army topographic surveying

8/14/2019 Army Topographic Surveying

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FM 3-34.331

HEADQUARTERS, DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY

DISTRIBUTION RESTRICTION: Approved for public relase; distribution is unlimited.

( FM 5-232)


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Page

Administrative-Recon Trip ........................................................................................ 2-9

Project-Visitation Trip ............................................................................................... 2-9

Section III - Project Execution ............................................................................... 2-9

Chapter 3 SURVEY RECON..................................................................................................... 3-1

Section I - Recon Fundamentals ........................................................................... 3-1

Recon Requirements ................................................................................................ 3-1

Recon-Party Composition......................................................................................... 3-2

Section II - Recon Phases ...................................................................................... 3-3

Office Recon............................................................................................................. 3-3

Field Recon .............................................................................................................. 3-4

Recon Reports........................................................................................................ 3-16

Chapter 4 DATUMS, GRIDS, AND COORDINATE REFERENCES ........................................ 4-1

Datums ..................................................................................................................... 4-1

Grids ......................................................................................................................... 4-3

Coordinate References............................................................................................. 4-6

Chapter 5 CONVENTIONAL SURVEY-DATA COLLECTION.................................................. 5-1

Section I - Fundamentals ....................................................................................... 5-1

Angle Determination ................................................................................................. 5-1

Distance Measurement........................................................................................... 5-13

Electronic Total Stations ......................................................................................... 5-15

Section II - Targets ............................................................................................... 5-16

Optical-Theodolite Target Set................................................................................. 5-16

AISI Target Set ....................................................................................................... 5-17

Target Setup ........................................................................................................... 5-19

Lighted Target Sets ................................................................................................ 5-19

Target and Tribrach Adjustment ............................................................................. 5-20

Signals .................................................................................................................... 5-21

Section III - AISI .................................................................................................... 5-24

Description.............................................................................................................. 5-24

Components ........................................................................................................... 5-25Leveling .................................................................................................................. 5-25

Quick Check ........................................................................................................... 5-25

Data Collection ....................................................................................................... 5-27

File Transfer ........................................................................................................... 5-28

File Editing .............................................................................................................. 5-28

Communications ..................................................................................................... 5-29


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Page

Instrument Maintenance..........................................................................................5-29

Section IV - CAD Interface ....................................................................................5-30

Total-Station Data Collection and Input ..................................................................5-30

Plotting ....................................................................................................................5-31

Chapter 6 TRAVERSE...............................................................................................................6-1

Starting Control .........................................................................................................6-1

Open Traverse ..........................................................................................................6-1

Closed Traverse........................................................................................................6-1

Fieldwork...................................................................................................................6-2

Traverse Stations ......................................................................................................6-3

Traverse-Party Organization .....................................................................................6-4

Azimuth Computations ..............................................................................................6-4

Azimuth-Bearing Angle Relationship.........................................................................6-5

Coordinate Computations .........................................................................................6-6

Accuracy and Specifications .....................................................................................6-7

Chapter 7 DIFFERENTIAL LEVELING .....................................................................................7-1

Section I - Instruments and Equipment ................................................................7-1

Automatic Levels .......................................................................................................7-1

Digital Levels.............................................................................................................7-1

Optical-Micrometer Levels ........................................................................................7-2

Leveling Rods and Accessories ................................................................................7-2

Instrument Testing and Adjustment ..........................................................................7-2

Section II - Precise Leveling Procedures..............................................................7-5

Recon........................................................................................................................7-5

DE Determination......................................................................................................7-5

Field-Party Composition ............................................................................................7-6

Data Recording .........................................................................................................7-6

C-Factor Determination.............................................................................................7-8

Center-Wire Adjustment ............................................................................................7-9

SIF Determination .....................................................................................................7-9

Chapter 8 NAVSTAR GPS ........................................................................................................8-1

Section I - GPS Overview .......................................................................................8-1

Operating and Tracking Modes .................................................................................8-1

System Configuration................................................................................................8-2

Broadcast Frequencies and Codes...........................................................................8-3

Broadcast Ephemeris Data .......................................................................................8-4


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Page

Section II - Absolute Positioning........................................................................... 8-5

Absolute-Positioning Accuracies .............................................................................. 8-5

Pseudoranging ......................................................................................................... 8-5

Absolute-Positioning Error Sources.......................................................................... 8-6

User Equivalent Range Error.................................................................................... 8-9

Accuracies ................................................................................................................ 8-9

Section III - Differential Precise Positioning ...................................................... 8-14

Code-Pseudorange Tracking.................................................................................. 8-14

Carrier-Phase Tracking .......................................................................................... 8-15

Vertical Measurements ........................................................................................... 8-17

Differential Error Sources ....................................................................................... 8-18

Differential Accuracies ............................................................................................ 8-18

Section IV - Precise-Positioning Survey Planning ............................................ 8-19Project-Control Accuracy ........................................................................................ 8-20

Network-Design Factors ......................................................................................... 8-21

Network Design and Layout ................................................................................... 8-28

GPS-S Techniques ................................................................................................. 8-31

Section V - Precise-Positioning Survey Conduct .............................................. 8-35

Basic GPS-S Procedures ....................................................................................... 8-35

Absolute Positioning ............................................................................................... 8-36

Differential Positioning ............................................................................................ 8-37

DGPS Carrier-Phase Horizontal-Positioning Surveys ............................................ 8-39

Static Surveying...................................................................................................... 8-40

Stop-and-Go Kinematic Surveying ......................................................................... 8-42

Kinematic Surveying ............................................................................................... 8-43

Pseudokinematic Surveying ................................................................................... 8-44

Rapid-Static Surveying ........................................................................................... 8-45

OTF/RTK Surveying ............................................................................................... 8-45

Section VI - Precise-Positioning Survey-Data Processing ............................... 8-46

Processing Techniques .......................................................................................... 8-46

Baseline Solution by Linear Combination ............................................................... 8-47

Baseline Solution by Cycle-Ambiguity Recovery .................................................... 8-49Data Processing and Verification ........................................................................... 8-49

Loop-Closure Checks ............................................................................................. 8-51

Data Archival .......................................................................................................... 8-54

Section VII - Precise-Positioning Survey Adjustments..................................... 8-54

GPS Error-Measurement Statistical Terms ............................................................ 8-54

Adjustment Considerations..................................................................................... 8-54


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Survey Accuracy .....................................................................................................8-55

Internal Versus External Accuracy ..........................................................................8-57

Adjustments ............................................................................................................8-58

Evaluation of Adjustment Results ...........................................................................8-66

Final-Adjustment Reports........................................................................................8-68

Chapter 9 ARTILLERY SURVEYS............................................................................................9-1

US Army FA ..............................................................................................................9-1

