english 453 group project

NATIVE TO NON-NATIVE ENGLISH SPEAKERS 1

Native to Non-native English Speakers:

Speech Adaptation within the Fargo-Moorhead Community

Jade Sandbulte

Kigenyi Kalema

Pei-Yun Liu

Kyle Markwardt

North Dakota State University

Department of English

English 453/653 Social & Regional Varieties of English

Advisor: Dr. Bruce Maylath

May 6, 2013


Abstract

Due to increasing diversity within the Fargo-Moorhead area, it is important to review

how speakers are adapting their language and how effective the communication is being received

by both parties involved in a conversation. This study holds a lot of significance for those who

would like to study English as a second language or possibly teach. We hypothesized that a

native English speaker (NES) would adapt his or her language in regards to speed, word choice,

and intonation when speaking with a non-native speaker (NNS). We conducted research in

conversational settings on the North Dakota State University’s campus. These settings allowed

us to record and analyze conversations between NES tutors and NNS students. We also were

able to record conversation between NESs and NNSs in an informal conversational setting. We

listened carefully to the recordings and noted unusual uses of word choice, intonation, and speed

among the NESs, while also listening for more features that were heard in the conversations. We

found that NESs spoke slower and emphasized words differently in their conversations with

NNSs. Although vocabulary did not seem to change, other speech adaptations such as re-

phrasing questions, turn-taking, articulation, and feedback were used in the conversations. NESs

should try to be more aware of their vocabulary and control their pitch and repetition when

speaking to NNSs, as it may be more effective if these features were used differently.


Introduction

For our research project, our team decided to observe the speaking strategies and

adaptations that native English speakers (NESs) use with non-native speakers (NNSs). Under

normal circumstances, most people often adapt their speaking patterns to fit the individual they

are speaking with. The purpose of this study, conducted, in spring of 2013, was to determine if

significant changes in English speaking patterns could be observed in multiple instances, in

various situations, with NNSs. We believe the results of this study will benefit not only those

teaching English as a foreign language but those learning a new language as well as those who

attach importance to comprehensible communication.

Several teachers and institutions have provided suggestions for NESs when speaking with

NNSs. The writing center at the University of Northern Carolina suggests stressing and

emphasizing key words that are important for NNSs to understand (“Tips on Teaching,” n.d.).

When listening to a NNS, the writing center staff suggests providing positive encouragement and

asking clarifying questions. If the NNS’s response was ungrammatical, rephrasing the sentence

might also be useful.

One controversial issue when speaking with NNSs is whether or not you should slow

down your speech. The writing center at Colorado State University suggests slowing down to

the point where it’s easy for a NNS to understand you, and then gradually increase your speed as

the NNS improves his or her fluency (“Getting Started,” n.d.). However, the UNC writing center

warns that NESs tend to speak excessively slow and loud with NNSs, which can be off-putting to

the NNSs (“Tips on Teaching,” n.d.). Similarly, Lewis (n.d.) on the ESL Base website argues

that slowing down speech leads to unrealistic expectations on the part of the non-native speaker.

Since NNSs need to get accustomed to the speed and rhythm of everyday spoken English,


slowing down may not be helpful. Perhaps the best solution for NESs is to accommodate their

speed on a case-by-case basis, paying special attention to cues from the NNS that the speech may

be too fast.

Regardless of its effectiveness, slowing down seems to be a common technique used by

NESs. However, many NESs do not remember to adapt their vocabulary and grammar

appropriately (“Getting Started,” n.d.). Larry Lynch (n.d.) points out on the ESL Base website

that if 10 out of every 100 words spoken by an individual contains vocabulary that a NNS is

unfamiliar with, then the speech is incomprehensible. Therefore, when speaking with a NNS,

NESs should be conscious of the words they are using and try to anticipate any vocabulary that

may not be understood. Similarly, NESs should also be aware of the idioms that they use in their

speech and make sure to explain the idioms and slang to the NNSs (“Tips on Teaching,” n.d.).

We believe research on native to non-native interactions is of great value to those who

live in the Fargo-Moorhead area. Due to the increase in foreign residents, primarily surrounding

the Fargo-Moorhead college campuses, being aware of English speaking adaptations, conscious

and subconscious, can be beneficial in creating comprehensible dialogue with these residents.

Proper awareness and understanding are a few of the goals this research hopes to create.

