockout of France and defense against Russia; following this plan led Germans to attack Belgium and France as well in the beginning of WWI.

● Total war - War that was fought not just abroad but at home, by involving citizens. They were targeted during attacks, provided vital sources of labor, and worked hard to support the war effort. The government had control of many different economies!

● Kaiser Wilhelm II - German emperor during WWI who supported Austria-Hungary as a result of their alliance and dismissed Otto von Bismarck from power.

● Tsar Nicholas II - abdicated in 1917 after the February Revolution in Petrograd arose from food shortage and military disarray. Tsar of Russia.

● Western front - Near stationary battleground between the triple alliance and entente, which never moved more than a thousand yards in either direction, as a result of the nature of trench warfare.

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● Trench warfare - A largely stationary form of warfare, battles were often fought in trenches dug in the ground with deadly weapons to drive out the other side. Its inherent immobility prompted the development of increasingly deadly weapons.

● Mustard gas - vicious weapon used in trench warfare, first used by the Germans; characterized by its yellow color, the gas caused throat irritation, intense pain, and sometimes death.

● Home front - All of society, although not directly participating in battle, was essential to any nation winning total war (supplies: food, ammo, supported cause, etc).

● Bolsheviks - A radical party, the only one in wartime Russia to call for an end to the war, which garnered much support from the lower classes. Lenin formed the party to appeal to the needs of the working class by overthrowing the provisional government.

● V. I. Lenin - A revolutionary Marxist, exiled to Switzerland, whom Germany sent back to Russia in the hopes of stirring up trouble and removing Russia from the war. He believed the proletariat needed the leadership of a party, contrary to Marxism.

● Soviets - revolutionary councils organized by socialists, appeared for the first time during the Russian revolution in 1905; in 1917, held power and control over factories and parts of the military

● “Peace, Land, Bread” - a saying coined by Lenin that represented the interests of the Bolsheviks: withdrawal of Russia from the war, redistribution of land to the serfs, and stable food supply

● The Lusitania - British passenger ship that was sunk by German submarines; the act killed, among others, 128 American citizens, raised anti-German sentiment in America, and contributed to its entering the war.

● Treaty of Brest-Litovsk - (1917) After the Bolsheviks, headed by Lenin, gained power, they signed this treaty with the Germans, handing over much of its territory and 25% of its population, to end Russia’s participation in the war and focus on internal issues.

● Influenza pandemic - Killed everybody, first documented in Spain. Spread facilitated by wartime movement reached its peak around 1918).

● Mustafa Kemal/Kemal Atatürk - Head of the Turkish nationalist movement and war hero, who rejected European treaties and occupation forces to form the Republic of Turkey. Promoted a program of modernization (along European lines) and secularization, leading to economic success.

● Fourteen points - Proposed ideas by Woodrow Wilson for peace with the Central Powers; these ideas were not followed through in execution however, which led to more resentment in the losing Central powers. Their lack of implementation helped fuel WWII.

● League of Nations - The first international security organization whose purpose was to maintain peace; it failed to have all major powers participate at one time and ended in 1940. Precursor to the UN.

● Self-determination - The process by which a country determines its own statehood, and forms its own allegiances and government; Was not always carried out in the peacemaking process. Sometimes it wasn’t possible to draw national boundaries without leaving a minority. Wilson believed it was integral to international peace and cooperation.

● Weimar Republic - the short-lived German parliamentary government after WWI

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● Mandate system - The League of Nations essentially reassigned German colonies and Arab territories under the Ottoman Empire to Allied powers, using the same superiority argument: that these areas were not developed enough for autonomy.

● Treaties of Versailles - harsh measures placing blame for WWI on Germany, limiting its military strength by denying it an air force and a navy as well as limiting its infantry to 100,000 troops. They could not step out of a buffer zone near the French borders and were forced to pay Britain and France an exorbitant amount of money (supposed to end up paying all war damages), crushing it into an economic depression.

Chapters 34 & 35: Reactions to World War I● Oswald Spengler - Wrote The Decline of the West (1918-22) concluding that societies

passed through life cycle of growth and decay, and that Europe’s future was nothing more than irreversible decline; reflected pessimism of the times

● “Lost generation” - (Gertrude Stein) the generation of American artists and writers living in Europe that expressed in their work the general malaise and disillusionment with war after WWI

● Albert Einstein - Theory of special relativity that struck down long-held conceptions of time and space as absolute, contributing to the general upheaval of thought and expression after WWII; time and space can only be measured in terms of relativity to the observer

● Arnold Toynbee - Shocked by war, wrote A Study of History (1934-61) which sought to discover the development of 26 societies over time in 12 volumes

● Sigmund Freud - Psychologist who founded psychoanalysis, which pinpointed conflicting conscious and unconscious mental processes and repressed sexual drives as major factors of behavior. He closely studied and analyzed dreams, and he inspired literature and the arts. Added to the universal shift to uncertainty.