ADA...........................................................................................................................9-2

Survey Planning ........................................................................................................9-3

Chapter 10 AIRFIELD-OBSTRUCTION AND NAVAID SURVEYS ..........................................10-1

Airport Obstruction Charts and NAVAID Surveys ...................................................10-1

FAA and FAR Standards.........................................................................................10-2

Airfield-Data Accuracy Requirements .....................................................................10-7

Reporting.................................................................................................................10-8

Chapter 11 REPORTS, BRIEFINGS, AND OPERATION ORDERS.........................................11-1

Section I - Reports ................................................................................................11-1

General ...................................................................................................................11-1

ISVT Report ............................................................................................................11-2

Recon Report ..........................................................................................................11-3

Progress Report ......................................................................................................11-6

End-of-Project Report .............................................................................................11-6

Incident Report........................................................................................................11-7

Report Disposition ...................................................................................................11-8

Section II - Briefings .............................................................................................11-8

Impromptu Briefing..................................................................................................11-8

Deliberate Briefing...................................................................................................11-8

Briefing Procedures...............................................................................................11-11

Section III - Survey SOP and Supporting Annexes..........................................11-13

Appendix A MENSURAL CONVERSION CHARTS.................................................................... A-1

Appendix B CONTROL-SURVEY STANDARDS........................................................................ B-1

Differential Leveling.................................................................................................. B-1

Horizontal-Angle Measurement................................................................................ B-3

Trigonometric Observations ..................................................................................... B-4

GPS Techniques ...................................................................................................... B-5


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Appendix C BASIC SURVEY COMPUTATIONS.........................................................................C-1

Computation of a Two-Point Intersection .................................................................C-1

Computation of a Grid Traverse and Side Shots......................................................C-7

Computation of a C-Factor .....................................................................................C-24

Computation of a Level Line ...................................................................................C-28

Appendix D SURVEY FORMS.....................................................................................................D-1

GLOSSARY ................................................................................................Glossary-1

BIBLIOGRAPHY .................................................................................. Bibliography-1

INDEX................................................................................................................Index-1


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PrefaceThis FM is a guide for military occupational specialty (MOS) 82D (Topographic Surveyor). I t

provides techniques not found in any commercial text concerning the precise determination of

p o s i t i o n , a z i m u t h , o r e l e v a t i o n o f a p o i n t . A d d i t i o n a l l y , t h i s p u b l i c a t i o n d e s c r i b e s a n d

standardizes procedures for performing recons, preparing station descriptions, and reporting and

briefing of su rvey pr ojects.

The m at erial in th is ma nua l is applicable, without m odificat ion, t o all geodetic survey projects in

all environments (prebattle, conventional war [nuclear and nonnuclear], low intensity conflicts,

and postbat tle). The cont ents comply with Army doctrine an d inter nat iona l precision surveying

pra ctices. This ma nua l does n ot provide previously published su rveying doctrin e or th eory a nd

m a y b e s u p p l e m e n t e d w i t h c o m m e r c i a l l y a v a i l a b l e t e x t s o r p r e v i o u s e d i t i o n s o f t e c h n i c a l

li terature.

Appendix A conta ins men sur al conversion cha rts.

Th e p r o pon e n t o f t h i s p u b l i ca t i o n i s H Q, TRADOC. Se n d c om m e n t s a n d r e c om m e n d a t i on s on

Departm ent of the Army (DA) Form 2028 directly to Un ited Sta tes (US) Army En gineer School

(USAES), Attent ion: ATSE-DOT-DD, Directora te of Training, 320 En gineer Loop, Su ite 336, F ort

Leonard Wood, Missouri 65473-8929.

Unless this publication states otherwise, masculine nouns and pronouns do not refer exclusively

to men.


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Missions, Operations, and Duties 1-1

Chapter 1

Missions, Operations, and Duties

Surveyors determine horizontal and vertical distances between objects,m e a s u r e a n g l es b e t w e e n l i n e s , d e t e r m i n e t h e d i r e ct i on of l in e s , a n d

establish points of predeterm ined angular an d linear measu rement s. Afterc o mp l e t i n g f i e l d me a s u r e me n t s , s u r v e y o r s u s e t h e s e me a s u r e me n t s t ocompute a final report that is used for positioning by field artillery (FA),

air-defense art i l lery (ADA), aviation, intell igence, communications, orcon s t r u c t i on con t r o l p oi n t s . A p p e n d ix B s u mm a r i ze s t h e s t a n d a r d s f orcontrol surveys, Appendix C details the recommended procedures for basic

survey computations, and Appendix D includes a list of survey forms.

SU RVEY MISSIONS

1-1. Army topographic sur veyors support multiple types of survey missions.

These missions can be peacetime or wa rt ime oriented.

SUPPORT DEPLOYABLE WEAPONS SYSTEMS

1-2. Army topogra phic surveyors support FA an d ADA deployable weapons

systems by acquiring position a nd a zimuth dat a a s follows:

F A. FA i s a p r im a r y u s e r of p r e ci se p os it i on i n g a n d or i en t a t i on

informa tion in a wa rt ime environmen t. Topograph ic-sur vey support isp r o v id e d t o t h e m u l t i p l e- la u n c h r o ck e t - s ys t e m ( ML R S ) u n i t s , t h e

corpss genera l-supp ort (GS) un its, an d other n ondivisional ass ets in

t h e co r p s a r e a a c cor d i n g t o F M 6 -2 . F A r e q u i r e s t h a t t op og r a p h i c

s u r v e y o r s p r o v i d e m o n u m e n t e d s u r v e y c o n t r o l p o i n t s ( S C P s )

(horizontal and vertical) and azimuthal references for conventional

a n d i n e r t i a l F A s u r v ey t e a m s . F A s o m e t i m e s r e q u i r e s t o p og r a p h i c

sur veyors to augmen t F A survey sections.

AD A. ADA requires positioning and orientation information for ADA

s y st e m s . AD A a n d F A h a v e a n a g r e em e n t t h a t F A s u r v e yor s

(MOS 82C) will provide direct ADA survey support.

