invasivelionfishguide gcfi specialpublicationseries number1 2012

United Nations Environment Programme

Caribbean Environment Programme

Specially Protected Areas and Wildlife Regional Activity Center

International Coral Reef Initiative

National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration

U.S. Department of Commerce

Reef Environmental and Educational Foundation

Gulf and Caribbean Fisheries Institute

INVASIVE LIONFISH:

A Guide to Control and Management

Editor

James A. Morris, Jr.

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

Format & Graphics

LeRoy Creswell

Florida Sea Grant

Gulf and Caribbean Fisheries Institute, Inc.

Publishing Consultant

Ann Boese

Laughing Gull, Inc.

Savannah, Georgia, United States


Special Publication Series, Number 1

Marathon, Florida, United States

Suggested Citation Formats

Entire Book Morris, J.A., Jr. (Ed.). 2012. Invasive Lionfish: A Guide to Control and Management.

Gulf and Caribbean Fisheries Institute Special Publication Series Number

1, Marathon, Florida, USA. 113 pp.

Chapters Within the Book

Akins, J.L. 2012. Education and outreach: Building support and expertise. Pages 15-

23 in: J.A. Morris Jr. (ed.) Invasive Lionfish: A Guide to Control and

Management. Gulf and Caribbean Fisheries Institute Special Publication

Series Number 1, Marathon, Florida, USA. 113 pp.

This Publication Is Available From:

Gulf and Caribbean Fisheries Institute, Inc.

2796 Overseas Highway, Suite 119

Marathon, Florida 33050 USA

http://www.gcfi.org

or

NOAA Central Library

http://www2.coastalscience.noaa.gov/publications/

2012 by the Gulf and Caribbean Fisheries Institute, Inc.

All rights reserved. Published 2012

ISBN: 978-0-615-69974-5

Library of Congress Catalog Number 2012949444

Reproduction of this publication for educational or other non-commercial purposes is authorized without prior written

permission from the copyright holder provided the source is fully acknowledged. Reproduction of this publication, or any

portion thereof, for resale or other commercial purposes is prohibited. The advice and strategies contained herein may

not be suitable for every situation. If professional assistance is required, the services of a competent professional

should be sought. Neither the publisher nor the author shall be liable for damages arising herefrom. That fact that an

organization or website is referred to in this work as a citation and/or a potential source of further information does not

mean that the author or the publisher endorses the information the organization or website may provide or recommen-

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disappeared between when this work was written and when it is read.

CONTENTS Authors i

Contributors ii

Foreword International Coral Reef Initiative iii

UNEPCaribbean Environment Programme iv

Preface v

Acknowledgments vi

Acronyms vii

Chapter 1 The Lionfish Invasion: Past, Present, and Future

James A. Morris, Jr. A Rapid, Widespread Invasion

Broad Diet and General Habitat

Cascading Impacts

Local Intervention Is Critical

1

1

1

2

2

Chapter 2 Lionfish Research: Current Findings and Remaining Questions

James A. Morris, Jr. and Stephanie J. Green Research Findings to Date

Remaining Questions

Research Resources

3

3

12

14

Chapter 3 Education and Outreach: Building Support and Expertise

J. Lad Akins The Earlier, The Better

E&O to Support Control Plans

Developing Communication Strategies

Challenges

Measuring Success

15

15

16

16

22

23

Chapter 4 Control Strategies: Tools and Techniques for Local Control

J. Lad Akins Local Removals Can Be Effective

Collection and Handling

Training

Removal Incentives

24

24

28

45

47

Chapter 5 Monitoring: An Essential Action

Stephanie J. Green Monitoring Local Lionfish Populations

Monitoring Ecological Impacts

Organismal Monitoring Through Dissection

Monitoring Socioeconomic Impacts: Fishing, Tourism, and Human Health

51

52

59

67

68

Chapter 6 Legal and Regulatory Considerations for Lionfish Management

Dayne St. A. Buddo Consideration for Legal and Regulatory Instruments

Review of Existing Legislation, Policies, and Plans

72

72

75

Chapter 7 Resources, Partnerships, and Sustainable Funding

Ricardo Gmez Lozano Human Resources

Financial Resources

78

78

81

Appendix 84

Literature Cited 108

AUTHORS

James A. Morris, Jr. (Editor), Ecologist

National Centers for Coastal Ocean Science

National Ocean Service, NOAA

Beaufort, North Carolina, United States

[email protected]

J. Lad Akins Director of Special Projects

Reef Environmental Education Foundation

Key Largo, Florida, United States

[email protected]

Dayne St. A. Buddo Marine Ecologist, Lecturer, and Academic

Coordinator

Discovery Bay Marine Laboratory

University of the West Indies, Jamaica

[email protected]

Stephanie J. Green Simon Fraser University

Burnaby, British Columbia, Canada

[email protected]

Ricardo Gmez Lozano Director, Parque Nacional Arrecifes de Cozumel

Comisin Nacional de reas Naturales

Protegidas de Mxico Cozumel, Mxico

[email protected]

i

CONTRIBUTORS The strategies and practices provided herein were developed during the 2010

International Coral Reef InitiativeCaribbean Regional Lionfish Workshop in Cancun, with participants from the following organizations:

Comisin Nacional de reas Naturales Protegidas, Mxico

University of the West Indies, Discovery Bay Marine Laboratory, Jamaica

Department of Natural and Environmental Resources, Puerto Rico, United States

U.S. Department of State

U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

Marine Protected Areas, Belize

Department of Marine Resources, Bahamas

Department of Environment, Cayman Islands

Bermuda Aquarium, Museum, and Zoo

CSI-ICRI Coral Reef Enforcement and Investigation

Environment State Service, Martinique, French West Indies

Specially Protected Areas and WildlifeRegional Activity Center The Nature Conservancy

National Environment Centre, Turks and Caicos

CORALINA, Columbia Centre for Agricultural Biosciences International

Acuariologa, Acuario Nacional, Cuba

Universidad Autnoma de Nuevo Len, Mexico

Nature Foundation, St. Maarten, The Netherlands

Ictiologa, Museo de Historia Natural, Universidad La Salle, Venezuela

Bonaire National Marine Park, Bonaire, Caribbean Netherlands

Reef Check Dominican Republic

Reef Environmental Education Foundation

International Coral Reef Initiative

Seatone Consultants

ii

FOREWORD

From the International Coral Reef Initiative

The proliferation of lionfish in the Caribbean over the last ten years is a real and

growing threat to the ecology of tropical and sub-tropical marine areas in that part

of the world. Addressing this issue requires a collaborative approach at a regional,

national, and local scale.

The International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI), as an informal collective, is well placed

to provide a mechanism for cooperation on the lionfish issue. The facilitation of the

Caribbean Regional Lionfish Workshop with key Caribbean players in 2010, and the

establishment of an ad-hoc Committee on Caribbean Regional Response to the

Lionfish Invasion later that year - now referred to as the Regional Lionfish Commit-tee - are practical examples of the support that ICRI has provided to assist in addressing the lionfish issue.

Invasive Lionfish: A Guide to Control and Management is an important step on an

urgent and challenging journey. The International Coral Reef Initiative is happy to be

involved and will continue to support important actions, such as the publication of

this guide.

