Harpaz, I. 2002, "Advantages and disadvantages of telecommuting

for the individual, organization and society", International Journal of

Productivity and Performance Management, vol. 51, no. 2, pp. 74.

Advantages and disadvantages of telecommuting for the

individual, organization and society

Headnote

Telecommuting, Teleworking

Headnote

The phenomenon of telecommuting has implications for

individualsand organizations, and society generally. Examines the

advantagesand disadvantages of telecommutingto theparties

involved and affected by it. Key advantagesto individualsare

increased autonomy and flexibility; to organizations, increased

humanresource capacity and savings in direct expenses; and to

society, a reduction in environmental damage, solutions

forspecialneeds populations, and savings in infrastructure and

energy.

Headnote

Advantagesare weighed against disadvantages: to individuals,

possible sense ofisolation, lack ofseparation between work and

home; to organizations, costs involved in transition to new work

methods, training, and damage to commitment and identification

with the organization; finally, societyis faced with a danger

ofcreating detached individuals. Discusses implications of

thesuitability of individualsto telecommuting.

Headnote

There search register forthis journal is available at

http://www.emeraldinsight.com.ezproxy.lib.uts.edu.au/

researchregisters

Thecurrent issue and full text archive ofthis journal is available at

http://www.emeraidinsight.com/0043-8022.htm

Introduction

The information technology "revolution" has brought about far-

reaching changes, affecting almost every aspect oflife in themodern

world. Therelative ease ofobtaining and using information has led

to radical shifts in organizational structures and individuals' work

methods. Among thenew flexible work arrangements is

telecommuting, or e-work, thepractice ofworking from a distance -

usually from home.

Working from home is not a new phenomenon. Before theindustrial

revolution, most work was carried out at home or nearby. Thereal

change, then, is not theadvent of telecommutingor that work takes

place at home but that telecommuters work at home but within

thestructure ofan organizational framework. Theworker-

organizationinteraction takes place primarily through modern

technological channels ofcommunication.

Several basic processes that evolved near theend of thetwentieth

century, especially in its last decade, may account for theorigin of

the telecommutingphenomenon. Themain catalyst accelerating

telecommutingis thedevelopment ofon-line technology.

Theindustrial revolution took people out oftheir homes into

factories; advanced information technology removes theneed

forphysical presence, and sometimes theneed forsimultaneous

working. This removal oflocation and time constraints allows a

return to home-based working - it is no longer imperative to travel

to and from the organizationon a daily basis.

Technological developments in every aspect ofcomputing, such as

theavailability ofinexpensive and rapid computers, speedy and

reliable communication lines, Internet expansion, and theability to

move files around and work on files from off-location stations, has

made telecommutingeasy, accessible and relatively inexpensive

(Belanger, 1999).

Definitions

It is difficult to find a single, comprehensive and agreed definition

for"telecommuting". This variation in defining theterm and thetopic

is a consequence of thesheer number oftasks that can now be

carried out remotely - and thenumber ofways in which this can be

achieved. Thus, a "telecommuter" can structure his/her work tasks

and working life in many ways - dependent on thenature of

thework, the organization, thecustomer-base, etc. Thedegree

of"remoteness" (theration oftime spent on organizational premises

versus thetime spent at home) is highly variable. Theconsistent

feature ofall definitions appearing in theliterature is their emphasis

on theutilization ofelectronic communications as themain channel

ofcontact between thee-work carried out and theemploying

organization(Cooper, 1996).

Extensiveness of thephenomenon

There are conflicting estimates about theprevalence of

thephenomenon of telecommuting. Few of thesources provide

reliable data that can be trusted with any certainty - again, partly,

because of thelack ofconsistency with which theterm is defined

(and thus measured). Consequently, at one extreme, individualswho

work at home forat least one hour per week are considered to be

telecommuters, while at theother extreme, telecommuters are

regarded as individualswho carry out 100 per cent oftheir work at

home (http://www.eto.org.uk/index.htm). Another explanation for

thelack ofa cohesive definition is related to thesource

ofinformation, since some studies rely on individuals' reports and

others on organizational surveys or governmental accounts.