SUPPORT THE NATIONAL IMAGERY AND MAPPING AGENCY

1-3. The National Imagery and Mapping Agencys (NIMAs) geodetic survey

d i vi s ion m a i n t a i n s U S Ar m y t o p og r a p h i c s u r v e y or s a s p a r t of t h e i r s u r v e y

fo r ce s t r u c t u r e . T h e s e s u r v e yo r s a r e i n v ol ve d a s t e a m l e a d e r s , a s t e a m

m e m b e r s , a n d i n t h e d a t a - r e d u ct i on p r o ce s s . I n a d d i t i on , t h e s e Ar m y

personnel a re u sed in a reas or situations where NIMA civilian personn el are

n o t a u t h o r i z e d ( S a u d i A r a b i a , S o m a l i a , a n d s o o n ) . N I M A h a s t h e

responsibility t o provide eart h-orienta tion dat a for t he N avigation-Satelli te

Timing a nd Ran ging (NAVSTAR) Global-Positioning Syst em (GPS). NIMA


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1-2 Missions, Operations, and Duties

provides corr elated World Geodetic System (WGS) 1984 (WGS-84) airfield

s u r v e ys a n d g e og r a p h i ca l a n d a e r on a u t i ca l d a t a b a s e i n f or m a t i on t h a t a r e

needed to support the aviation approach requirements. NIMA also determines

t r a n s fo r m a t i on p a r a m e t e r s b e t we e n g e od e t ic s y st e m s . I n m a n y a r e a s of t h ewo r l d , t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n p a r a m e t e r s a r e u n c e r t a i n o r u n r e l i a b l e . Du r i n g

times of conflict, Army topographic surveyors may be required to collect data

to enable NIMA to better formulate these tr ansformat ion para meters.

SUPPORT THE US ARMY AERONAUTICAL SERVICES AGENCY

1-4. The US Army Aeronautical Services Agency (USAASA) requires periodic

a i r f i e l d a n d n a v i g a t i o n a l - a i d ( NAVAI D) s u r v e y s a n d a i r p o r t o b s t r u c t i o n

ch a r t s ( AOCs ) a c co r d in g t o Ar m y r e g u l a t i on (AR) 9 5 -2 . Th e s e s u r v e ys a r e

e x t e n s i v e f i e l d - s u r v e y o p e r a t i o n s t h a t p r o v i d e a e r o n a u t i c a l a n d o t h e r

i n for m a t i on t o s u p p o r t a w i d e r a n g e o f N a t i on a l A ir s p a c e S y s t e m (N A S )

activities. AOC surveys provide source information on

P os it ion . Azim u th .

E le va t ion .

R u n wa ys a n d s t op wa y s.

N AVAI Ds .

Federa l Aviation Regulation (FAR), Pa rt 77 (FAR-77) obstr uctions.

Ai r cr a ft m ov em e n t a n d a p r on a r ea s .

Pr om i n en t a i r p or t b u il di n gs .

Se le ct e d r oa d s a n d ot h e r t r a ve r s e wa ys .

Cu lt u r a l a n d n a t u r a l fe a t u r e s of l a n d m a r k v a lu e .

Miscellaneous and special request i tems.

1-5. The positioning and orientation information for NAVAIDs is required toc e r t i f y t h e a i r f i e l d i n s t r u m e n t - l a n d i n g a p p r o a c h e s . A O C s u r v e y s a l s o

e s t a b l i s h g e o d e t i c c on t r o l i n t h e a i r p o r t v i c in i t y , c on s i s t i n g o f p e r m a n e n t

survey marks accurately connected to the National Spatial Reference System

( NSRS) . Th i s c o n t r o l a n d t h e NSRS c o n n e c t i o n e n s u r e a c c u r a t e r e l a t i v i t y

between surveyed points on the airport and between these points and other

surveyed point s in t he NAS, including th e na vigat ion sa tellites.

SUPPORT THE US AIR FORCE

1-6. The US Air Force (USAF) requires positioning a nd orienta tion data for

the initialization of Inert ial Navigation Systems (INSs), INS test pedestals,

NAVAIDs, and compass roses. The USAF relies on NIMA to satisfy all of its

p os i t i on i n g a n d or i e n t a t i on r e q u i r e m e n t s . Ar m y t o p og r a p h i c s u r v e yor s a r ecu r r e n t l y a s s i gn e d t o a s s i s t N I M A i n e s t a b l is h i n g s u r v e y con t r o l for t h e

USAF.

SUPPORT THE US ARMY INTELLIGENCE AND SIGNAL ELEMENTS

1-7. The intelligence and signal elements require positioning information for

r e m o t e -op e r a t e d v e h i cl e s, r e m o t e s e n s i n g -a n d - i m a g in g s y s t e m s , a n t e n n a

systems geolocation an d d irection, iner tial n avigation initializat ion, situ at ion

awareness, and combat identification. This information includes the following:


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A c c ur a c y . Th e a c cu r a c y r e q u ir e m e n t for i n t el li ge n ce a n d s ig n a l

e l em e n t s i s s i m i la r t o t h e a c cu r a cy e x p r e s s e d b y F A a n d A D A. I n

m a n y c a s e s , i n t e l li ge n c e a n d s i gn a l u n i t s c a n u s e t h e S C P s

esta blished for FA an d ADA. F r e q u e n c y a n d t i m e l i n e s s . The nu mber of SCPs an d th e t imeliness

are dependent on the battlefield and the mission.

D i s t r i but i o n. T h is s u r ve y i nfor m a t ion i s d is t r ib u t ed t o e a ch

intelligence and signal bat ta lions operat ions s ection, Operat ions a nd

T r a i n i n g O f f i c e r ( U S A r m y ) ( S 3 ) . T o p o g r a p h i c s u r v e y o r s a r e

responsible for notifying the S3 of the various datums within the area

of operation (AO). In addition, topographic surveyors provide the S3

with the necessary parameters and instructions on how to transform

local coordinates to a predefined common grid (for example, WGS 84).

SUPPORT JOINT-LEVEL MISSIONS

1-8. During joint-level operations, topographic surveyors may be tasked toperform a num ber of different missions. Topogra phic surveyors ar e capable of

p r o v i d i n g s u p p o r t t o a l l i e d n a t i o n s f o r a n y o f t h e a f o r e m e n t i o n e d d e f i n e d

a r e a s .

SUP PORT OTHER TOPOGRAPHIC MISSIONS

1-9. These other topograph ic missions ar e defined in AR 115-11, FM 5-105,

un it ta ble(s) of organ izat ion an d equipmen t (TOE), and directives from h igher

headquarters (HQ). These missions

Provide precise positioning to support t he updat ing of the MOS 81T

(Terrain Analyst) database.

Su p p or t con s t r u c t ion s u r v ey or s (wh e n p r oje ct s r e qu i r e r e a l-wor l d

coordinates). Establish and extend basic contr ol for field surveys.

Al low s u r v e y da t a a n d s t a t i on d e scr i pt i on ca r d s t o b e for wa r d e d t o

N I M A , t h e o r g a n i z a t i on s s u r v e y i n fo r m a t i o n c e n t e r (S I C ), a n d

collocated terr ain-ana lyst t eams (upon requ est).