The International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI) is an informal partnership of like-minded

governments and organizations seeking to build and sustain the capacity of countries and

regions to achieve effective management and sustainable use of coral reefs and related

environments. While the ICRI supports actions from the Regional Lionfish Committee,

including the publication of this manual, the ICRI makes no representation about the content

and suitability of this information for any purpose. Inclusion in this document of any specific

action doesn't represent a specific endorsement from ICRI of that strategy.

iii

Margaret Johnson

Co-chair, ICRI Secretariat

Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority

Australia

Beverly Wade

Co-chair, ICRI Secretariat

Belize Fisheries Department

Belize

From UNEPCaribbean Environment Programme

The Convention for the Protection and Development of the Marine Environment in

the Wider Caribbean Region (WCR) (Cartagena Convention) is the only legally binding

regional environmental treaty for the Region, and together with its supporting

Protocols, constitute a legal commitment by these countries to protect and manage

their common coastal and marine resources individually, jointly, and in a sustainable

manner. One out of the three protocols of the Cartagena Convention, the Protocol on

Specially Protected Areas and Wildlife (SPAW) was adopted in 1990 and entered into

force in 2000. Sixteen countries are currently Parties to the Protocol, the newest

ones being Guyana in 2010 and Grenada and The Bahamas in 2012. UNEPs Regional Coordinating Unit for the Caribbean serves as Secretariat to the Convention

and its Protocols, and its Caribbean Environment Programme (CEP) provides the

technical support to Governments to meet their obligations.

The objectives of the SPAW Protocol are to protect, preserve, and manage in a

sustainable way: 1) areas and ecosystems that require protection to safeguard their

special value, 2) threatened or endangered species of flora and fauna and their

habitats, and 3) species, with the objective of preventing them from becoming

endangered or threatened. The SPAW Protocol stresses the importance of protecting

habitats as an effective method of protecting the species. Protection is focused on

fragile and vulnerable ecosystems as a whole, rather than on individual species. In

that context, invasive alien species are of particular concern for the SPAW Protocol

and its Programme of Work. The current SPAW Workplan, adopted in October 2010

by the 6th Conference of the Parties to the SPAW Protocol, includes support to

regional initiatives for prevention and mitigation of the impacts of invasive species,

in particular to the lionfish.

UNEP-CEP and its SPAW Regional Activity Center (SPAW-RAC), hosted by the Govern-

ment of France in Guadeloupe, have in that context joined efforts with ICRI and

numerous partners to address the lionfish issue in the Caribbean. We are grateful for

the efforts and dedication of the writing team, of its leader James Morris, and of all

the authors that devoted time and skills for the preparation of the various chapters

that compose the manual, Invasive Lionfish: A Guide to Control and Management is

now available. We believe this guide will prove to be a crucial tool for managers and

practitioners in the Wider Caribbean Region, and we hope it will help them better

control the lionfish invasion and its impacts by providing practical solutions and

recommendations. The translation of the guide into Spanish, supported by the SPAW

-RAC, will facilitate its use by practitioners in all Caribbean countries and territories.

We look forward to the wide use of the Invasive Lionfish guide in all countries of the

region and to the successful control of this marine invasive species.

Nelson Andrade Colmenares, Coordinator UNEPCaribbean Environment Programme

iv

PREFACE

The countries of the Wider Caribbean with their vibrant coral reefs are major tourist

destinations, bringing billions of dollars to the Caribbean annually. The importance

of reef resources is invaluable to local economies and cultures. Invasive Alien

Species (IAS) are considered one of the major threats to native species and habitats

in the Caribbean. Recognizing the urgency of the lionfish invasion and the need to

develop clear recommendations for local control, a special workshop was organized

by an international team, including the International Coral Reef Initiative, REEF,

NOAA, and SPAW-RAC, and it took place in August 2010 in Cancun, Mexico. With 47

participants representing over 25 organizations from 20 countries and territories of

the Wider Caribbean, the ICRI Regional Lionfish Workshop identified many of the

best strategies for addressing the lionfish invasion.

The intent of this publication, Invasive Lionfish: A Guide to Control and Manage-

ment, is to provide a reference for resource managers, policy makers, field workers,

outreach coordinators, researchers, fishers, divers, and the general public who are actively engaged in learning about lionfish and developing local control strate-

gies. The strategies recommended herein are based upon best available science

and practice, which in time will change as new approaches and the effectiveness

levels of existing approaches emerge. Resource managers are encouraged to use

the information in this guide to develop local management plans.


National Centers for Coastal Ocean Science, NOAA

v

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This publication, Invasive Lionfish: A Guide to Control and Management, would not

have been possible without the dedicated support of the many contributors and

project team members, who assisted in the early conceptualization of the strategies

provided herein. The authors are especially grateful to Christy Loper (NOAA Coral

Reef Conservation Program), Catherine Toline (U.S. National Park Service), Isabelle

Ct (Simon Fraser University), and Mark Albins (Oregon State University) for their

insights into the monitoring chapter.

The authors also thank the many reviewers of the original Cancun Lionfish Working

Group for their helpful comments, and Patti Marraro (NOAA), Jeff Govoni (NOAA),

Paula Whitfield (NOAA), Pam Schofield (USGS), Nancy Brown-Peterson (University of

Southern Mississippi), and David Johnson (NOAA), whose comments also greatly

improved this manuscript.

We especially thank Dr. Mark Hixon and his doctoral students at Oregon State

University, all of whom are studying the lionfish invasion, including Mark Albins,

Cassandra Benkwitt, Kurt Ingeman, Tye Kindinger, Timothy Pusack, and Lillian

Tuttle, for their careful review. Lastly, we thank Nancy Daves and the NOAA National

Marine Fisheries Service Office of International Affairs for providing the funding for

this work. James A. Morris, Jr.

vi

Project team members pictured with Alfredo Arellano Guillermo, Director General de

Conservacion para el Desarrollo CONANP, Mexico, who called for implementation of the

lionfish management strategies provided in this guide at the 64th Gulf and Caribbean

Fisheries Institute in Puerto Morelos, Mexico, October 31November 4, 2011. (From left to right) Scot Frew (NOAA), Dayne St. A. Buddo (University of the West Indies), J. Lad Akins

(REEF), James A. Morris, Jr. (NOAA), Alfredo Arellano Guillermo (CONANP), Nancy Daves

(NOAA), Ricardo Gmez Lozano (CONANP), and Franck Gourdin (SPAWRAC).

ACRONYMS

AGRRA Atlantic and Gulf Rapid Reef Assessment

CABI Centre for Agricultural Bioscience International

CITES Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild

Flora and Fauna

COB-MESI The College of the Bahamas Marine and Environmental Institute

CONANP Comisin Nacional de reas Naturales Protegidas

CORAL Coral Reef Alliance

CORE Caribbean Oceanic and Restoration and Education Foundation

E&O Education and Outreach

FKNMS Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary

IAS Invasive Alien Species

ICRI International Coral Reef Initiative

IMCC International Marine Conservation Congress

ISSG Invasive Species Specialist Group

MTIASIC Mitigating the Threats of Invasive Alien Species in the Insular

Caribbean

NLRP National Lionfish Response Plan

NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

NOS National Ocean Service

REEF Reef Environmental Education Foundation

SPAW-RAC Specially Protected Areas and WildlifeRegional Activity Center

STINAPA Stichting Nationale Parken (Bonaire Marine Park)

UNEP United Nations Environment Programme

UPRM University of Puerto Ricoat Mayagez

USGS United States Geological Survey

vii

Best Strategies and Practices for Invasive Lionfish 1

CHAPTER 1CHAPTER 1CHAPTER 1CHAPTER 1

THE LIONFISH INVASIOTHE LIONFISH INVASIOTHE LIONFISH INVASIOTHE LIONFISH INVASIONNNN: : : : Past, Present, and FuturePast, Present, and FuturePast, Present, and FuturePast, Present, and Future