Hypothesis

Before beginning our study, we hypothesized that NESs would use several strategies to

adapt their language when speaking with NNSs. Specifically, we identified three strategies that

we thought NESs would use: change their vocabulary, slow the speed of their speech, and use

clear intonation throughout their sentences. Our goal in the study was to determine if these

changes actually occurred in the speech of NESs and if they used other strategies as well.


Methods

Research Sites

Our study involved analyzing recordings of NESs and NNSs. We selected two different

sites to obtain our recording. The first site was the Center for Writers at the NDSU library. The

Center for Writers offers free, one-on-one tutoring to all members of the NDSU community.

The Center for Writers encourages undergraduate and graduate students, faculty, and staff to

visit and discuss their writing. Since many NNSs are concerned about the grammar in their

papers, it is common for them to seek writing consultations at the Center for Writers. The

second site, CEC (Conversational English Circles), is an activity between NESs and NNSs

sponsored by the NDSU English Club. On a weekly basis, members of the English Club invite

international students to participate in informal conversation, with a guiding purpose of finding

out more about each other’s culture. At CEC, a student or group of students gives a presentation

to the entire room. After each presentation, CEC participants discuss the information at separate

tables that include a mix of NESs and NNSs.

Participants

At the Center for Writers, we recorded consultations performed by two NES writing

consultants. For each consultant, we recorded one consultation with a NES and two

consultations with NNSs. All participants were ignorant to the purpose of the study.

At CEC, each table had 4-8 participants, which involved a mixture of NESs and NNSs.

We recorded conversations at 6 different tables. The researchers in this study were among the

participants at the different table. Therefore, some participants were aware of the purpose of the

study, but some were not.


Procedure

At the Center for Writers, we asked individual writing consultants to record their

conversations with the NES and NNS students. During each recording, the consultant would ask

the clients for permission to record their conversation. If the client agreed to do the recording, the

tutor would record the conversation through an Apple laptop.

At CEC, we decided to have all the members of our research group attend the meetings

and record the conversations with their iPhones. First, we divided our team members to each

table which consisted of, on average, around seven people. We made an effort to even the

number of NNSs and NESs at each table. Then, we provided everyone with consent forms,

asking them for their permission to record their conversations. If they agreed to proceed, we then

used the already installed application “Voice Memos” on the iPhone to record the conversation.

We would leave the iPhones in the middle of the table and record the conversations.

Since our project is focusing on how NESs adapted and changed their conversations with

NNSs, we only focused on the speech of the NESs during the CEC meetings and the CFW

tutoring sessions. We split the recordings among the different research members and analyzed

them individually. We paid special attention to the speed, word choice, and intonation of the

NESs, and we noted any other recurring speech acts that seemed pertinent. The research

members who listened to the Center for Writers recordings also compared the recordings with

the NNS clients and the recordings with the NES clients to see how the consultants’ language

changed. Our group members posted their analysis on a secure forum on BlackBoard. After our

individual analysis of the conversations, we discussed our results as a group and determined that

we had very similar findings. We also played excerpts from our recordings to each other to


confirm that our findings were accurate. These techniques were necessary to ensure the

reliability of our analyses (Creswell 2009).

Before discussing the results, we feel it is necessary to describe our research team’s

background, as this may impact our interpretation of results. Of our four research members, one

is an international student from Taiwan, one is a first-generation African American citizen who

has taught English in Japan, one is an American citizen who has worked with NNSs for several

years as a writing consultant and CEC member, and one is an American citizen who grew up in

North Dakota and had limited exposure to NNSs prior to college. We feel that our variety of

backgrounds gives us enough different perspectives to make up for any one member’s biases.

Furthermore, we have provided multiple transcriptions from the recordings in our results section,

which can demonstrate the validity of our results (Creswell 2009).

Results

Speed

In our research, one area within feature of speech that undertakes noticeable changes is

speed. Within the context of NESs with NNSs, changes in speed are more often than not

deliberate. This was expected prior to making the recordings; however, the changes that occurred

alongside speed were not. For example, slang, as well as awkward laughing, was not used in

situations in which both speakers were NESs. In almost every situation the NESs change the

speed at which they talk when confronted with someone they feel to be a NNS. They either speak

slowly or at a normal speed, and this speed is consistent throughout the conversation. However,

when the speakers conducting the conversation are NESs, the speeds at which both participants

talk fluctuates throughout the conversation.


In native and non-native conversational situations, the pace of the conversation is almost

always chosen by either the NES or the NNS. Pronunciation of words also played a huge role in

the speed at which NESs spoke with NNSs. For example, “Ambiguous,” “Globalization,” and

“Complicated” were words said at a slower pace than the rest of the sentence (we discuss this

phenomenon further in the intonation section later in this paper). This phenomenon is not

reflected in native to native conversations.