SU RVEY OP ERATIONS

1 -1 0 . T h e a c t u a l s h a p e o f t h e s ol id m a s s o f t h e e a r t h i s r e fe r r e d t o a s t h e

topograph y. A geoid is defined as th e su rface of the eart hs gra vity (att ra ction

and rotation), which on the average, coincides with the mean sea level (MSL)

i n t h e o p en u n d i s t u r b e d o ce a n . A s p h e r o id ( a l s o ca l l e d a n e l li p s oi d o f

revolution) appears as a figure that is flattened at the poles and bulging at theequator. It can be described using a mathematical formula that approximately

d e fi n e s a p a r t o f t h e s u r fa c e o f t h e g e oi d . H o w ev e r , b e ca u s e of t h e g r e a t

variat ions in t opograph y, man y differen t ellipsoids exist. Becau se th e ear th s

surface is irregular and pieces of mat hema tical comput ations ar e un reliable,

t h e t y p e o f s u r v e y c o n d u c t e d d e p e n d s o n t h e p u r p o s e o r l e v e l o f a c c u r a c y

required.


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SURVEY TYPES

1-11. In plan e surveys, all points ar e referenced to a flat pla ne with curvatu re

w h o ll y or m o s t l y i gn o r e d . I n g e od e t i c s u r v e y s , a l l e s t a b l i s h e d p o i n t s a r e

referenced to the curved surface of a spheroid and, in all computations, theeffect of curvature is computed.

P l a n e S u r v e y

1 -1 2 . P l a n e s u r v e y s ig n or e t h e a ct u a l s h a p e o f t h e e a r t h a n d a p p l y t h e

principles of plane geometr y and t rigonometry. These sur veys ar e treat ed as if

t h e m e a s u r e m e n t s we r e m a d e o n a f l a t p l a n e , wit h a l l li n e s b ei n g s t r a i g h t .

When th e survey area is less th an 250 square k ilometers a nd less accura cy is

n e e d e d , c u r v a t u r e c a n b e i g n o r e d . M o s t l o c a l i z e d c o n s t r u c t i o n p r o j e c t s

(highway and railroad) and boundary projects use plane surveys.

G e o d e t i c S u r v e y

1 -1 3 . G e od e t i c s u r v e y s t a k e i n t o a c cou n t t h e s i ze a n d s h a p e o f t h e e a r t h .

Si n c e t h e s t a t i o n s i n g e o d e t i c s u r v e y s a r e r o u t i n e l y s p a c e d o v e r e x t e n d e d

d i s t a n c e s , m o r e p r e c i s e i n s t r u m e n t s a n d t e c h n i q u e s a r e r e q u i r e d t h a n f o r

plane su rveys. All observations are made on the actual curved sur face of the

earth and this curvature is corrected through computations.

SURVEY METHODS

C on v e n t i o n a l S u r v e y

1-14. Topographic sur veyors use theodolites, levels, an d distance meas uring

e q u ip m e n t (D M E ). T h e a u t o m a t e d i n t e g r a t e d s u r v e y i n s t r u m e n t (A IS I )

provides topographic surveyors with the capability to extend control through

the use of a total station.

G P S S u r v e y

1 - 1 5 . Th e NAVSTAR GPS i s c a p a b l e o f d e t e r m i n i n g a c c u r a t e p o s i t i o n a l ,

v e loc it y , a n d t i m i n g i n fo r m a t i on . T h e G P S p r o v id e s p o s it i o n a l a n d

n a v i g a t i o n a l d a t a t o c i v i l i a n a n d m i l i t a r y c o m m u n i t i e s i n t h e f o r m o f t wo

positional services. The Standard Positioning Service (SPS) encompasses the

ci vi li a n u s e r a n d t h e U S C oa s t G u a r d (U S C G ). W h e n u s i n g a s i n gl e G P S

r e c ei v er ( a b s ol u t e p o s it i on i n g ), S P S u s e r s a r e d e n i e d t h e h i gh - a c cu r a c y ,

i n s t a n t a n e o u s p o s i t i o n i n g c a p a b i l i t y o f t h e GPS. Th e Pr e c i s e Po s i t i o n i n g

Service (PPS) consists of military users and aut horized r epresentatives. PPS

users can obtain high-accuracy, instantaneous positioning if the receiver is

capable of accepting the necessary cryptologic variables.

1-16. Absolute and differential (relative) positioning methods using the GPS

provide a ccura te and timely positional da ta . The meth od of choice depends on

t h e a c cu r a c y r e q u i r e d , t h e e q u i p m e n t a v a i l a b l e , a n d t h e l o gi s t i c a l

r e q u i r e m e n t s . At p r e s e n t , t h e P P S G P S r e c e iv e r , w h i ch i s c a p a b l e o f

performing relative positioning, is the GPS-survey (GPS-S) differential GPS

(DGPS). The positioning methods are described as follows:


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Ab s o l u t e p o s i t i o n i n g . Ab s ol u t e p os it i on i n g u s e s a s in g le GPS

r e c e iv e r a n d d o e s n o t r e q u i r e k n o wn s u r v e y co n t r o l . Ab s ol u t e

p o s it i on s c a n p r o v id e i n s t a n t a n e o u s ( r e a l - t i m e ) or p o s t p r o ce s s e d

p o s it i on s . K n o w n s u r v e y c on t r o l is u n r e l i a b le o r n o n e x is t e n t i ni m m a t u r e t h e a t e r s . T o p og r a p h i c s u r v e yo r s ca n e s t a b l is h S C P s b y

using absolut e positioning.

D i f f e r e nt i a l po s i t i o ni ng . Differential positioning uses two or more

GPS receivers. One GPS receiver (reference receiver) is resident over a

known SCP. The remaining receivers (remote receivers) are used to

position points of interest. Differential positioning can be performed in

real t ime or through postprocessing. If real-time positioning results

a r e r e q u i r e d , a c om m u n i ca t i on s l in k t h a t i s ca p a b l e of t r a n s m i t t i n g

digital data must be established at the reference- and remote-receiver

l oca t i on s . T h i s m e t h od s u p p o r t s d i s t a n ce s u p t o 1 0 0 k i l om e t e r s

b e t we en t h e r e fe r e n c e a n d r e m o t e s t a t i on s . Th e e n g in e e r b a t t a l i on s

(t o p og r a p h i c) w it h i n t h e Ar m y h a v e P P S G P S r e c ei ve r s t h a t a r e

capable of real-time and postprocessed differential positioning andprovide r elative accur acy of appr oximately 1 cent imeter.