The invasion of lionfish (Pterois miles and P. volitans) may prove to be one of the greatest threats of this century to warm temperate and tropical Atlantic reefs and associated habitats. As the first marine reef fish invasive species to this region, lionfish are changing the culture of how reef managers view invasive species, the regional connectivity of marine reefs, and their vulnerability to marine invasions. The term lionfish is now as notorious as the other major invaders of the last century, such as Asian carp, kudzu, zebra mussels, and sea lamprey. Originally imported into the United States as a popular aquarium fish, the lionfish is now one of the most abundant top-level predators of many reefs. Lionfish pose a threat to the integrity of the reef food web and are capable of impacting commercial fisher-ies, tourism, and overall coral reef health. Viewed in context with other reef stressors such as land-based pollution, climate change, and overfishing the lionfish invasion is distinguished by two obvious characteristics. A RAPID, WIDESPREAD INVASIONA RAPID, WIDESPREAD INVASIONA RAPID, WIDESPREAD INVASIONA RAPID, WIDESPREAD INVASION The first outstanding characteristic of the lionfish invasion is that it has occurred rapidly across a wide geographic area. The initial confirmed lionfish sighting in the United States occurred in 1985, off Dania Beach, Florida. Some 15 years later, in 20002001, lionfish were identified as an established invader in the offshore waters of North Carolina, United States. At the time of this writing in 2012, lionfish are fully established throughout the Southeast United States, the Caribbean Sea, and much of the Gulf of Mexico. Lionfish are expected to reach the warm temperate reefs of South America soon. BROAD DIET AND GENERBROAD DIET AND GENERBROAD DIET AND GENERBROAD DIET AND GENERAL HABITAT AL HABITAT AL HABITAT AL HABITAT The second pronounced characteristic of lionfish is their broad diet and general habitat preferences. Because of these factors, lionfish have the potential to affect the structure and function of many Atlantic marine communities from the sea surface to depths exceeding 300 meters, and across habitats ranging from coral and hardbottom to artificial reefs, mangroves, and seagrass beds. For example, the high densities of lionfish observed in locations such as the Bahamas may be causing an abrupt change to the biodiversity and community structure of reef fish communities, and could constitute the most significant change since the beginning of industrialized fishing (Albins and Hixon 2011).

Gulf and Caribbean Fisheries Institute, Inc. 2012

2 The Lionfish Invasion: The Lionfish Invasion: The Lionfish Invasion: The Lionfish Invasion: Past, Present, and FuturePast, Present, and FuturePast, Present, and FuturePast, Present, and Future

CASCADING IMPACTS CASCADING IMPACTS CASCADING IMPACTS CASCADING IMPACTS Alarmingly, lionfish may trigger cascading impacts through their disruption of the food web. For example, the lionfish consumption of herbivorous fishes could reduce the functional role of herbivores in keeping algae in check, a process known to be important for the health of coral reefs. Lionfish may also compete for resources principally food and space with economically important species, such as snapper (Lutjanids) and grouper (Epinephelids). It is uncertain if stock-rebuilding efforts will be able to return reef fish stocks to pre-lionfish abundance levels. Lionfish could also affect the recovery of species of concern, such as the Nassau grouper (Epinephelus striatus), Warsaw grouper (E. nigritus), and speckled hind (E. drummondhayi). These species are critically low in abundance and might not recover quickly under the additional predation mortality imposed by lionfish. Lastly, it is the interaction of the lionfish invasion with existing reef stressors that poses the greatest concern. Coral reefs of the Atlantic are already highly stressed from bleaching events, climate change, ocean acidification, overfishing, and pollution. The additional stress of this invasive species could accelerate and compound the degradation of coral reef ecosystem health in profound and unex-pected ways. LOCAL INTERVENTION ILOCAL INTERVENTION ILOCAL INTERVENTION ILOCAL INTERVENTION IS CRITICALS CRITICALS CRITICALS CRITICAL Local control efforts are critical for mitigating the effects of lionfish on key marine habitats. These efforts are invaluable for supporting other conservation initiatives, such as management of marine protected areas and fisheries stock rebuilding. The re-colonization of lionfish from remote and unmanaged habitats will continue to inflict constant stress on Atlantic marine communities. Until new technologies and approaches are developed for controlling lionfish populations, managers must be prepared for long-term intervention.

Invasive Lionfish: A Guide to Control and Management

CHAPTER 2

LIONFISH RESEARCH: Current Findings and Remaining Questions

James A. Morris, Jr. and Stephanie J. Green

Our understanding of lionfish biology and ecology has come primarily from scientific

research activities. Both published literature and direct communications with

researchers are included in this synopsis on the state of knowledge of lionfish

distribution, biology, and ecology in their invaded and native ranges. Many new

questions will emerge capable of teaching us not only about lionfish biology and

ecology, but also about how Atlantic reef systems are responding to the invasion. As

the invasion continues to intensify and spread to new locations, so does the

demand for new research to inform management decisions.

Research is an investigation using the scientific method to generate new infor-

mation about a subject or develop novel approaches to solve problems. Research

findings can inform resource management by:

i) Providing the best possible information upon which to base decisions, and

ii) Uncovering new approaches to persistent problems.

Its important to note that research differs from monitoring in its purpose, though both use similar quantitative methods to collect information. Monitoring (see

Chapter 5) is the process of collecting specific information that describes trends on

the status of a subject for which there is already some knowledge, but for which

management guidance is needed. Within research, however, the pursuit of infor-

mation can be hypothesis driven or descriptive, and it ultimately results in learning

something new about the subject matter itself. For example, lionfish stomach

content analysis can provide new information on lionfish diet (i.e., research), but it

can also be used to track changes in diet composition and impacts at a local scale

(i.e., monitoring).

Research priorities for management will vary across space and time depending on

the amount of resources available and the urgency of the information the research

activity provides. Managers who support lionfish research in their local area

increase the chances that new approaches will be developed to control lionfish.

RESEARCH FINDINGS TO DATE

Distribution and Densities

Geographic distribution

Sightings and collection reports indicate that lionfish are established in the offshore

waters of the Southeast United States and throughout most of the Caribbean, and

are presently invading the Gulf of Mexico and parts of South America (Figure 2.1)

(Schofield 2009, 2010, Schofield et al. 2012). Lionfish are expected to invade the


2012

4 Lionfish Research

remainder of the Caribbean and to continue the southward expansion along the

coast of South America until water temperatures below the lionfish thermal

tolerance limit continued expansion (Figure 2.2) (Morris and Whitfield 2009).

Lionfish have been reported from all major marine seafloor and substrate types

within the invaded Atlantic, and they occupy a range of depths from shoreline to >300 m depth as recorded in the USGS Invasive Species Sightings Database. While the majority of research on the invasion has taken place on coral reefs and

hardbottom habitats, lionfish also occupy mangrove (Barbour et al. 2010), estuary

(Jud et al. 2011), seagrass, and artificial structures (Smith 2010).

Figure 2.1 Reports of lionfish as of

June 2012.

Figure 2.2 Potential future distribution of

lionfish, assuming sea surface tempera-

ture will be the only limiting factor.

Invasive Lionfish: A Guide to Control and Management 5

Invasion status

The population growth of many invasive species follows a predictable trajectory,

including a lag phase, followed by a period of exponential growth, an invasion peak,

and then equilibrium. For many invasive species, population densities at the

invasion peak can exceed the carrying capacity of the new system (Figure 2.3).

Equilibrium is reached when populations of the invasive species are limited by

factors such as competition with native species or themselves for food or space,

predation (including cannibalism), parasitism and disease, and abiotic factors such

as temperature.