In one of our recordings at the Center for Writers, the speakers are discussing Turkish

holidays and the speed is notably slow from the start, in comparison to another recording with

the same consultant. The excerpt below shows one example when the writing consultant was

speaking with a NNS:

NES: Sooo….. tell me about some traditions… from Turkey that you miss.

NNS: [pause] Let me think…I don’t know

NES: Maybe...

NNS: Maybe, maybe what?

NES: Maybe... … like….What…What…do you and your family…what do you do for

holidays?

[later in the conversation]

NES: So... … You do that... do yoooou... do you guys celebrate Yılbaşı?

NES: New years?

In this instance the amount of pauses on the side of the native speaker significantly slows

the speed of the conversation. The first section of dialogue by itself was approximately 25

seconds. The NNS is not affected by this and continues at the speed he has had since the

beginning of the conversation. The NES feels compelled to slow her speed regardless of the


NNS’s ability to understand her, and this affects what is discussed between the two and how it is

done.

In a similar situation when two NESs are talking, the manner in which they fly from

subject to subject is very quick. For example:

NES1: What major are you?

NES2: Social work

NES1: Okay, I didn’t know that NDSU had that

NES2: Yeaaaah, it’s kind of a uhmm, like, split between the Minot state, so I take my

classes here, and there’s a teacher that comes from like Minot state and they just teach on

campus here so it’s [like a duel degree thing. Yeaah

NES1: [Oh okay, that’s kind of cool

NES2: Yeaah, it is! They have that with teaching…too, from like [valley city.

NES1: [Yeah, Like I knew about ,

I knew about that one….

NES2: - So yeaaah it’s kind of the [same thing…. yeah

NES1: [Okay

NES2: It’s kind of the same thing so yeaah.

NES1: Makes sense

In this example, the time it takes the two native speakers to get through this amount of

information takes almost the same amount of time,25.6 seconds, as the native and non-native;

however, the two cover a significantly larger amount of information. In fact the two are actually

talking on top of one another, making it evident that they mutually understand each other. There

are very few pauses and a real desire to move on to the next subject as soon as possible. Also,


colloquial English is used and in most cases tends to speed up the conversation. This could

indicate that speed, indirectly or directly, affects a NES’s comfort with the listener. For example,

when scolding someone, it is common for the person speaking to talk quickly (blowing steam)

whereas when the speaker is a teacher, he or she speaks more slowly and clearly because the

levels of understanding the students hold is unclear.

Vocabulary

When we listened to the vocabulary of the recordings, there were no clear indications that

the NES were changing their vocabulary. Repeating and rephrasing questions were common

(which is discussed later in our results), but the level of vocabulary remained the same. For

example, consider the following question(s):

NES1: How about like music? Do they teach music in all your schools? America they

do, but in Korea do they? Do you have to take music, or is it an option to take music?

As you can see, the NES found several ways to rephrase the question, but none of them altered

the vocabulary being used.

When comparing the vocabulary used by the writing consultants who were speaking with

NES and NNS clients, it was found that the consultants actually tended to use more complex

vocabulary with the NNS. For example, one of the writing consultants used the terms

“idiomatic,” “suffice,” and “colloquial” multiple times in consultations with the NNSs but not

with the NES. This could reflect the consultant’s belief that NNSs are more familiar with

grammar terms, but words such as “idiomatic” probably do not fit into the category of common

grammar terms taught to NNSs.


Stress/Pitch variation

Although our group had predicted changes in intonation, we were surprised by the way

NESs overemphasized certain words and syllables through changing stress and pitch in the

sentence. A common example was stressing certain syllables by speaking them noticeably

louder than the rest of the sentence. Below is an excerpt from one of the writing center

consultations in which capital letters indicate a sharp increase in volume (all non-stressed

syllables are put in lowercase):

well it IS kenneth yoka that is doing the the impressing but it’s not ACtive like it’s not

kenneth yamoka ACtively impressing you it’s it’s the WHAT that’s impressing you it’s

the THING aBOUT kenneth it’s the characterIStic so the word WHAT is representing the

characteristics of determination and means and THERE what’s impressing you not

kenneth yamoka that’s why i rearranged the structure

Another way in which words and syllables were emphasized was through varying the

pitch. In particular, a rising intonation was recorded among many of the NESs even when no

questions were being asked. The excerpt below shows one story that was told by a NES with ^

indicating a noticeable rise in pitch:

This wasn’t really in school, but I’m in I’m in the army^ the national guard^ and

at basic training we had a drill sergeant that he threw a padlock^ he was mad and

he threw a padlock^ that you lock your locker with^ he threw it and he hit hit a

guy in the ankle^ and he got a crack on his ankle, like a facture^ and he got

kicked out of the military for it.