1-17. The a ccur acy of GPS-S is depend ent on th e user s equipmen t (precise

l i g h t w e i g h t G P S r e c e i v e r [ P L G R ] ) a n d t h e s u r v e y i n g m e t h o d e m p l o y e d

(absolute real-time or differential). Topographic surveyors have standardized

P P S G P S r e c e i v e r s . T h e s e r e c e i v e r s h a v e i m p r o v e d t h e e f f i c i e n c y a n d

productivity of topograph ic surveyors an d h ave pr ovided th e Defense Mapping

School (DMS) and the USAES a background on the training, operational, and

r e s e a r c h a n d d e v e lo pm e n t r e q u i r e m e n t s t h a t a r e n e ce s s a r y t o s u c ce s s fu l l y

field the GPS. The new GPS-S provides adequate absolute-positioning results

an d is designed t o provide protection in a jamming/spoofing environment . The

requiremen t for a PP S GPS r eceiver th at is capa ble of perform ing DGPS when

usin g the milita rys au th orized, encrypt ed pseud oran dom noise (PRN ) code (Y-c od e ) h a s b e e n m e t . T h i s r e c e iv e r s a t i s f i e s t h e p o s i t i on a l a c c u r a c y

requirements of the Army, the Department of Defense (DOD), and joint-level

commands.

SU RVEY CLASS IFICATIONS

1-18. Topogra phic surveyors a re capa ble of conducting and supporting a wide

variety of surveys. Surveys are classified as follows:

Ar t ille r y.

Ba s ic con t r o l.

S a te llit e.

C on s t r u ct ion . Airfield engineering and NAVAID.

H y dr og ra p h ic.

Field classification and inspection.

La nd.

I ner t ia l.


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Ar t i l le r y Sur v e y s

1-19. Artil lery surveys are conducted to determine the relative positions of

we a p o n s s y s t e m s t o t a r g e t s . Th e s e s u r v e y s d o n o t r e q u i r e t h e a c c u r a c y o f

g e o d e t i c - s u r v e y i n g t e c h n i q u e s d e s p i t e t h e r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e a r e a s a n d l o n gd i st a n c es . Th e r e q u i r e m e n t s , m e t h od s , a n d t e ch n i q u e s u s e d b y m i li t a r y F A

surveyors a re deta iled in FM 6-2 an d Cha pter 11 of this man ua l. ADA weapon

systems require accura cies th at are obtaina ble only from geodetic-surveying

techniques.

B a s i c -C o nt r o l Sur v e y s

1-20. Basic-control surveys provide horizontal and/or vertical positions of

p o i n t s . Su p p l e m e n t a r y s u r v e y s m a y o r i g i n a t e f r o m a n d c a n b e a d j u s t e d t o

t h e s e s u r v e ys . T h e b a s i c- co n t r o l s u r v e y of t h e U S p r o v id e s g e o gr a p h i c

p o s i t i o n s a n d p l a n e c o o r d i n a t e s o f t r i a n g u l a t i o n / t r a v e r s e s t a t i o n s a n d t h e

elevations or benchmarks (BMs). This information is used as the basis for the

contr ol of the US na tional topograph ic survey; th e contr ol of man y sta te, city,a n d p r i v a t e s u r v e y s ; a n d h y d r o g r a p h i c s u r v e y s o f c o a s t a l w a t e r s . T h e

techniques and methods used by military geodetic surveyors are discussed in

t h i s m a n u a l .

Sa t e l l i t e Sur v e y s

1-21. Sat ellite sur veys det ermine high-accur acy, three-dimensiona l (3D) point

positions from signals received by NAVSTAR GPS satelli tes. GPS-derived

p os i t i on s m a y b e u s e d t o p r o v id e p r i m a r y r e f er e n c e -c on t r o l m o n u m e n t

locations for engineering an d constru ction projects from which deta iled site

p l a n s , t o p og r a p h i c m a p p i n g , b ou n d a r y d e m a r ca t i o n , a n d c on s t r u c t i on -

alignment work may be performed using conventional-surveying instruments

and techniques.

C on s t r u c t i o n S u r v e y s

1 -2 2 . Con s t r u c t i on s u r v e y s p r o vi d e d a t a fo r p l a n n i n g a n d co st e s t i m a t i n g .

This dat a is essent ial to locate or lay out engineering works an d is recorded on

engineer ma ps. Plan e surveys ar e norma lly used for constr uction pr ojects. The

methods and techniques used by military construction surveyors are detailed

in FM 5-233.

Ai r fi e l d-E ng i ne e r i ng a nd N A VA ID S ur v e y s

1-23. Airfield-engineering an d NAVAID sur veys ar e used t o determine a ny

combin at ion of the following:

The locat ion of obsta cles with in 10 na ut ical miles of an a irfield center .

The dimensions of run ways and taxiways, the height of fl ight towers,

an d NAVAIDs.

Th e s a fe a p p r oa ch a n g le s t o r u n wa y s a n d t h e m i n im u m , s a fe gl id e

angle.

The elevation of the barometer on an airfield.

The positions and a zimut hs of points designated for INS checkpoints.


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Th e r e q u i r em e n t s of t h e Fe d er a l Av ia t i on Ad m in i s t r a t ion (FAA),

U n i t e d S t a t e s A r m y A e r o n a u t i c a l S e r v i c e s A g e n c y U S A A S A , o r

equivalent militar y activity.

Th e i n for m a t i on u s e d t o a s s is t a m i li t a r y -a i r cr a ft cr a s h or d i s a s t erincident investigation.

H y d r o g ra p h i c S u r v e y s

1-24. Hydrograp hic surveys are m ade on lar ge bodies of water t o determine

channel depths for navigation and the location of rocks, sandbars, lights, and

b u o ys . I n r i v e r s , t h e s e s u r v e ys a r e m a d e t o s u p p o r t f lo od - con t r o l p r o je ct s ,

power development, navigation, water supplies, and water storage.

F i e l d- C l a s s i f i c a t i o n a nd I ns pe c t i o n Sur v e y s

1-25. Field-classificat ion an d inspection sur veys can help t o ident ify feat ures

not norma lly r evealed using a compiler (for exam ple, political boundar y lines,

names of places, road classifications, and buildings obscured by trees). Thesesurveys can also clarify aerial photographs by using comparisons with actual

ground conditions.

L a n d S u r v e y s

1 -2 6 . La n d s u r v e y s a r e u s e d t o l oca t e t h e b o u n d a r i e s a n d a r e a s o f t r a c t s of

l a n d . T h e s e s u r v e y s m a y b e d o n e o n a c it y , c ou n t y , s t a t e , n a t i o n a l , or

international level.

I ne r t i a l Sur v e y s

1-27. Inertial surveys are u sed to determine relative positions a nd a zimut hs.

The P osition an d Azimut h Determina tion System (PADS) is now being u sed

extensively to support art illery surveys.

SU RVEY NE TWORKS

1-28. Each survey has a fundamental classification of control points called a

network. Ther e a re severa l different types of networks. A net work of control

a r e a s u s u a l ly e s t a b l is h e s h o r iz on t a l a n d v e r t i ca l S C P s w i t h i n a cou n t r y .