Figure 1 provides some data taken from theEuropean Telework

Online website (http:fl www.eto.org.uk/index.htm), showing

thedistribution ofworkers who telecommute in countries where this

is a relatively widespread practice.

This shows that thepractice is most common in theUSA - and then

Scandinavia.

Advantagesand disadvantages of telecommuting

Theliterature provides two conflicting approaches to

telecommuting(Jurik, 1998). Thefirst perceives telecommuters as a

group ofpeople who prefer this type ofwork arrangement, since it

offers them maximal professional flexibility. Thesecond approach

perceives telecommutingas a new form of"slavery" in which

individualsare exploited by their employers and work in relatively

unacceptable, inferior conditions forlow wages.

An examination of the advantagesand disadvantages of

telecommutingcan shed some light on this issue. Although there is

some reference in theliterature concerning advantagesand

disadvantages ofthis phenomenon (i.e. Baruch, 2000; Cooper, 1996;

Jurik, 1998) there is little extensive or systematic discussion ofit.

This paper proposes a methodical scrutiny of thethree main

constituents that are potentially affected by thepractice of

telecommuting: the individual, the organization, and societyat

large. A summary of themain points is presented in Table I (note:

some of theideas presented in thetable are adapted and inspired

from Baruch, 2000).

Advantages of telecommuting for the individual

Autonomy/independence

In any work structure, an absence ofdirect supervision is likely to

increase the individual's level ofresponsibility within the

organizationand this is even more so for thetelecommuter. Working

independently can fulfill an individual's need forautonomy, control,

responsibility and challenge. The individual's control over work

occurs more freely and naturally.

Flexible working hours

Another factor contributing to independence is flexibility ofworking

hours. A work station at home allows work activity to take place at

any time of theday or night, increased by a more efficient use

oftechnological equipment, planning ofleisure time, and a

balancing ofother tasks that individualsfulfill in thedomains

offamily and community.

Improved time management

Telecommutingallows thepossibility ofworking with less exposure

to distractions, avoiding events such as unplanned meetings,

conversations by thewater or coffee machine, or chats with

colleagues who make impromptu visits.

More efficient management offree time

A telecommuter in thevirtual office can devote more time to

thefamily, social life, volunteer work, leisure, etc.

Savings in travel time and expenses

The individual does not need to waste long and stressful hours

stuck in traffic on journeys to and from work, so reducing a source

of pressure and stress. Significant savings are made in travel

expenses as well as the expense of purchasing special clothes for

work. In addition, thesaved travel time allows more time for

leisure, preventing stress and fatigue and further contributing to

the quality of life.

Flexibility in caring for family members

Changing thehome into thework place additionally provides

theimportant option ofsupervising disabled or older family

members, as well as small children.

Professional flexibility

Telecommutingallows individualsto work in their desired

profession, with more freedom ofchoice, and even thepossibility

ofworking fora number ofemployers simultaneously, thereby

opening additional promotion opportunities.

Disadvantages of telecommuting for the individual

Impaired feeling of belonging

There is likely to be an impairment of thefeeling ofbelonging to a

team, and a concomitant reduction in a feeling ofcommon aims and

effort. Thesatisfaction that arises as a result of the individual's

status and value within an institutional system may be missed by

those who work from home.

Feelings of isolation

Telecommuters report experiencing isolation, solitude and feeling

like outsiders whenever they go into the organizationto fulfill

various necessary tasks (Bussing, 1998). Working at home can

impair the individual's ability to influence other people and events

in theworkplace. This can be detrimental to people who have a

strong need forsocial interaction and foran extensive social life.

Individualsreport that they miss talking to other people or sharing

their achievements with them (Bussing, 1998).