● Bauhaus - An institution that brought together international artists, designers, and architects to create innovative interior design and building styles that were uniquely suited to the urban and industrial landscapes. First led by Walter Gropius and then Ludwig Mies von der Rohe; their style prevailed after 1930 for its functionalism.

● Picasso - (1881-1973) he led the leading proponent of cubism, an art form which focused on the distortion of reality and multiple perspectives. He was influenced by African art forms like many other artists during the period after WWI.

● New Deal - FDR’s economic reform program during the Great Depression that called for heavy involvement of the government, minimum wage, shorter working hours, social security, farm subsidies, and banking support.

● New Economic Policy - Lenin’s new system (complete opposite of his previous ‘war communism’) of economic policies to get Russia back on track, which temporarily restored the market economy and some private enterprise. He died before any results could be seen, and this plan was soon replaced with Stalin’s Five Year Plans. Included private ownership of small companies and state control of larger industries, banks, transportation, utility, and education.

● Trotsky (Leon?) - Military leader of the Red Army during the Russian civil war against the Whites. Later Stalin removed him from power for his defiance after the Reds won.

● Collectivization - a policy implemented by Stalin which involved combining farms and farmers into massive enterprises, the profits from which were distributed to all. The enforcement and subsequent outrage contributed to the deaths of millions of farmers. Viewed by his regime as a means for increasing agricultural production efficiency.

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● Fascism - A governmental mentality involving a strong leader, extreme nationalism, xenophobia, and militarism, under which individual liberties were disregarded and civilians seen merely as obedient instruments to the welfare of the state.

● Keynesian economics - Created by the economist John Keynes, this was the idea that the Great Depression was caused by lack of demand for goods. Proposed increased government spending and intervention to stimulate more demand.

● Stalin - the socialist dictator of Soviet Union after Lenin’s death. Implemented Five Year economic plan (see below) and collectivization of agriculture to industrialize Russia. Instituted a society of fear by using secret police and “The Great Purge” to quell any opposition. Promoted heavy industry.

● Five-Year Plans - Stalin’s new economic plan of elimination of private industry to bolster the Russian economy. Focused on heavy industry rather than consumer goods. Wanted Russia to become a leading industrial power.

● Kulaks - relatively wealthy peasants who had risen to prosperity during the NEP but accounted for 3-5% of the wealthy peasantry. Were the group of people most deeply affected and harmed by Stalin’s Five Year Plan.

● Mussolini, Il Duce - the founder and leader of the Italian (and first) fascist state. Rose to power with support of Blackshirt terrorist groups, then abolished all other political parties and took control of economy, government, and law. Ruled as “Il Duce”, or ‘the ruler’, which emphasized his supreme and essentially autocratic authority.

● Kristallnacht - “the night of broken glass.” The night of November 9, 1938, when Nazis murdered hundreds of Jews and burned their homes, stores, and synagogues.

● Nuremberg Laws - Laws enacted in Germany that forbade Germans from marriage/intercourse with Jews and prohibited German citizenship for Jews

● Indian National Congress - originally formed to cooperatively govern India with the British, it later became the main political party behind India’s independence movement

● Mohandas Gandhi - Peaceful Indian thinker who led passive revolts against British colonial rule; adopted the moral policy of ‘ahimsa’, or tolerance and nonviolence and developed the technique of passive resistance. Became an effective instrument of Indian nationalism. Promoted the India Act and boycotting of British goods.

● Muhammad Ali Jinnah - a lawyer who headed the Muslim League, called for Muslims to create their own India - Pakistan, the pure land, because of long-standing divisions between Muslims and Hindus in India. Hindus had long held economic advantage over Muslims.

● Amritsar massacre - British-led massacre of the Indian people in response to protesting in Amritsar in 1919; proved the ability of the British authorities to react brutally to the peaceful protests

● Marcus Garvey - Jamaican intellectual who, along with W. E. B. DuBois, spearheaded the “Back to Africa” movement (a nationalist movement).

● Sun Yatsen - a Chinese nationalist leader who founded the Guomindang whose Three Principles of the People focused on 1) no special privileges for foreigners 2) national unity 3) economic development and 4) democratic republican gov’t. Did not focus on needs of peasants.

● May Fourth Movement - uprising led by student demonstrators against foreign, especially Japanese, intervention in China; wanted to re-establish national unity

● Mao Zedong - Prominent figure in the CCP who called for a Marxist social revolution and championed gender equality. Believed that peasants were the foundations of a successful revolution.