These areas are all referenced to a single datum and are related in position or

elevation to each other. Networks are classified as basic, supplementary, and

a u x i l ia r y . A ll h o r i zo n t a l n e t w o r k s i n t h e U S a r e r e f er e n c e d t o t h e N o r t h

American Datum (NAD) of 1927 (NAD 27) and the NAD of 1983 (NAD 83)

(N A D 8 3 a n d W G S 8 4 a r e t h e s a m e ) , w it h c oo r d i n a t e s c u r r e n t l y b e in g

published in both. The Na tional Geodetic Vertical Dat um of 1929 (NGVD 29)

a n d t h e No r t h Am e r i c a n Ve r t i c a l Da t u m o f 1 9 8 8 ( NAVD 8 8 ) a r e u s e d f o rvertical control points. Within the continental US (CONUS), the following

terms are used:

B a s i c H o r i z o nt a l - Co nt r o l N e t w o r ks

1-29. Basic horizontal-control networks a re u sua lly esta blished by first-order

g e od e t i c-t r i a n g u l a t i on , t r a v e r s e , or GPS p r o ce d u r e s . Th e l i n e s of t h e b a s i c

network are spaced at intervals of about 96 kilometers throughout a country.


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B a s i c V e r t ic a l -C o nt r o l N e t w o r ks

1 - 3 0 . B a s i c v e r t i c a l - c o n t r o l n e t w o r k s a r e e s t a b l i s h e d b y f i r s t - o r d e r

d i ffe r e n t i a l l e v e li n g a l on g l i n e s s p a c e d f r o m 9 0 t o 1 6 0 k i l om e t e r s a p a r t

t h r ou g h o u t t h e c ou n t r y . Pe r m a n e n t BM s ( PBM s ) a r e s p a c ed a t i n t e r v a l s of about 3 kilometers on th ese lines.

Suppl e m e nt a r y H o r i z o nt a l - C o nt r o l N e t w o r k

1-31. Supplementar y horizontal-control networks ar e usu ally established by

second-order survey techniques. These supplementary networks are used to

fill in t he a reas between t he ba sic-control lines. Ultima tely, eith er a basic or a

s u p p l e m e n t a r y n e t wo r k s t a t i o n wi ll b e s p a c e d a t i n t e r v a l s o f a b o u t 6 t o 1 6

kilometer s a cross a coun try.

Suppl e m e nt a r y V e r t i c a l -C o nt r o l N e t w o r k

1 -3 2 . Su p p l e m e n t a r y v e r t i ca l - con t r o l n e t wo r k s a r e e s t a b l i s h e d b y s e c on d -

order different ial leveling. These lines are run within t he ba sic-control lines t o

p r o vi d e a p l a n n e d c on t r o l-l in e s p a c in g a t i n t e r v a l s o f a b o u t 1 0 k i lom e t e r s .

PBMs are emplaced at intervals of about 2 kilometers apart on these lines.

A ux i l i a ry H o r i z o nt a l -C o nt r o l N e t w o r ks

1 - 3 3 . H o r i z o n t a l a u x i l i a r y - c o n t r o l n e t w o r k s a r e u s u a l l y e s t a b l i s h e d b y

second- or th ird-order sur vey techniques. Th ey provide localized cont rol to be

u s e d b y s u r v e yo r s f or a r t i l le r y c o n t r o l , co n s t r u c t i on - e n g i n e e r i n g s u r v e y s ,

map ping projects, or other positioning requ irement s. As more sta tes a nd other

agencies requ ire geodetic accur acy for boun dar y an d pr operty sur veys, th ey

will use these networks.

A ux i l i a ry V e r t ic a l -C o nt r o l N e t w o r ks

1 -3 4 . Au x i l ia r y v e r t i ca l - co n t r o l n e t w o r k s a r e e s t a b l i s h e d b y t h i r d -or d e r

different ial leveling a nd ar e u sed t o provide localized vertical cont rol. They

are also used to support a rtillery, constru ction, and en gineering pr ojects.

SURVEY EQUIPMENT

C on v e n t i o n a l S u r v e y E q u i p m e n t

1-35. Topographic surveyors have theodolites, levels, and electronic DME

(EDME) with in t heir inventory. The AISI pr ovides topograph ic surveyors with

the capability to extend control in a t imelier a nd more efficient m ann er. The

A I S I i s a t o t a l s t a t i o n t h a t c o m b i n e s a n g u l a r , d i s t a n c e , a n d v e r t i c a l

measurements into a single electronic instrument that is designed to digitally

record and transfer data into a personal computer (PC).

NAVSTAR GPS

1 - 3 6 . Th e NAVSTAR GPS i s c a p a b l e o f d e t e r m i n i n g a c c u r a t e p o s i t i o n a l ,

v e loci t y , a n d t i m i n g i n f or m a t i on . T h e P P S co n s is t s o f m il it a r y u s e r s a n d

a u t h o r i z e d r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s . A P P S u s e r c a n o b t a i n h i g h - a c c u r a c y

insta nta neous positioning if the receiver is capable of accepting t he n ecessar y


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cryptologic variables. When two or more receivers a re used, it is called DGPS

s u r v e y i n g . Th e e r r o r v a l u e s a r e d e t e r m i n e d a n d r e m o v e d f r o m t h e s u r v e y

either by real-time processing or postprocessing of the dat a. Th e type of DGPS

survey used is dependent on a ccur acy requirement s. There ar e two basic typesof DGPS sur veysstatic and dynam ic.

S t a ti c s u r v e y. S t a t ic s u r ve yin g u s es a s t a t ion a r y n e t wor k of

receivers th at collect simu ltan eous observations over a predeter mined

time interval and yield the best accuracy.

D y n a m i c s u r v e y. Dynamic surveying uses one stationary receiver

a n d a n y n u m b e r o f r e m o t e o r r o v i n g r e c e i v e r s . I t a l l o ws f o r r a p i d

movement an d th e collection of data over a lar ge area. When opera ting

in t he r eal-time m ode, the roving r eceiver can provide very accur at e

positions almost insta nt aneously on t he bat tlefield.

C o m put e r I nf o r m a t i o n Sy s t e m s

1-37. Sur veying ha s become a digital science. Modern sur vey systems workw i t h s o f t w a r e s p e c i f i c a l l y d e s i g n e d t o p r o c e s s f i e l d d a t a , p e r f o r m

computations, and produce a precise product, whether it be a GPS network, a

d i gi t a l d a t a b a s e , o r a co m p u t e r - a i d e d d e s i g n ( CAD) a n d d r a f t i n g ( CADD).