No separation between spheres ofwork and home

Theeasy transition from home-related aspects to work issues and

vice versa can potentially be a problem fortelecommuters. Among

other things, this stems from a lack ofboundaries or partitioning

between thetwo domains. Under normal circumstances, leaving

home to go to work provides a space between thetwo roles. Without

clear boundaries, family members are likely to feel that the

personworking from home is constantly available fortheir demands,

and this impairs theworker's efficiency. In certain circumstances,

telecommutingmay endanger telecommuters' status or recognition

as workers, which could result in constant disturbances from family

members and even neighbors making demands upon them. In other

circumstances family simply may not treat working from home

seriously, thereby eradicating thetelecommuters status as a worker

simply because of thelack ofan established workplace. On theother

hand, theimmediate pressures ofwork could fall onto thefamily's

shoulders, who would then have to give thetelecommuter moral or

mental support.

Self-discipline

Theautonomy granted to telecommuters raises theissue ofself-

discipline - theability ofan individualto work according to a self-

imposed schedule. While this problem may result in a low work

output, it can also lead to work addiction, where the individualdoes

not know when to stop working. This is comparable to those who

"cannot keep away from thefridge" and fall victim to obsessive

eating.

Lack ofprofessional support

When an individualexperiences problems in theworkplace, there is

always a support team including secretaries, maintenance teams,

suppliers, technical support, and so on. At home, this type

ofsupport is unavailable and thework itself may thereby be

affected. In addition, thequestion ofservices should be considered.

In theoffice, a worker has access to various services such as postal

distribution, library services, social services, etc. If telecommuters

need such services in order to fulfill their duties, theachievement

oftheir tasks may be delayed or impaired.

Career advancement

It is difficult forworkers to develop their career when they are out

ofsight. It has been claimed that a correlation exists between a

worker's visibility, including involvement in organizational politics,

and promotion opportunities (Perin, 1991). Individualswho work in

theenvirons ofan organizationget most of theattention, and this in

turn aids their prospects ofadvancement and promotion.

Over-availability syndrome

Individualsworking from home often find themselves badgered by

colleagues outside ofnormal accepted working hours. Even though

everyone is aware ofacceptable work times, there tends to be a

feeling that one can call thetelecommuter at any hour when there

is an "urgent" matter that needs attention.

Personal unsuitability

Various personal qualities are liable to make

telecommutingdifficult. There are those who are not used to

working independently, others who are inflexible, or who are used

to working under close supervision. Another important aspect in

this context is thesuitability of the individual's personal character

traits fore-working.

Legal issues

Most industrial legislation today does not cover thespecific

problems raised by thenew flexible work arrangements. This can

allow exploitation ofexisting loopholes in regulations governing

proper work relations. A lack ofclarity on such matters may affect

theworker in terms ofemployee-employer relations, or issues

ofinsurance. Is theworker entitled to social security or workers'

compensation when an accident takes place at home? What are

theworkers' rights regarding sick leave, overtime and holidays?

Advantages of telecommuting for the organization

Increased productivity

Reports point to an increase in productivity among e-workers in

comparison to their site-based colleagues (Hesse and Grantham,

1991). In part, this can be attributed to thetime and effort lost in

solving interpersonal problems that are likely to arise as a result of

theroutine friction and conflicts between workers sharing thesame

office.

Increased availability of humanresources

Working from a distance provides access to a wider range

ofworkers, and an increase in employment possibilities and thus

theworkforce pool. Workers can be enlisted wherever they may live

- from anywhere in thecountry, and even beyond its borders.

Telecommutingopens the organization's access to pools ofskilled

individualswho were physically inaccessible in thepast, such as

parents ofsmall children, disabled or older people, and those who

have to deal with other issues offamily, culture or sheer physical

distance. In addition, theworkforce pool is widened to include those

who wish to work only part time with flexible hours.

Significant decrease in absence levels

A sick child, urgent matters, or bad weather conditions are no

longer reasons fortardiness or absence, nor do these delay work

tasks. "Sick leave" is almost non-existent among e-workers. Since

they are located in relatively comfortable surroundings, many

continue working even when they are not feeling well or are sick.