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● Guomindang - Sun Yatsen’s nationalist party who held official control over China, followed Soviet ideas of centralized party control, and allied with the CCP against foreigners (though last competition was present)

● Pan-Africanism - Promoted by W. E. B. DuBois and Marcus Garvey, called for unity of all Africans including African-Americans; called for the unification of all people of African descent into a single African state (a strong form of African nationalism)

● “land and liberty” - (see chapter 30 page 688 bottom left) - “tierra y libertad” - the two things that the Mexicans fought for

● Standard Oil Company - The largest oil monopoly in the US with John D. Rockefeller as its head

● “Good Neighbor Policy” - A conciliatory US policy that sent national guards into Latin America to train indigenous troops. Its purpose was to prevent U.S. marines from engaging in Latin America, to avoid blame for any failed operations, and to minimize resource expenditure.

● President Cárdenas - Mexican president who nationalized the Mexican oil industry. This conflicted with U.S. interests because American investors were forced to give up their claims to oil to the Mexican government. His mobilization of the oil industry proved popular with the Mexican people.

Chapter 36: New Conflagrations: World War II and the Cold War

● Axis/Revisionist powers - Germany, Italy, and Japan; countries who were determined to gain power by overthrowing the terms of the post-Great War peace.

● Allied powers - Britain, France, the Soviet Union, the US, China who fought against the Axis powers to maintain peace and order.

● lend-lease program - The US “lent” the British, Russians, and Chinese war goods for lease of naval bases

● Manchuria - Chinese territory that the Japanese attacked. This invasion was the primary cause of WWII as it portrayed the country’s disobedience to the settled treaties. They pretended that the Chinese attacked there, giving them a pretext to retaliate and overtake China in the Mukden incident. Reflected the expansionism and aggression. (When Japan was criticized for its actions in Manchuria, they withdrew from the League of Nations previously)

● Rape of Nanjing - A horrific beginning to WWII as Japanese forces invaded China and murdered/raped thousands of citizens. It was one of the many atrocious events during WWII.

● Greater Asian Co-Prosperity Sphere - a policy which seemed to advocate Japan’s expansion in Asia under the guise of greater Asian nationalism (“Asia for Asians”) where in reality brutal conquest and occupation illustrated their true intentions-- “Asia for the Japanese”

● Tripartite Pact - signed in 1940, this was a ten-year military and economic alliance between Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy, and Japan.

● Appeasement - The policy that meant British and French forces conceded some demands to Hitler (Austria and Sudetenland), in return for Germany halting its territorial expansion

● D-Day - The day when US and British forces landed in Normandy, France, on 6 June 1944; ended WWII

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● The “Final Solution” - The “solution” of which Hitler considered to solve the “problem” of Jewish peoples in Germany and throughout Europe. It entailed the attempted extermination of all Jews in Europe through hard labor and concentration camps

● Munich Conference - 1938; a conference where Italian, French, British, and German politicians agreed to the policy of appeasement, which Germany later violated

● Nonaggression Pact - 1939; Hitler and Stalin signed this treaty and promised not to attack each other, and to give western Poland to Germany and eastern Poland + Europe to Russia; formed an alliance that shocked the world.

● Warsaw Pact - The eastern equivalent of NATO, formed by the Soviet Union in 1955 after NATO admits West Germany as a countermeasure

● Blitzkrieg - “Lightning war”, a tactic which won Nazi Germany many battles which involved stealthy and quick ambushes.

● Yalta Conference - post war peace conference where Soviet Union and the other Allies disagree on how to handle Germany’s occupied territory. Stalin wanted to occupy the territory to “protect” it from future German attacks, but his true motives were apparent to the Allies.

● Lebensraum - “Living space;” the concept of German expansion and occupation, justified the means of Nazi persecution of Jews to provide more room for Germans; Hitler invades Russia to try to secure this for the Aryans.

● Operation Barbarossa - 1941; Code name for the German invasion of Russia; at first Germany advanced well, but was pushed back after winter; failed attempt

● Marshall Plan - 1948; a US financial plan to rebuild European economies through cooperation and capitalism, and to stop Soviet expansion. USSR comes up with COMECON to compete with it.

● Stalin - Dictator of Soviet Union during WWII. His radical communist ideas paved the way for the Cold War.

● Stalingrad - 1942-3; Germans nearly capture Stalingrad but are hindered by winter, weakening supply lines, and thinning out of personnel presence. The turning point at which Germany loses its momentum and falls back.

● Truman Doctrine - 1947; crystallized perception of world divided between democratic and communist people. Supported interventionist foreign policy.

● Berlin Wall - Wall built by Eastern Germany in 1961 that divided the region in an attempt to prevent citizens from migrating to Western Germany; reflected the internal instability and lack of legitimacy of the regime in Germany at the time.