GPS-S computat ions r equire a PC t o process large am ount s of mat hemat ical

variables. Effort s should be ongoing to obta in or u pgrade t o the fastest system

available. Computer resources are standardized throughout TOE units with

topographic surveyors. Application (such as databases or word processing)

and fun ctional (such as adjustm ent or CAD) softwar e packages ha ve increased

th e efficiency a nd productivity of topograph ic sur veyors. The SIC collects an d

d i s s em i n a t e s t h e p o s it i on i n g a n d o r ie n t a t i on r e q u i r e m e n t s fo r s u c h

o r g a n i z a t i o n s a s NI M A, FA, ADA, Ar m o r , a n d t h e USAF a n d m a i n t a i n s a

d i g i t a l d a t a b a s e c a p a b l e o f a r c h i v i n g , q u e r y i n g , a n d m a n i p u l a t i n g s u r v e y

cont rol. Topogra phic surveyors a re equipped with common GPS h ar dware a ndsoftwar e an d CAD an d su rvey-applicat ion softwar e.

SURVEY-PERSONNEL DUTIES

1 -3 8 . Top o gr a p h i c s u r v e y o r s s u p e r v i s e a n d / or c on d u c t s u r v e ys t o p r o vi d e

c o n t r o l d a t a f o r m a p p i n g , a r t i l l e r y , a n d a v i a t i o n s u p p o r t a n d s u p e r v i s e o r

perform topographic or geodetic computations. Duties for MOS 82D (at each

skill level) ar e iden tified below.

MOS 82D10

1-39. Skill level 1 surveyors

Record topographic-survey data.

O pe r a t e a n d colle ct d a t a w it h a G P S , el ect r on ic a n d m e ch a n ica l

th eodolites, E DME, a nd different ial-leveling equipment .

Perform topographic computa tions; compute elevations of t idal BMs

a n d b a s e l in e s ; a n d t r a n s p o r t , s e t u p , o p e r a t e , a n d m a i n t a i n

e q u i p m e n t a c cor d i n g t o w r i t t e n , o r a l , or v i su a l i n s t r u c t i on s fr o m

supervisors.

Prepare abstra cts of field data for final computa tions.


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As sis t in t h e e m pla ce m en t a n d r e cov er y of c on t r ol s t a t ion s a n d

prepare station description cards.

Compute abstracted survey data for final tabulation.

MOS 82D20


T r a n sp or t , s e t u p , op er a t e , a n d m a in t a i n e q u ip m en t a ccor d in g t o

written , ora l, or visual ins tru ctions from su pervisors.

M a k e fi el d ch e ck s t o e n s u r e t h a t fi el d m e a s u r em e n t s m e e t p r o je ct

specificat ions an d classificat ions.

Perform observations and compare, standardize, and calibrat e survey

equipment.

Input field-survey data into CAD programs and process CAD data into

final products.

Transfer, process, and adjust GPS data by using survey software andPCs.

Com p u t e a n d a d ju s t fi r st -, s e con d -, a n d t h i r d -or d e r h o r iz on t a l - a n d

vertical-control surveys.

P er for m p r elim in a r y a n d fie ld com p ut a t ion s t o ve rify fie ld

observations for control surveys and compute preliminary values of

horizont al a nd vertical control points .

Con v er t g r id a n d g eod e t ic coor d i n a t e s a n d t r a n s for m (i n t h e s a m e

system) coordinates an d a zimuth s from one zone to adjacent zones.

Operate and write programs for programma ble electronic calculators.

Op er a te P Cs .

Direct an d contr ol personnel when acting as a survey-party chief.

MOS 82D30


Supervise and direct topographic surveys.

Prepa re project progress reports and condu ct project briefings.

Recom m e n d t h e m e t h od of com p u t a t i on a n d a d j u s t m en t a n d t h e n e ed

for additional data.

Evaluate and verify results of all computa tions.

D ir e ct t h e t r a n s por t a t ion , s et u p , o pe r a t ion , a n d m a i nt e n a n ce of

equipment according t o written, oral, or visual inst ru ctions.

Perform a sur vey recon (to include pictur e-point selection) and ma in

and secondary survey-station placement and evaluate field data andthe results obtained.

Plan a nd a nalyze the collection of tra verse, triangulation, leveling,

and satellite data and isolate computational or field blunders.

Supervise CAD survey operations.

MOS 82D40



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Plan and approve topographic surveys.

Su p e r vi se r e con s t u d ie s a n d r e con n o it e r s u r v e y s it e s t o d e t er m i n e

special r equirement s of obstacles encount ered.

Plan and arr an ge logistical support for topograph ic-sur vey activities. Plan and organize work activities.

Coordinate surveying and computing activities.

S u p er vi se fi eld -s u r ve y a ct iv it ie s in s u pp or t of t a s k a n d m is sion

requirements.

Determine composition and operational t echniques of topographic-

survey parties.

Perform quality checks on survey data.

Collect a vailable chart s, maps, control lists, aerial photographs, and

o t h e r t o p og r a p h i c d a t a t h a t a r e n e ce s s a r y t o m a i n t a i n a d e p loy a b le

database.

D is se m in a t e s u r ve y d a t a .

Serve as the technical aut hority in all survey matt ers.

FIELDWORK

1-43. Topogra phic surveyors per form most of th eir opera tional dut ies away

from the par ent un it. Topograph ic surveying involves fieldwork over a project

a r e a o r b a t t l e fi e ld . Su r v e y fi e ld wo r k c on s i s t s o f m a k i n g o b s e r v a t i o n s a n d

m e a s u r e m e n t s ; r e cor d i n g d a t a ; a n d r e t u r n i n g t h e d a t a t o a com p u t e r a n d / or

draftsman for comput ation, compilation, a nd dissemination. Su rveyors mu st

overcome many factors that combine to affect working conditions. They must

be consta ntly a lert to various factors such th e following:

We a t he r a nd t e r r a i n. Weather an d ter rain can adversely affect field

sur veys. Th e effectiveness of optical an d electro-optical instr umen tscan be severely reduced by fog, mist, sm og, or ground h aze. Swamps

a n d f l o o d p l a i n s u n d e r h i g h wa t e r c a n i m p e d e l e v e l i n g o p e r a t i o n s .

Signals from the GPS constellation generally require a clear l ine of

s i g h t t o t h e s k y . Ur b a n a n d f o r e s t e d a r e a s c a n m a s k o r d e f l e c t t h e

direct signal that is needed for accurate measurements. Good recon

and proper planning can alert the field parties of the best t imes and

methods to use.

P e r s o n n e l . The rate of progress often varies in direct proportion to

the training and experience level of the assigned personnel. The most

effective meth od of tra ining personnel is un der conditions wher e th eir

actions ha ve rea l consequence a s opposed t o mere pra ctice. On-the-job

tra ining produces a measura ble product but frequently results in lostwork due t o correcting mistakes.