Savings in direct expenses

Telecommutingsaves on thecost ofrent, real estate, taxes,

maintenance, and property that is generally located in expensive

city center areas or industrial parks. Reduced spending on parking,

transportation, travel expenses, as well as a significant reduction in

payments forovertime and workers' expenses lead to additional

savings. Further savings are made in thereduction ofcosts involved

when workers change their place ofresidence.

Increased motivation

Thecreation ofmore attractive working conditions increases worker

motivation. It can be assumed that this in turn will increase the

individual's level ofjob satisfaction (Pratt, 1993).

Creation ofa positive image of the organization

An organizationthat facilitates telecommutingis perceived

positively by thepublic as modern and progressive, since it makes

use ofnew work methods.

Disadvantages of telecommuting for the organization

Difficulties in application ofcentralized management

Telecommutingis liable to hinder managers who tend to centralize,

and therefore need employees to be at their side in order to

supervise their work closely. This is a difficulty particularly

forheavily centralized organizations, which are typically fearful

ofchange. One can assume that such organizationsare less likely to

favor telecommuting.

Investment in training and new supervision methods

Telecommuting necessitates new training and methods of

supervision that are in contrast to the centralized managerial style

common to many organizations. Managers who work with

telecommuters have to consolidate a new managerial approach that

is more decentralized and egalitarian. Hence, an application ofsuch

a flexible work arrangement requires some investment in training

ofsupervisory personnel, at thevery least in order to broaden their

attitudes.

Possible harm to organizational commitment and identification

"Out ofsight, out ofmind' - showing up at theworkplace, close to

thehub ofthings, may have thepotential to create a greater sense

ofloyalty, identification and commitment to and with the

organizationand its goals. From a distance, it is more difficult to

control, influence and instill motivation and commitment.

Changes in work methods

Change is not necessarily a disadvantage, although every change

usually brings about theneed foran extra investment ofeffort and

other expenses. Telecommutingnecessitates a change in existing

working methods, and organizationsneed to set clearer goals for

thee-worker. Supervision, reporting and communicating become

more complex.

These aspects make work processes more difficult, creating

theneed formore frequent feedback, preservation ofall

communications that include instructions and decisions, greater

allocation oftrust to theworker, and theinvestment ofmore energy

in carrying out thework itself.

Costs involved in the transition to telecommuting

Noteworthy among these costs are needs analysis, training and

adjustment to change. Likewise, thepurchase ofspecial equipment

for theworker, and providing technical support at home,

necessitate special logistics.

Legal issues

Organizationsmust take various legal issues into account that are

likely to arise as a result of thetransition to telecommuting. Among

others, these may include issues such as thequestion ofworkers'

insurance, deciding on work hours and overtime, establishing

holidays, sick leaves, and confidentiality.

Advantages of telecommuting for society

Societyat large may benefit from thetransition to telecommuting, as

is indicated below.

Improvement in thequality of theenvironment

A decrease in travel to and from theworkplace reduces pollution

caused by cars as well as noise pollution.

Decrease in traffic

A reduction oftraffic on theroads lessens thepotential forroad

accidents, and puts less pressure on public transportation.

Solutions for populations with special needs

E-work may provide an opportunity of incorporating, under regular

terms of employment, populations that were not part of the work

force due to various disabilities, and as a result generally became a

financial burden to society, such as thehandicapped and

theunemployed. In this way, employment opportunities are made

available to more members of thecommunity, and various types

ofdiscrimination are reduced.

Women with small children, theelderly, or those who have difficulty

leaving thehome forreasons ofreligion, tradition or culture can be

incorporated into theworkforce through telecommuting.

Savings in infrastructure and energy

Working from a distance helps to reduce municipalities'

investments in, forexample, transportation infrastructure, road

repairs, electricity, and drainage in city centers.

Disadvantages of telecommuting for society

Creation of detached society

There is thepossibility that with thesignificant growth of thenumber

oftelecommuters, an autistic society(Baruch, 2001) will emerge

where individuals are cut off and isolated from one another and

from public institutions.

Who is suitable fore-work?