Interestingly, after several other NESs made exclamations, this speaker’s voice became quieter,

his tone lowered, and no more rising intonations were observed. This could indicate that he had


switched his audience to the NESs who had responded to the story, and thus he stopped using

rising inflections.

There were also many instances in which the researchers agreed that the speakers were

using more varied pitch to make their speech sound animated than would be normal in

conversation, although these are hard to demonstrate via text. One example is shown below:

NES1: Guess how many students were in my class?

NNS1: In my class?

NES1: No, in my class. Guess.

NNS1: Oh. Thirty?

NES1: Less. So, smaller than thirty. You guess.

NNS2: Twenty?

NES1: More than twenty.

NNS3: Twenty-four.

NES1: Veeery close, but not quite. Almost.

In this conversation, the NES strongly emphasized each use of the term “guess” to show that it

was a command. His statement “More than twenty” was spoken in a much higher pitch to

indicate that the NNSs were close to the answer. The “eee” in “very” is meant to indicate that

the NES stretched the word out. Other recordings showed similar results, such as when a NES

would say “Oooh” by varying their pitch multiple times—more than would usually be expected.

This was also noted when NESs would repeat NNSs statements by adding more pitches to the

statement, such as in the following example:

NES: What about sports?

NNS: Sports? No.


NES: No sports?

NNS: Actually, in South Korea, many students just study.

NES: Many just study?

NNS: To get in the university.

NES: To get in the university, okay.

In this sample, the NES emphasized “No sports?” to show his incredulity, and then used a strong

upward inflection in “Many just study?” even though he was clearly repeating the statement and

not asking for clarification. The final repetition was more neutral and did not show any strong

emphasis.

Articulation

Along with emphasizing the intonation of the speech, NES often carefully articulated

their words when speaking with NNS. This was particularly noticeable in words with double

consonants that would normally go through consonant cluster reduction in vernacular speech.

For example, when speaking about sandbagging during a CEC meeting, a consultant put a clear

pause between “sand” and “bag” so that his pronunciation came across as [sænd bæg] rather than

[sæn bæg]. Similarly, one of the writing consultants consistently pronounced consonant clusters

at the end of words that might normally be pronounced with a glottal stop, such as “meant” and

“suggest.” However, there are also examples of NESs reducing consonant clusters in their

speech. For example, the consultant mentioned above also consistently pronounced “twenty” as

[twɛ ni] in consultations with native and non-native speakers.

Feedback

One recurring feature in the NESs’ speech was the use of repetition: repeating their own

questions, and repeating the statements by the NNSs. When repeating the statements of the


NNSs, the NESs seemed to be using their repetition as a form of feedback. Feedback, in our

study, is reactive and responsive words that were used in the conversation. The NESs provided

feedback to anything the NNSs would say. When the NNSs would speak, the NESs would then

follow the statement with either an “okay,” “hmmhmm,” or a “that’s really interesting.” This

feedback was noted numerous times throughout the conversations. Much of the time, the

feedback would occur while the NNS was talking. An example of feedback is shown below:

NES1: Do you find similarities between Chinese and Korean and...

NNS1: They are kind of similar but Chinese is more similar to English...

NES1: Okay

NNS1: In order of [Sentence.

NNS2: [Grammar. Structure...

NES1: Okay, in sentence structure?

NNS1: Yes.

When the NES would speak during this time, an emphasis was placed on the words. The NES

appeared to be excited about what the NNS was saying. This emphasis falls into the stress/pitch

variation as was discussed earlier. However, noted in both strategies, it is evident in this example

that the enthusiasm in stress/pitch provided feedback immediately after the NNSs were done

speaking or pausing. Along with these examples of feedback, the NES would also repeat the

exact words the NNSs would use. An example of this is shown below:

NES1: Did you two watch the Avengers?

NNS1: Yes, yes, I always said I wanted to be green monster.

NES1: Green monster? (laughs)


NNS1: Everyday I go...and say I want to be green monster...I know that the best scene in

the Avengers, is like... the Hulk says “I’m always angry”

NES1: hmmhmm

NNS1: That is very awesome. What character is your favorite avenger?