Invasive lionfish populations across the Atlantic appear to be following this general

course. The earliest sighting of lionfish in the Atlantic dates to 1985 off the south-

eastern coast of Florida (Morris and Akins 2009). Over the next 15 years, lionfish

were observed sporadically along the Florida coast. In 2000, multiple individuals

were sighted off North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia; and from 2000 to the

present, lionfish densities have continued to increase rapidly (Morris and Whitfield

2009, Green et al. 2012a). Some locations have reported decreases in lionfish

densities, though it is difficult to disentangle the effect of removal from natural

processes in controlling lionfish abundance at a local scale. Given that lionfish have

only recently established in the Gulf of Mexico and southern Caribbean, increases in

abundance in these habitats are expected.

Long-term, systematic monitoring of lionfish densities is required to construct

population growth curves for lionfish across the invaded region (see Chapter 3). The

implementation of such programs early in the invasion stage will provide critical

information to managers on the speed of the invasion and the effectiveness of

control. This information will aid in allocating management resources over space

and time (see Chapter 4). Rigorous indices of abundance, similar to those devel-

oped for monitoring native fishes, are also needed to assess annual changes in

lionfish densities and to determine whether densities are increasing, decreasing, or

remaining constant throughout the invaded range. Unfortunately, few monitoring

efforts of this type are presently underway.

Figure 2.3 Theoretical line-plot depicting a simplified population growth curve

for invasive species. Line depicts a smoothed curve as marine fish population

dynamics can exhibit wide variation in annual recruitment.

6 Lionfish Research

Biology and Ecology

Taxonomy and genetics

Analysis of mitochondrial DNA indicates that two species, the devil firefish (Pterois

miles) and the red lionfish (P. volitans), were introduced into the Atlantic (Hammer

et al. 2007, Freshwater et al. 2009). These two species are identical morphological-

ly in the Atlantic (Hammer et al. 2007), but in their native range they can be

distinguished with meristics; P. volitans exhibit one higher count of dorsal and anal

fin rays when compared to P. miles (Schultz 1986). Devil firefish is normally found

in the Red Sea, Persian Gulf, and Indian Ocean (excluding Western Australia) and

red lionfish is found in the Western and Central Pacific and Western Australia

(Schultz 1986). In the Atlantic, P. volitans is documented throughout the Southeast

United States and Caribbean with P. miles only documented along the Southeast

United States and the Bahamas (J. Morris, Unpublished data).

As the lionfish invasion continues, genetic research will become a powerful tool for

assessing various dispersion pathways, divergence of sub-populations, expression

of phenotypes that are driving invasiveness, and possibly detection of new introduc-

tion events. Freshwater et al. (2009) provided the first such comparison and

reported high similarity between lionfish captured in North Carolina and the

Bahamas. This result, coupled with information on oceanographic current patterns,

suggests that Bahamian lionfish may have originated from the East Coast of the

United States. Subsequent study has revealed a secondary founder effect with the

continued dispersal of lionfish into the Caribbean and also that the invasions progression supports hypotheses of connectivity for tropical western Atlantic marine

organisms (Betancur-R. et al. 2011). The development of high-resolution lionfish

genetic markers will allow a more thorough investigation of this invasion and

provide a better understanding of invasion genetics and the regions marine phylogeography.

Diet and foraging behavior

Through stomach contents analysis, Morris and Akins (2009) described lionfish as

generalist carnivores that feed on a wide variety of fishes and crustaceans. Visual

observations of lionfish on invaded reefs indicate that lionfish consume prey at high

rates, largely during crepuscular periods (Green et al. 2011). Daily patterns of

lionfish behavior appear to be consistent with reports from the native range, with

the species most active and foraging out over habitat during low-light crepuscular

periods during dawn and dusk (Green et al. 2011). Though consistent with lionfish

behavior in the native Indo-Pacific, their hunting strategy is largely unique among

fish predators in the Caribbean. Lionfish hover motionless over prey with their large

pectoral fins extended and are able to approach their prey closely before making a

rapid strike. Sometimes, lionfish extrude water jets to orient the prey towards the

mouth before striking (Albins and Lyons 2012). Prey are typically consumed whole.

During the day, lionfish are often found resting and sheltered under ledges and

overhangs, associated with large high-relief structures within the habitat (Green et

al. 2011, Darling et al. 2011). Ambient light levels may significantly affect temporal

patterns of lionfish behavior. Observations of lionfish under variable weather

conditions found that activity levels and predation rates during the day were

significantly higher during overcast times, when light levels may simulate those of

crepuscular dawn and dusk periods (Ct and Maljkovic 2010).


Local densities

Lionfish densities in the Atlantic are reported to be much higher than observed in

their native range (Kulbicki et al. 2012). The first assessment of lionfish densities

was provided by Whitfield et al. (2007), who reported an average of 21 invasive

lionfish ha-1 across 17 locations off North Carolina in 2004. By 2008, the maximum

lionfish densities observed off North Carolina were approximately 450 lionfish ha-1 ,

with mean densities around 150 lionfish ha-1 (Morris and Whitfield 2009). Green

and Ct (2009) reported higher lionfish densities in the Bahamas in 2008, with

mean lionfish densities of 393 ha-1 across three sites off New Providence. Similarly

high densities have been reported by other studies in the Bahamas (Albins and

Hixon 2011).

These densities are much higher than reported in the native range with Fishelson

(1997) reporting ~80 lionfish ha-1 (assuming a mean search width of 10 m along

the 1 km reef stretch), and also much higher than the density of P. miles located

along the Kenyan coast (Darling et al. 2010). Grubich et al. (2009) reported less

than 14 lionfish ha-1, including all species of the Pterois and Dendrochirus on reefs

of the Palau Archipelago. A regional assessment of Pterois spp. density from across

the native Indo-Pacific region reports a maximum density of 26 individuals ha-1

(Kulbicki et al. 2012).

Reproduction

The pteroines, including P. miles and P. volitans, are gonochoristic (separate

genders from birth) with males and females exhibiting minor sexual dimorphism

during spawning (Fishelson 1975). The two genders are morphologically identical

and thus cannot be distinguished visually. Males typically grow larger than females

with the largest male lionfish recorded as 476 mm total length (J. Morris, Un-

published data).

Courtship has been described for the pygmy lionfish, Dendrochirus brachypteru,

(Fishelson 1975) and zebra turkeyfish, Dendrochirus zebra, (Moyer and Zaiser

1981), a closely related genus to Pterois. Fishelson (1975) reported that courtship

behaviors for Pterois spp. are similar to Dendrochirus brachyopterus in that the

male and female circle each other, side-wind, follow, and lead one another begin-

ning shortly before dark and extending well into nighttime hours. Following court-

ship, the female releases two buoyant egg masses that are fertilized by the male

and ascend to the surface. Each egg mass contains approximately 10,00020,000 eggs, depending on female size (Morris 2009). The eggs and later embryos are

bound in adhesive mucus that disintegrates within a few days, after which the

embryos and larvae become free floating (Morris et al. 2011).

Moyer and Zaiser (1981) reported that lionfish egg masses may be chemically

defended based on observations of avoidance by some egg predators in aquaria. In

contrast, a single sergeant major Abudefduf saxatilis, a common egg predator of

the Atlantic, was observed feeding on a lionfish egg mass in the laboratory (J.

Morris, Unpublished data). The seasonality of lionfish reproduction throughout their

native range is unknown. Collections off North Carolina and in the Bahamas

suggest that lionfish reproduce in all seasons of the year, approximately every 34 days (Morris 2009).

8 Lionfish Research

Early life history

Lionfish embryos hatch at the surface from a buoyant egg mass. Complete stage

descriptions of P. miles and P. volitans larvae are not available. A few larval lionfish

have been described, including five P. volitans larvae collected off northwestern

Australia (Imamura and Yabe 1996) and one postflexion larvae collected off

Cancun, Mexico (Vsquez-Yeomans et al. 2011). Developmental progression,

typical of fishes that release pelagic eggs, includes larval dispersal at the surface or

within the water column until settlement to the reef as juveniles.