● NATO - 1949; (North Atlantic Treaty Organization;) a regional military alliance sponsored by the US and supported by various European countries to oppose Soviet aggression.

● “containment” - US foreign policy of intervention to contain communism and prevent expansion of Soviet influence

● Cuban Missile Crisis - 1962; Soviets assemble nuclear missiles in Cuba, unacceptable threat to US security. Ends when SU leader Nikita Khrushchev agrees to withdraw all missiles, and JFK agrees to not try to overthrow Castro and in secret to remove US missiles from Turkey

Chapter 37: The End of Empire● Satayagraha - Gandhi’s policy of passive resistance● Gandhi - Opposed the partition of India into Hindu and Muslim states● Muhammad Ali Jinnah - Called for partition

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● Muslim League - In 1946, called for a Day of Direct Action, knowing that it would probably cause much rioting and violence, to demonstrate the necessity of partition

● Jawaharlal Nehru - First prime minsiter of India● Communalism - Identifying with religion over nationality● Nonalignment - Policy of newly independent states to avoid siding with either the US

or Soviet Union● Bandung Conference - 1955 in Bandung, Indonesia, a conference of newly

independent states searching to unify on the basis of nonalignment; previous ties undermined unity and caused dissension

● Vietnam - ● Ho Chi Minh - ● Palestine - ● Balfour Declaration - 1917 British declare support for creation of Jewish state in

Palestine● Zionist Movement - ● Israel - ● Intifada - 1987 Rallies and riots against Israeli rule in the Gaza Strip● Nasser - ● Suez Crisis - 1956 Nasser nationalizes the Suez Canal and does not provide

multinational control; British, French, and Israeli forces seize military control despite US and Soviet Union opposition

● Decolonization - ● Algeria - In 1945 police shoot peaceful demonstrators in Sétif and touch off revolt. In

1954 France begins bloody war with NLF and allows all other African territories to gain independence. NLF uses guerrilla warfare, wins independence in ‘62

● Franz Fanon - Supported liberation through violent revolution. Studied in France and wrote The Wretched of the Earth (‘61)

● FLN - Front de Libération Nationale (National Liberation Front) fought against French using guerrilla warfare and liberated Algeria in ‘62

● Negritude - “Blackness”; movement for African pride promoted by African intellectuals● Ghana - First sub-Saharan African nation to achieve independence in ‘57. Largely

peaceful, Queen Elizabeth II visits in ‘61; inspired other African nationalist movements ● Kwana Nkrumeh - Leader of Ghana in ‘57, spokesperson for pan-African unity● Kenya - ● Kikuyu - Indigenous people of Kenya who fought against European colonialists after

WWII. Eventually overpowered due to their inferior weaponry, the Kikuyu were also known as the Mau Mau.

● Jomo Kenyatta - ● Apartheid - Policies under the Afrikaner National Party that divided black South

Africans into categories and institutionalized racial segregation and white supremacy● F. W. de Klerk - ● Mao Zedong - ● Great Leap Forward - ● Cultural Revolution - ● Deng Xiaoping - ● Indira Gandhi - Daughter of Jawaharlal Nehru● Green Revolution - ● Islamism - ● Iranian Revolution - ● Iran-Iraq War -

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● OAU - Organization of African Unity, formed in 1963 by 32 states; held postcolonial boundaries inviolable to prevent boundary disputes

● Neocolonialism - ● Lazaro Cardenas - ● Juan Peron - ● Eva Peron - ● Guatemala - ● Nicaragua - ● Guzman - ● Sanchez - ● Liberation Theory - ● Dependency Theory -

Chapter 38: A World Without Borders● Cold War - ● Ronald Reagan - ● Mikhail Gorbachev - ● Solidarity - ● Velvet Revolution - ● Nicolae Ceausescu - ● Berlin Wall - ● Perestroika - ● Glasnost - ● Mujahideen - ● Boris Yeltsin - ● Globalization - ● Free trade - ● GATT - ● WTO - ● Multinationals - ● Japan - ● Little Tigers - ● BRICS - ● China - ● European Union - ● OPEC - ● ASEAN - ● Television - ● Pan-American culture - ● Cultural imperialism - ● Carrying capacity - ● Climate change - ● Population control - ● Labor servitude - ● Trafficking - ● AIDS/HIV - ● Terrorism - ● Operation Iraqi Freedom - ● Taliban -

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● Osama bin Laden - ● NGO - ● United Nations - ● Human rights - ● Feminism - ● Gender equality - ● Aung San Suu Kyi - ● Internal/external migrations - ● Urbanization - ● Transient Migrants - ● Tourism -

, 05/12/12,
14raymondc: hey people, im just joining this google doc. ill definitely try 2 contribute as much as possible!