In thelight of theincreased scale of thee-work phenomenon in

recent years, and theattention paid to it especially in thepopular

literature, thequestion arises ofwho is suited to e-work. This type

offlexible work arrangement could be an excellent work solution

forcertain types ofpeople, but may be unsuitable and even

detrimental forothers. In thenon-scientific literature and

thenumerous Internet sites dealing with these issues, we found

extensive reference to this question, although very little was based

on empirical data. Before an individualor an organizationdecides to

adopt this work method, a number ofbasic questions should be

asked. Forexample, what features ofan individual's personality are

likely to be significant in judging their suitability fore-work? Are

there any differences between e-workers and workers in more

traditional arrangements, in terms ofa number ofcharacteristics

referred to in theliterature as contributing to success at work?

Specifically, an individual's personality characteristics and traits

should be considered, as well as their possibility ofderiving job

satisfaction in such a setting. Systematic studies need to be

conducted in which data on telecommuters can be compared to

that ofa control group of individualscarrying out similar work, but

in traditional organizational settings. Findings from such studies

could shed some light on therole ofpersonality variables, such as

theimportance ofself-confidence, self-efficacy, self-judgment, need

foraffiliation, depressive tendencies - to name just a few - in

thesuccess or failure ofworking alone from home.

Organizationsthat face thechoice ofimplementing more flexible

working arrangements, such as telecommuting, should pay

attention to thepersonal suitability ofcandidates forthese positions,

and thespecial demands entailed in carrying out thejob. When an

organizationadopts a telecommutingwork pattern, or even when

individualstake it upon themselves to work independently in this

manner, it is important to examine thepotential suitability of the

individual for thejob, in order to improve thechances ofsuccess and

satisfaction forall parties involved. Different variables that are

likely to be instrumental in success or failure should be considered.

Such data can be helpful in establishing workers' suitability for

telecommutingduring their selection process, although there is no

doubt that much research still needs to be done fora more

thorough understanding of thefull complexity of theissue.

In conclusion, it is difficult to anticipate thefuture impact of

telecommuting, although it seems that telecommutingcan offer

theemployee an efficient solution in thesearch fora more balanced

and satisfying lifestyle, and can contribute to an improvement in

thequality ofwork and family life as well. In general, it seems that

the advantages of telecommutingoutweigh the disadvantages,

although before we can conclude this in all certainty, more

systematic research needs to be done on thedifferent aspects

related to thephenomenon.

References

Baruch, Y. (2000), "Teleworking: benefits and pitfalls as perceived

by professionals and managers", Technology, Work & Employment

Vol. 15, pp. 34-49.

Baruch, Y. (2001), "Theautistic society", Information &

Management Vol. 38, pp. 129-36.

Belanger, F. (1999), "Workers' propensity to telecommute: an

empirical study", Information and Management, Vol. 35, pp. 139-

53.

References

Bussing, A. (1998), "Teleworkingand quality of life", in Jackson, P.J.

and Van Der Wielen, J.M. (Eds), Teleworking: International

Perspective, Routledge, London.

Cooper, R.C. (1996), "Telecommuting: thegood, thebad, and

theparticulars", Supervision, Vol. 57, pp. 10-12.

References

Hesse, B. and Grantham, C.E. (1991), "Electronically distributed

work communities: implications forresearch on telework",

Electronic Networking: Research Application and Policy, Vol. 1, pp.

4-17.

Junk, N. (1998), "Getting away and getting by: theexperience ofself-

employed homeworkers", Work and Occupations, Vol. 25, pp. 7-35.

References

Perin, C. (1991), "Themoral fabric of theoffice: panoptican

discourse and schedule flexibilities", Research in TheSociology of

Organizations, Vol. 8, pp. 241-68.

Pratt, J.H. (1993), Myths and Realities ofWorking at Home:

Characteristic ofHome-based Business Owners and Telecommuters,

National Information Technical Service, Springfield, VA.

AuthorAffiliation

Itzhak Harpaz is Director of theCenter for theStudy of Organizationsand HumanResource Management, Graduate School ofBusiness, University ofHaifa, Haifa, Israel.