Scorpaenid larvae exhibit two morphologically distinct groups characterized as

morph A and morph B by Leis and Rennis (2000). Pteroine larvae are grouped among the morph B morphotypes, whose traits include: large head, relatively long and triangular snout, long and serrated head spines, robust pelvic spine, pigment

confined to the pectoral fins (Leis and Rennis 2000), and postanal ventral and

dorsal midlines (Washington et al. 1984). Pterois sp. meristic characters are

reported as 1213 dorsal spines, 912 dorsal rays, 3 anal spines, 58 anal rays, 1218 pectoral rays, 1 pelvic spine, 5 pelvic rays, and 24 vertebrae (Imamura and Yabe 1996, Leis and Rennis 2000).

The size of P. miles or P. volitans larvae at hatching is unmeasured, but is likely to

be approximately 1.5 mm as seen for P. lunulata (Mito and Uchida 1958, Mito

1963). The settlement age of lionfish in the Atlantic is estimated to be between 2035 days with a mean of 26.2 days (Ahrenholz and Morris 2010).

Dispersal

Lionfish larvae and eggs are capable of dispersing great distances (Ahrenholz and

Morris 2010, Vsquez-Yeomans et al. 2011). As a result, lionfish that recruit to any

locale could be the result of spawning afar. Lionfish recruitment is expected to vary

across marine habitats in response to variable physical oceanography and local

environmental variation in habitat quality and resource availability. Long distance

dispersal of lionfish occurs primarily during the pelagic larval phase, during which

geostrophic and wind-driven currents transport the larvae. For example, lionfish

eggs released in the Bahamas are capable of dispersing to New England via the

Gulf Stream.

Larval connectivity models for reef fishes (e.g., Cowen et al. 2006) provide insight

into lionfish larval dispersal and may be valuable for predicting the spread of

lionfish, as evidenced by the recent establishment of lionfish in the Caribbean and

Gulf of Mexico. Recent efforts by Vsquez-Yeomans et al. (2011) demonstrated the

use of oceanographic models to hindcast dispersal pathways for lionfish larvae in

the Caribbean. Although it is currently unknown whether lionfish recruit to specific

habitat types or respond to environmental cues for settlement, recruits and adults

have been observed in similar habitats in both shallow and deep water. Looking

ahead, larval recruitment dynamics may be affected by regional stressors such as

climate warming, which could result in a shorter larval duration stage and increased

local recruitment (Ct and Green 2012).

Venomology

All lionfish spines, with the exception of caudal spines, contain apocrine-type venom

glands. Each spine is encased in an integumentary sheath or skin and contains two


grooves of glandular epithelium that comprises the venom-producing tissue.

Glandular tissue extends approximately three-quarters the distance from the base

of the spine towards the tip (Halstead et al. 1955). The 13 dorsal spines, 3 anal

spines, and 2 pelvic spines are capable of causing envenomation (Figure 2.4).

Lionfish envenomation occurs when the spines integumentary sheath is depressed as it enters the victim. This process tears the glandular tissue allowing the venom

to diffuse into the puncture wound (Saunders and Taylor 1959). The toxin in lionfish

venom contains acetylcholine and a neurotoxin that affects neuromuscular

transmission (Cohen and Olek 1989). Lionfish venom has been found to cause

cardiovascular, neuromuscular, and cytolytic effects ranging from mild reactions,

including swelling, to extreme pain and paralysis in upper and lower extremities

(Kizer et al. 1985, Badillo et al. 2012). Antivenom of the related stonefish

(Synanceia spp.) is highly effective in neutralizing lionfish venom activity (Shiomi et

al. 1989, Church and Hodgson 2002).

Figure 2.4 Graphic describing the lionfish sting morphology and mechanics.

10 Lionfish Research

The severity of reaction to a sting depends on several factors: the amount of venom

delivered, the immune system of the victim, and the location of the sting. Records

of home aquarists stung by lionfish provide a comprehensive assessment of how

lionfish stings affect humans (Kizer et al. 1985, Vetrano et al. 2002, Badillo et al.

2012). The probability of lionfish envenomation is higher when handling smaller-

sized lionfish, because the venom glandular tissue is closer to the tip of the spine

and the spine tip is smaller and sharper (Halstead et al. 1955).

The effectiveness of lionfish venom as a defense in their invaded range is in

question. Many species of top-level reef predators in the Atlantic have been

observed to feed upon lionfish, however, no studies have correlated predation on

lionfish with lower local densities. Maljkovi et al. (2008) reported that lionfish were found in the stomachs of groupers, however, this observation provides no assess-

ment of the frequency of lionfish consumption by grouper. Laboratory behavioral

experiments suggest that black sea bass and groupers (Serranidae) actively avoid

lionfish, even during periods of extreme starvation (Morris 2009). Additional

research is needed towards understanding predatory interactions between lionfish

and native predators during all life stages of lionfish.

Work by Sri Balasubashini et al. (2006a, 2006b) indicated that lionfish (P. volitans)

venom contains antitumor, hepatoprotective, and antimetastatic effects in mice,

suggesting a promising application for cancer research. Depending on the outcome

of this research and the subsequent demand for lionfish venom, bioprospecting of

venom from invasive lionfish could assist with fishery development.

Invasion Impacts

Ecological impacts

The ecological impacts of lionfish on invaded habitats will vary in space and time.

Factors such as the density of lionfish, habitat type, the assemblage of native

species within the community, abundance of top level predators, and the effects of

oceanographic conditions on colonization rates and recruitment dynamics can all

play a significant role in the impacts of lionfish on the reef.

Direct impacts of predation and competition

Albins and Hixon (2008) provided the first evidence for the impacts of predation by

invasive lionfish, reporting a 79% reduction in fish recruitment on experimental

patch reefs in the Bahamas during a five-week observation period in the presence

of a single small lionfish. These experimental effects of predation appear to scale

up to reef-level impacts. Sharp declines in prey biomass have been observed on

natural Bahamian coral reefs, with prey biomass reduced by an average of 65%

over a two-year-period (Green et al. 2012a).

Lionfish predation has been shown to affect fish species composition, with variable

impacts realized across species and size groups (Albins 2012). The work of Lesser

and Slattery (2011) also indicated ecological effects to fish communities on deep

mesophotic coral reef in the Bahamas, which may have resulted in a phase shift to

an algal dominated coral community at mesophotic depths, a result thought to be

due to lionfish over-consumption of herbivores.


Lionfish occupy similar habitats and consume similar prey to many species of

native fish predators (Morris and Akins 2009, Green et al. 2012a) and macro-

invertebrates. Competition with lionfish may affect the behavior, distribution,

growth, survival, and, ultimately, population size of these ecologically similar native

species. An experiment on coral reefs found that lionfish grow significantly more

quickly and consume prey at rate far faster than the native predator Coney grouper

(Cephalopholis fulva), which raises concerns that lionfish could outcompete some

native predators for food resources on invaded habitats (Albins 2012).

Indirect effects on marine community structure and resilience

The overall ecological impacts of lionfish can be framed in the context of impacts to

biodiversity and community composition and function, and thus resilience of reef

systems. Whether Atlantic systems are biotically resilient, or even resistant, to the

effects of lionfish is not known, but this will vary by location in relation to the

composition of the biotic community and physical oceanographic features of each

location. Albins and Hixon (2011) provided a summary of worst-case scenarios for

the lionfish invasion, which highlighted the many life history and ecological traits

that make lionfish highly invasive (Morris and Whitfield 2009). The direct effects of

lionfish on native fish and invertebrate communities (i.e., through predation and

competition) may indirectly affect the base of marine food webs, if the species

consumed or outcompeted by lionfish influence the diversity and biomass of

benthic communities. In actuality, the direct and indirect impacts are likely to be

exacerbated by the degraded condition of Atlantic reefs, owing largely to overfish-

ing, pollution, and climate change. For example, the effect of predation by lionfish

on their prey base is predicted to worsen with future climate warming in the region

(Ct and Green 2012).