NES1: Oh...uh...my favorite is Iron Man

NNS2: Me too, why?

NNS3: Iron man...

NES1: Why? I don’t know probably because I want to fly around in a suit of armor. So

I’m jealous...He doesn’t even have super powers...that’s what I like about him, you

know?

NNS2: hmmhmm

NES1: Really smart

NES2: I like Captain America

NNS1: Oh...Captain America

NES2: Yes he doesn’t have any super powers, but he is very strong, you know? Kind of

more human. I like his shield.

NNS1: (laughs) his shield protects everything.

NES2: Yea. (laughs)

[later in the conversation]

NNS1: Especially in Marvel...Marvel comics...

NES2: What?

NNS1: Marvel...

NNS2: [Marvel Comics…


NES1: [Oh, Marvel comics, yes...

NNS1: I especially like DC comics...

NES1: DC comics?

NNS1: Yes

In this example, the NES repeats what the NNS said four times, sometimes in a phrase, or

just one word. This may provide clarification for the NES, to make sure they comprehend what

the NNS is saying. Instead of using words like “hmmhmm,” “okay,” or “that’s interesting” like

was heard in the previous example, the NES repeated the words more often and would provide

feedback to the NNS in that way. In addition to this feedback, the NES appeared to speak more

than the NNS, thus, turn taking was a common feature noted in the conversations.

Turn Taking

After analyzing seventy-nine seconds worth of conversation between NESs and NNSs, it

was evident that the NESs spoke more during the conversation than the NNSs did. For example,

within the seventy-nine seconds of conversation the NESs spoke 226 words to the NNSs’ 104

words. By more than doubling the amount of words spoken, it appeared the NESs used the

strategy of turn taking in order to get themselves across better. For example, when the NNSs

would be speaking, the NESs would abruptly interrupt the speaker with feedback. This may have

been used to assure the NNSs that the NESs was comprehending what they were saying. An

example of this is shown below:

NNS: Chinese and Korean are sort of similar, because we use some of Chinese character

to make a word, like some words are very similar...

NES1: Oh. That’s interesting.


NES2: Do you think it’s interesting because... Do you think the languages are so different

because of the barriers that used to be... that people that used to live in Korea were so far

apart from China so they developed their own sort of languages?

NNS: Yes.

NES2: That’s really interesting

NNS: Yeah.

NES2: You even see that in English with dialects. You know, you go from Midwest up

here, where we speak differently than Southern...Southern English speakers...or British

English Speakers...

In this example the NNS was interrupted by the NESs. The NESs cuts off the NNS and appears

to reassure the NNS that this abrupt interruption was necessary, because the NES had something

to say afterwards. The follow-up question took a long time to rephrase, and once the NES was

able to rephrase the question, feedback was given and a continuation of the conversation began

again, with the NES leading the conversation. It is of importance that after the initial interruption

by the NES, the NES took the same amount of turns and used more words. The NES spoke 32

words to the NNS’s 2. Much of the time the NES spoke with pauses, as noted by the “...” in the

transcript, and this parlayed into not only more words spoken but also more time used by the

NESs.

Question rephrasing

In a conversation, turn taking as well as back-channeling is necessary to inform the

speaker that everything is being understood; however, repetition of questions or statements is a

phenomenon we were not expecting to be as evident as it was in our data. The purpose of this

style of speech is to confirm to the NNS what the NES is saying; however, in no recorded


conversation is it made apparent that the NNS has not understood what was being said. For

example, the conversation below was recorded at CEC when two NESs were engaging two

NNSs from Korea:

NES1: When does the school year in Korea begin? When do you start school in Korea?

NNS: In Korea?

NES1:Yeah!...uhh…In Elementary school.

The NES without prompt repeats what he said in another way. This puts the control of where the

conversation is going in the hands of the NES. Evidence to show that this actually improves the

understanding of the listener does not manifest itself. Interestingly, rephrasing very rarely

occurred in recorded native to native conversation. This was due to the speed at which the

participants spoke and the fact that everything being said was felt to be understood. When

rephrasing did occur in native to native conversations, it seemed to be used more to emphasize

that speakers’ previous statement rather than for the comprehension of the listener.

Discussion

Overall, our findings show that vocabulary changed very little when NESs spoke with

NNSs, speed changed slightly, and intonation changed noticeably. The fact that no change in

vocabulary was noticed supports the assertion made by the Colorado State University Writing

Center: NESs tend to remember to slow their speech but do not remember to change their

vocabulary. One possible reason for this is that the NESs try to mimic the speech of the NNSs.