Socioeconomic impacts

The socioeconomic impacts of lionfish remain largely unquantified, but have the

potential to be severe. Vulnerable sectors include fishing and tourism economies,

which are critically important to many Caribbean and Atlantic nations. For example,

lionfish predation on economically important species, such as juvenile serranids

(Morris and Akins 2009), could cause a decrease in landings, hamper stock

rebuilding efforts, and slow conservation-based initiatives.

Further, lionfish impacts on tourist recreational activities have been observed.

Some locations have posted warning signs (Figure 2.5) advising of the potential for

lionfish envenomation. As lionfish densities increase, so too does the risk of

envenomations. It is unknown whether increasing lionfish densities will reduce

recreational activities and cause economic hardship. This is likely to be dependent

on factors such as the local density of lionfish, the rate of human encounters with

lionfish, and the effectiveness of education and outreach. Research that monitors

lionfish socioeconomic impacts on the fishing and tourism economies is needed.


Figure 2.5. Lionfish warning sign on a beach in the Bahamas.

REMAINING QUESTIONS

Research priorities for lionfish are likely to differ with the specific needs of each

locale and the stewardship responsibilities of each organization. Further, the need

for research coordination on lionfish is crucial. Sharing of new ideas, approaches,

successes, and failures is critical to development of regional standards for lionfish

control.

A number of research priorities were identified during the 2010 Cancun Lionfish

Workshop. These included:

i) Quantify the socioeconomic impacts of the lionfish invasion,

ii) Model projected expansion of the invasion, including larval dispersal,

iii) Conduct applied research on lionfish bycatch,

iv) Conduct applied research to target lionfish effectively in deep water,

v) Standardize research methods,

vi) Determine the effectiveness of removals,

vii) Highlight the risk, or lack thereof, from ciguatera associated with lionfish,

viii) Explore lionfish connectivity,

ix) Conduct spatial monitoring of lionfish,

x) Investigate sterilization as a potential control method, and

xi) Investigate invasive and native species interactions.

L.

GE

RN

ER


In May 2011, a focus group was organized to identify knowledge gaps and coordi-

nate research to inform the management of invasive lionfish in the western Atlantic

at the 2nd International Marine Conservation Congress (IMCC), in Victoria, British

Columbia. This focus group developed additional priorities with finer detail, includ-

ing the following:

i) Biotic resistance to the invasion:

Is there evidence that some marine communities in the Atlantic are resistant to invasion by lionfish?

If so, what species interactions promote resistance and what is the frequency of these interactions across the region?

Are ecologically intact communities more resistant to the lionfish invasion?

Can native predators be trained to eat live lionfish and would this predation be ecologically significant?

ii) Do biotic interactions limit lionfish populations in their native range?

iii) Which stage of lionfish life history most limits population size?

iv) Which species, if any, consume larval and post larval lionfishes in their

native range? If so, do similar species inhabit the Atlantic and what is the

potential for them to consume lionfish?

v) How does the fitness and survival of invasive and native lionfish popula-

tions compare, and is there a genetic basis for differences between the

two?

vi) What habitats are lionfish larvae recruiting to? Are there specific environ-

mental and biotic cues for settlement?

vii) How quickly do lionfish populations increase after first colonizing an area,

and what factors affect the rate?

viii) What is the density and distribution of lionfish in mangrove, seagrass,

estuary, hardbottom, and deep-sea habitats?

ix) What is the ecological impact of lionfish on native marine communities in

mangroves, seagrass, estuary, hardbottom, and deep-sea habitats in the

Atlantic?

x) What is the effect of lionfish predation in fish nursery areas on adult fish

populations?

xi) Will lionfish population increases ever level off? Is there density depend-

ence?

xii) The costs and benefits of fishing lionfish in the Atlantic:

At what scale is lionfish fishing currently occurring?

Is fishing lionfish a viable option for population control?

What are the socioeconomic effects of promoting lionfish fisheries? xiii) What is the effect of lionfish predation on benthic communities?

xiv) Where do lionfish spawn? What environmental factors influence reproduc-

tive activity?

xv) Are there source and sink populations of lionfish, and how can we use this

information to direct local control efforts?


RESEARCH RESOURCES

Resources are available for researchers looking to answer questions relating to the

lionfish invasion. Well over 30 peer-reviewed journal articles have been published

on the lionfish invasion, covering biology, ecology, control, and distribution. As with

most research topics, researchers new to lionfish should be wary of Internet sources

and other non-peer-reviewed media (including listservs), as these sources contain

much misinformation. Careful researchers should make it a practice to always

check sources of information.

Lionfish research symposia have been held yearly since 2008 during the annual

conference of the Gulf and Caribbean Fisheries Institute. Proceedings from these

symposia can be found at: http://www.gcfi.org/Lionfish/Lionfish.html.

During an International Marine Conservation Congress Focus Group Session in

2011, a list of researchers and topics was compiled to promote coordination among

researchers. Information about this session can be found by contacting Stephanie

Green at: [email protected].

A Lionfish Web Portal (see http://www.GCFI.org) is presently being developed and

will serve as a clearinghouse for information on lionfish in the Caribbean. Additional

online resources are provided below:

NOAA Lionfish Website:

http://www.ccfhr.noaa.gov/stressors/lionfish.aspx

USGS Lionfish Factsheet:

http://nas.er.usgs.gov/queries/factsheet.aspx?speciesid=963

REEF Lionfish Research Program:

http://www.reef.org/programs/exotic/lionfish

Oregon State University, Hixon Laboratory:

http://hixon.science.oregonstate.edu/content/highlight-lionfish-invasion

Gulf and Caribbean Fisheries Institute, Inc. 2012

CHAPTER 3CHAPTER 3CHAPTER 3CHAPTER 3

EDUCATION AND OUTREAEDUCATION AND OUTREAEDUCATION AND OUTREAEDUCATION AND OUTREACHCHCHCH: : : : Building Support and ExpertiseBuilding Support and ExpertiseBuilding Support and ExpertiseBuilding Support and Expertise

J. Lad Akins Successful Education and Outreach (E&O) programs can help shape public percep-tion, enhance constituent involvement, and secure government support and funding. Because effective lionfish control programs encompass all of these components, they will benefit greatly from well thought-out and designed E&O activities. In general, the earlier appropriate E&O activities are implemented, the more broadly they are supported. This chapter provides information on E&O strategies aimed at increasing support for programs addressing the lionfish invasion. Topics include developing E&O priorities, key messages, program considerations, communication strategies, and examples of messaging and outlets. THE EARLIER, THE BETTHE EARLIER, THE BETTHE EARLIER, THE BETTHE EARLIER, THE BETTER TER TER TER By forming and implementing an E&O program before a lionfish invasion, managers can greatly aid their efforts to manage the problem. In two successful examples the Bonaire Marine Park (Stichting Nationale Parken Bonaire/STINAPA) and the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary (FKNMS) education and outreach activities were initiated prior to lionfish colonizing their waters. These management organizations targeted their proactive outreach activities to the general public, dive industry, health and medical industries, educational institutions, and the media. They developed outreach materials, including posters and stickers, and control plans; and they held workshops in advance of the invasion (Figure 3.1). The STINAPA and FKNMS activities ensured that all user groups in each respective location were equipped with accurate infor-mation and were aware of proto-cols for responding to lionfish sightings. Because of these advance efforts, community awareness in both locations was relatively high and misconceptions were addressed prior to the invasion. As lionfish began to colonize local areas, the respective communities supported removal activities. They continue to be among the most supportive communities in the region.

Figure 3.1 Figure 3.1 Figure 3.1 Figure 3.1 Sticker used by the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary to encourage reporting of sightings.

16161616 Education and OutreachEducation and OutreachEducation and OutreachEducation and Outreach

E&O TO SUPPORT CONTRE&O TO SUPPORT CONTRE&O TO SUPPORT CONTRE&O TO SUPPORT CONTROL PLANSOL PLANSOL PLANSOL PLANS The primary mission of most lionfish control plans is to minimize the impacts of the invasion. Impacts can take many forms, including disruptions to marine communi-ties (environmental), fishing and tourism activities (economic), and the safety of those encountering or collecting lionfish (human health). The level of E&O effort depends on the specific goals and objectives of the program. For instance, managers who dedicate time to developing solid mission statements, goals, objectives, and strategies will strengthen their E&O efforts and help facilitate a stronger overall program. Whats more, those who involve stakeholders from broad sectors (e.g., media, education, research, management, political office) will also help their programs by identifying key audiences and strategic methods for reaching them. Some examples of outreach goals for minimizing lionfish impacts are:

i) Increase removals of lionfish to reduce local populations,

ii) Increase public awareness of lionfish impacts to generate support for effective management,

iii) Maximize efficiency in utilizing human and fiscal resources,

iv) Increase political support for lionfish management and control,

v) Minimize health risks to the general public and those handling or collecting lionfish,

vi) Link lionfish research to management strategies, and

vii) Prevent future introductions of addition-al lionfish or other non-native species.

DEVELOPING COMMUNICADEVELOPING COMMUNICADEVELOPING COMMUNICADEVELOPING COMMUNICATION STRATEGIES TION STRATEGIES TION STRATEGIES TION STRATEGIES In developing communication strategies, managers might find it helpful to first identify what they want the E&O activity to accomplish. Ask the question: What would successful communication look like or result in? If the answer is increasing the number of people who realize lionfish are a threat to native marine systems or economies or increased reports to the reporting hotline or more people eating lionfish, the manager should select target audience(s) and messages to achieve that desired outcome. Once the target audiences have been identified e.g., fishers, divers, politicians, the general public, and/or businesses then messages can be developed that are specific to that target group. It is important to select broad overarching messages aimed at the groups. See Figure 3.2 for an example of how to determine target audiences and Appendix 1 for a list of some lionfish-specific strategies currently in use.

Who Owns the Lionfish Who Owns the Lionfish Who Owns the Lionfish Who Owns the Lionfish Problem? Problem? Problem? Problem?

Everyone! The impacts of the lionfish invasion are likely to be broad, spreading across many intricately linked sectors. The effects are also likely to be long term in nature and will require a deep understanding of how working together can provide the strongest benefit. No one person or office has the capacity to deal effectively with the broad impacts of this invasion. Like a fire burning at the edge of town, the invasion requires that everyone chips in to address the threat, as they are able.

Invasive Lionfish: A Guide to Control and Management Invasive Lionfish: A Guide to Control and Management Invasive Lionfish: A Guide to Control and Management Invasive Lionfish: A Guide to Control and Management 17171717

Figure 3.2 Figure 3.2 Figure 3.2 Figure 3.2 Example of a decision-tree approach for developing a communication strategy.

Developing an E&O ProgramDeveloping an E&O ProgramDeveloping an E&O ProgramDeveloping an E&O Program The following steps may be useful for creating an E&O program for local or regional lionfish control efforts:

i) Identify your E&O goals; e.g., to increase the number of divers proactively removing lionfish.

ii) Prioritize your E&O goals according to your overall program objectives. iii) Identify your audience(s) for each goal. iv) Craft goal-specific messages appropriately to each audience. v) Identify communication tools and audience specific messages; e.g., social

media outlets could work well for certain audiences, but might not be effective at reaching others without Internet access.

Importance of clear and credible messaging When developing messaging for outreach efforts, managers should remember that not all outlets are equal. Messaging should be tailored to suit both the media outlet and target audience. Print, radio, television, documentaries, and public and political forums are all key messaging venues or tools, but each one has its differences and limitations in format, content, style, and length. Different versions of the same general message can be used for different groups; however, it remains important to remember that the audience and the desired behavioral change will dictate which of the many messages are relevant. It is also important that managers and programs stay on message, especially when working with the media or in public forums. It is easy to get sidetracked by a question or comment, but it is important to come back to the main message.

What do I want to achieve? (e.g., Increase awareness about lionfish

impacts on marine life.)

Who is my audience? (e.g., Business, divers.)

What is my message?

(Divers predatory lionfish are depleting marine life, which

affects the health of the reef.)

What is my message? (Businesses predatory lionfish will

affect fish catch because they are

eating commercial species

as juveniles.)


Key messages Most people have fairly short attention spans. While managers may want to convey every known piece of information about lionfish and the invasion, it is important to distill and refine the material into a subset of key messages. These key messages should be designed to elicit the changes in perception and behavior necessary to support program goals. It is important that all partners are consistent with messag-es delivered in their E&O activities. It is also important to remember that key messages will vary by audience and may change over time in response to various control strategies. Effective programs will periodically re-evaluate and update these messages. Vetting information The information to be disseminated through E&O activities must be accurate. In this age of mass communication and public media, messages are sometimes dissemi-nated before their accuracy is verified. Misinformation or exaggeration through hyperbole can damage the credibility of E&O programs and hinder the success of management. It often takes only one small piece of incorrect information for an entire message or outreach campaign to lose credibility. Managers should take the utmost care to properly verify all information used or distributed in outreach efforts. Sources of credible information Accurate information on lionfish and the lionfish invasion is widely available. Examples of credible information sources include peer-reviewed scientific publica-tions, direct quotes, and the websites of peer-reviewed researchers. When in doubt, managers should be sure to verify the messages with a second opinion or outside source prior to distribution. (For more information on credible sources of infor-mation, see Chapter 7.) Outreach OutletsOutreach OutletsOutreach OutletsOutreach Outlets Standard media venues such as print, radio, television, film documentaries, and public and political forums are all key messaging outlets or tools. Managers can also think beyond these standard formats to come up with ideas that will work specifically for their management program, their community, and their target audience(s). In an example of outreach to a younger audience, the Acuario Nacional de Cuba has developed a series of educational pamphlets entitled Conozcamos El Mar, focusing on marine organisms and related issues and targeting school-age audiences (Figure 3.3). The pamphlets run about 25 pages and include relevant information presented in audience-

Figure 3.3 Figure 3.3 Figure 3.3 Figure 3.3 Pamphlet produced and distributed in Cuba to educate primary school children about lionfish.