NNSs tend to speak slowly, so NESs try to match their pace subconsciously. However, the

NESs may not notice that the NNS is using a reduced vocabulary, so they are not conscious of a

need to change their own vocabulary.


Our observations by themselves do not indicate which techniques were the most helpful.

However, they do show what strategies NESs should be aware of. The most significant is that

they should be conscious of their vocabulary and try to limit their use of idioms and slang. We

also speculate that the rising intonation patterns and feedback were not useful. For NESs, rising

intonation indicates a question, and in our recordings such rising intonation was likely a subtle

way of asking if the NNSs understood. However, speakers of different languages do not use

rising intonation in the same way, so they are more likely to associate this speaking pattern as

part of the natural melody of the language, thus leading to incorrect intonations in their own

speech. Providing feedback and reassuring words to the NNSs may facilitate natural

conversational flow between two English speakers; therefore, NESs should consider their pitch

and intonation and use of feedback while they speak with NNSs to make sure that they are giving

an accurate representation of the language’s rising and falling patterns and conversational flow.

Implications for Further Research

One strategy of NESs that this study did not focus on was volume. We hypothesized that

NESs would increase their volume in conversations, but we did not include that in our research

methods because our recording devices were not sophisticated enough to provide an accurate

representation of volume. By providing the participants in the conversation with more complex

recording devices, future researchers may be able to further study how the NESs adjust their

volume in conversation with an NNSs. We believe this research could also branch out into the

study of gender and speech adaptations by NES.

Since gender roles are different in other countries, the female NNSs and male NNSs may

interact differently with the NESs, and this could be the same for male and female NESs. By


analyzing gender and communication between NESs and NNSs, further research may reveal

other speech adaptations by the NESs.

Supplemental research would also have to change the setting of the conversations and

approach the conversations in a different manner. Both the CEC and Center for Writers settings

provided important data for our research. However beneficial this data may be, it would be

notable if these settings changed. The CEC conversations were guided by talking points from the

presentations during the meeting. Most of the conversations recorded began with prompts from

the presentations. This presented many question-like conversations, almost as though the

conversation was an interview with a NNS and NES. At the Center for Writers, the conversations

were guided by the topic of the paper, therefore presenting an educational conversation between

NNSs and NESs. Further research would have to branch out of these settings and into more

functional and realistic settings where NESs and NNSs may converse (i.e. coffee shops, student

unions, restaurants).

This study could also further research different groups of NNSs and focus on how NESs

react with each group. In their study on the perception of foreignness among American speakers,

Cargile, Maeda, Rodriguez, and Rich (2010) found that Americans tend to perceive Latin

American and Asian accents as more “foreign” than European accents. This means that when

speaking with Asians or Asian Americans, white Americans may believe that they need to adjust

their speech more. By comparing the conversations between NESs and different groups of

NNSs, researchers could either support or find additional information on these interactions

between NESs and NNSs from Asia.

There are certainly many ways that native to non-native conversation research can be

expanded. The North Dakota State University provided a unique site for this research since it is


an increasingly diverse setting surrounded by a rather homogenous culture. We hope that the

results from our study will encourage future studies that can show NESs how to productively

converse with speakers who are trying to improve their own fluency in English.


References

Cargile, A. C., Maeda, E., Rodriquez, J., & Rich, M. (2010). “Oh, you speak English so well!”:

U.S. American listeners’ perceptions of “foreignness” among nonnative speakers.

Journal of Asian American Studies, 13, 59-79. doi: 10.1353/jaas.0.0062

Creswell, J. W. (2009). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods

approaches (3rd ed.). Los Angeles, CA: Sage.

Getting Started: The Basics of Teaching. (n.d.). Writing@CSU. Retrieved May 1, 2013, from

http://writing.colostate.edu/guides/teaching/esl/start.cfm

Lewis, J. (n.d.) Teaching your ESL student to understand real English. ESL Base. Retrieved May

1, 2013 from http://www.eslbase.com/articles/real-english

Lynch, L. (n.d.) Language Learners’ Listening Comprehension. ESL Base. Retrieved May 1,

2013 from http://www.eslbase.com/articles/listening

Tips on Teaching ESL Students (n.d.). The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill.

Retrieved May 1, 2013 from http://writingcenter.unc.edu/faculty-resources/tips-on-

teaching-esl-students/

english 453 group project

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