Lionfish are an invasive species and are Lionfish are an invasive species and are Lionfish are an invasive species and are Lionfish are an invasive species and are detrimental to native systems.detrimental to native systems.detrimental to native systems.detrimental to native systems. Lionfish are not native to western Atlantic waters and are capable of causing negative impacts to native marine life, ecosystems, economies, and human health. Aquarium releases as source of the invasion.Aquarium releases as source of the invasion.Aquarium releases as source of the invasion.Aquarium releases as source of the invasion. Genetic research and monitoring of lionfish distribution suggest that the source of introduction is likely to have been multiple releases of aquarium specimens off the coast of southeast Florida. Eggs and larvae are transported via ocean Eggs and larvae are transported via ocean Eggs and larvae are transported via ocean Eggs and larvae are transported via ocean currents.currents.currents.currents. Lionfish are distributed to new areas via dispersal of their eggs and larvae by ocean currents. Invasion progresses rapidly.Invasion progresses rapidly.Invasion progresses rapidly.Invasion progresses rapidly. Even though initial sightings of lionfish in a new area can be sporadic over time and space, the invasion progresses rapidly. Most countries have experienced invasion progression from the first sighting to multiple lionfish occurring on most sites in less than two to three years. Impacts may be severe.Impacts may be severe.Impacts may be severe.Impacts may be severe. Recent research indicates that lionfish impacts can be severe and cross broad spectrums of the environment, including economically important species like juvenile grouper and snapper and ecologically important species like grazers and cleaners (e.g., parrotfish, cleaner shrimp and fish). Natural predation is not controlling.Natural predation is not controlling.Natural predation is not controlling.Natural predation is not controlling. While some incidental predation or conditioned feeding on captured lionfish may occur, it appears that there are no controlling predators of lionfish in this region. Community involvement is necessary.Community involvement is necessary.Community involvement is necessary.Community involvement is necessary. To effectively address the lionfish invasion, we must develop wide-scale support and the involvement of the local communities.

We can make a difference: Local control can be We can make a difference: Local control can be We can make a difference: Local control can be We can make a difference: Local control can be effective.effective.effective.effective. Local control efforts, including adopt-a-reef type programs and the development of food-fish markets are showing success. Areas that promote and conduct regular removals are showing fewer lionfish than non-removal areas, though removals will need to be long-term in nature due to recruitment of lionfish from upstream populations (see eggs and larvae message above). Lionfish are edible.Lionfish are edible.Lionfish are edible.Lionfish are edible. In their native range, lionfish are considered a delicacy and are consumed regularly. Close relatives of the lionfish, such as rockfish (Sebastes spp.) and the blackbelly rosefish (Helicolenus dactylopterus) which are also scorpaenid fishes are harvested commercially. Human health concerns associated with eating fish, such as ciguatera and mercury levels, have not been determined for all locations, though some lionfish have been found to carry the ciguatera toxin in known hotspot locations. Managers should implement the same caution for lionfish as they do for other reef fish.

Venom does NOT equal poison.Venom does NOT equal poison.Venom does NOT equal poison.Venom does NOT equal poison. Lionfish possess venomous dorsal, anal, and pelvic spines for defense. The meat of lionfish does not contain poison.

Eradication is not likely.Eradication is not likely.Eradication is not likely.Eradication is not likely. Under current technologies and considering the spatial extent and severity of the invasion, eradication is not a likely outcome. Honest dialogue regarding this issue is important in developing accurate and achievable outcomes and subsequent strategies. Additionally, statements regarding the possible eradication or prevention of lionfish establishment will set up a situation of distrust and damage credibility as these goals are unmet.

Key Lionfish Messages

appropriate methods cartoons, puzzles, characters, etc. They are distributed to public schools throughout the country. Volume 12 of the series focuses specifically on lionfish. By prioritizing media outlets according to the key audiences they reach and the return on their investment namely, the time and money spent managers can maximize efforts. Creative venues can often reach traditionally underserved audiences; however, the investment should be weighed in relation to the benefit of reaching those audiences. Tables 3.1 and 3.2 describe the costs and benefits of various media outlets.


Tab

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CHALLENGES CHALLENGES CHALLENGES CHALLENGES Accurate information and a thorough plan are the foundations of a solid E&O program, but even a good outreach plan can be de-railed by a few minor issues. Some easily avoidable pitfalls are de-scribed below. Lack of coordination among points of contact Designate one or two people for each media release to be the primary contacts. If possible, utilize the same contacts for all messaging. These contacts typically field general questions and direct media to the appropriate person for more information. Unsustainable (static) messaging Avoid sending the same (or similar) media releases repeatedly to the same outlets. Be creative and come up with new angles or elements. Unbalanced messaging Avoid unbalanced messaging between human health and ecological impacts. For example, human health risk may differ in priority compared to ecological impacts; therefore, it is important to note these differences. Similarly, unbalanced messaging regarding human consumption can quickly de-rail local control efforts. For example, while the risks of ciguatera from consuming lionfish may be worth noting, there is little information on the relative risk compared to that posed by consuming native species. Therefore, the message should be balanced, and provide similar caution for ciguatera in lionfish as is provided for ciguatera in native reef fish. Inaccurate information Be sure to validate and verify information before passing it along. Common inaccu-racies, such as the source of the lionfish introduction or location of venomous spines can confuse audiences and can place people at risk. Inappropriate visual aids Use images that support the message. For example, when describing lionfish impacts managers should use images depicting the significance of the invasion, such as a picture showing high densities of lionfish or degraded fish communities. A beautiful image of lionfish in its native range could create an affinity for lionfish

Hurricane Andrew Hurricane Andrew Hurricane Andrew Hurricane Andrew Aquarium Release Story Aquarium Release Story Aquarium Release Story Aquarium Release Story

In 1995, a brief in an American Fisheries Society newsletter, based on third-hand information, reported that a bayfront aquarium had been destroyed during Hurricane Andrew three years earlier, releasing several lionfish into Biscayne Bay. At the time, this brief generated little attention. As the lionfish invasion progressed, however, media began to circulate this story, citing the single-storm event as the source of the invasion. The author has since commented that the information was never intended to document the source of the invasion and has never been verified. Recent genetic work has also disproven this single-release theory and points to multiple release events that have included at least 10 lionfish (Freshwater et al. 2009, Betancur - R. et al. 2011). Read more about the lionfish-hurricane story in Science Insider at: http://news.sciencemag.org/scienceinsider/2010/04/mystery-of-the-lionfish-dont-bla.html?ref=hp


among some viewers. Also, as there are many different species of lionfish in the native range, the use of incorrect species when describing the invasion may cause confusion.

MEASURING SUCCESSMEASURING SUCCESSMEASURING SUCCESSMEASURING SUCCESS

Measuring changes in public perception and the effectiveness of messaging is difficult. Feedback is important in determining the direction for increasing success. There are a few simple tools that managers can use to determine how well their outreach programs are working. They include:

i) Tracking Responses to e-mails, calls, or personal feedback can be tracked and summarized to determine where the respondent heard about the issue. A simple notepad next to the phone will often suffice.

ii) Participation Keep track of how many people attend specific events or public forums, and relate that back to the outlet and messaging used.

iii) Short questionnaires Questionnaires and/or surveys can be useful tools, though special training or skills may be required to provide valid results. Administering questionnaires through face-to-face contact or via e-mail can provide valuable information on how the perceptions and behaviors of target audiences are changing in response to E&O efforts. Be cautious about survey length and in the use of questions that may lead the respond-ent towards a specific answer.

Invasive Lionfish: A Guide to Control and Management


2012

CHAPTER 4

CONTROL STRATEGIES:

Tools and Techniques for Local Control

J. Lad Akins

The source of the lionfish invasion will never be completely understood, but the fact

that lionfish are threatening a vast portion of the tropical and subtropical western

Atlantic is clearly evident. The impacts of lionfish are likely to resonate through

economies, human health, and tourism, and they will include both direct and

indirect ecological components over the long term. The goal of any control program

will focus on minimizing impacts.

Whether through developing new technologies, buying time for natural control to

evolve, or reducing the severity of impacts, virtually all of the strategies described in

this chapter focus on reducing the size of lionfish populations and their correspond-

ing impacts. It is going to be up to all stakeholders to work together to address the

invasion. Activities supporting that goal are numerous, but the approach is simple:

increase awareness, enact effective removals, and maximize efficiency.

This chapter identifies and discusses many different strategies with examples of

how to effectively accomplish these o

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