E q u i p m e n t . Equipment reliabili ty must be considered when setting

c om p l e t i on d a t e s . M od e r n , w e l l -m a i n t a i n e d e q u i p m e n t c a n o ft e n

increase the rat e of progress. Older equipmen t, if properly maint ained

or adjust ed, will yield accura te r esults. Repa iring or replacing broken

instruments or parts will sometimes slow down or stop a field survey.

Eq u i p m e n t m u s t b e c a l i b r a t e d a s p a r t o f c o m b a t c h e c k s b e f o r e t h e

sur vey mission begins.


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P u r p o s e . Th e p u r p o s e a n d t h e t y p e o f s u r v e y wi l l d e t e r m i n e t h e

a c c u r a c y r e q u i r e m e n t s . Co n t r o l n e t wo r k s a r e e s t a b l i s h e d b y u s i n g

high-accuracy GPS, t rian gulation, tr averse, or leveling procedur es. At

t h e o t h e r e x t r e m e , c u t s a n d f i l l s f o r a h i g h w a y h a v e m u c h l o w e rstan dards. In some surveys, distan ces to inaccessible points m ust be

d e t e r m i n e d . H i g h -a c cu r a cy d i s t a n c e a n d a n g l e m e a s u r e m e n t s a r e

required so that these values, when used in trigonometric formulas,

will yield a cceptable r esults. Th is type of survey is directly dependent

on t h e c le a r n e s s o f t h e a t m o s p h e r e . Ob s e r vi n g m e a s u r e m e n t s fo r a

single position can be delayed for days while waiting on good weather.

A c c ur a c y . Accu r a c y r e qu i r em e n t s wil l d ict a t e t h e e qu i p m en t a n d

techniques selected. F or insta nce, compara tively rough t echn iques can

be used for elevations in site surveys, but control-network leveling

requires mu ch more precise an d expensive equipment and extensive,

time-consuming techniques.

Errors. Al l m e a s u r e m e n t s con t a i n s om e a m o u n t of e r r or . Er r o r s

c l a s s i f i e d a s s y s t e m a t i c a n d a c c i d e n t a l a r e t h e m o s t c o m m o nuncontrollable errors. Besides errors, measurements are susceptible

t o m i s t a k e s o r b l u n d e r s t h a t a r i s e f r o m m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e

problem, poor judgment, confusion, or carelessness. The overall effect

of m i s t a k e s a n d b l u n d e r s c a n b e g r e a t l y r e d u c e d b y fo ll ow i n g a

p r e e s t a b l is h e d s y s t e m a t i c p r oc ed u r e . T h i s p r o c ed u r e w i ll b e

advantageous in all phases of a survey.

P r o g r e s s r a t e s . Rates of progress vary, depending on experience an d

r e p e t i t i o n . As s k i l l a n d c o n fi d e n c e i n c r e a s e , s o d o e s s p e e d . P r o p e r

p r e p a r a t i o n a n d p l a n n i n g r e d u c e d u p l i ca t i o n o f e ffor t a n d i n c r e a s e

efficiency.

E n e m y . A hostile environment often forces a schedule adjustment.

N i g h t w o r k r e q u i r e s g r e a t e r s p e e d , f e w e r l i g h t s , a n d i n c r e a s e dsecurity. Adding security forces increases the number of vehicles and

personnel, which in tu rn , reduces efficiency and ret ar ds even th e most

ambitious time schedule.

OBSERVATION OF DISTANCES AND DIRECTIONS

1-44. Topographic surveyors observe distances and/or directions (angles) for

the following reasons:

T o e st a b lis h G P S, t r ia n g u la t ion , a n d t r a ve r se s t a t ion s for b a sic,

supplementary, and auxiliary control networks.

To establish gun and target positions for arti l lery batteries.

To establish horizonta l control to support PADS.

To establish point and lines of reference for locating details (such as

b ou n d a r y l i n e s , r o a d s , b u i l d i n g s , fe n c e s , r i v er s , b r i d ge s , a n d o t h e r

existing feat ures).

To stake out or locate roads, buildings, landing strips, pipelines, and

other construction projects.

To es t a b li sh l in e s p a r a l le l t o, or a t r i gh t a n g le s t o, ot h e r l i n es o r t o

determine t he a rea of tra cts of land, m easur e inaccessible distances,

or extend st raight lines beyond obsta cles.


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To establish picture points for databases.

To d o a n y ot h er w or k t h at r equ ir es t h e u se of geom et r ic or

trigonometric principles.

OBSERVATION OF DIFFERENCES IN ELEVATIONS

1-45. Topograph ic surveyors observe differen ces in elevation (DEs) for th efollowing rea sons:

To e s t a bl is h BMs for b a s ic, s u p p l em e n t a r y , o r a u x il ia r y v er t i ca l -

cont rol networks.

To determine DEs of terrain a long a selected l ine for plotting projects

and computing grade lines.

T o s t a ke ou t gr a de s, cu t s, a n d fills for e ar t h m ovin g a n d ot h er

construction projects.

For trigonometric elevations of triangulation and tr averse stations for

cont rol networks an d ma pping projects.

To establish gun and tar get positions for FA batteries.

RECORDING OF FIELD NOTES

1-46. Topograp hic surveyors record field notes t o provide a perma nent recordof the fieldwork. These n otes ma y ta ke a ny of the following forma ts:

Field-recording booklets.

Single-sheet recording forms.

Digital disks or devices for automated data r ecording.

L a n d-s u r ve y p la n s .

P r op er t y p la n s.

Recovery and station description cards. Control diagrams showing the relative location, method, and t ype of

control established and/or recovered.

Even the best field survey is of little value if the field notes are not completeand clear. The field notes are the only records that are left after the surveyparty leaves the field site. Surveyorsnotes must contain a complete record ofall measurements or observations made during the survey. When necessary,s k e t ch e s , d i a g r a m s , a n d n a r r a t i on s h o u l d b e m a d e t o c la r i fy n o t e s . W r it eovers, era sur es, or use of corr ection ta pe or fluid ar e st rictly forbidden. Th eseactions, when prohibited by the un its sur vey sta nding operat ing procedur e(SOP), are cause for punishment under the Uniform Code of Military Justice.Re c o r d i n g e r r o r s a r e t o b e l i n e d o u t a n d i n i t i a l e d b y t h e r e c o r d e r a n d t h ecorr ected r eading ent ered on t he r ecording form.

Q ua l i t y

1-47. Good field notes share the following qualities:

N e a t n e s s . The lettering should conform to the gothic style portrayedin F M 5-553. All entries should be forma tted according to unit SOPs.

L e g i bi l i t y . On ly on e i n t er p r e t a t i on s h ou l d b e p os s ib le . Deci m a lpoints and commas must be clear and distinct.


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C o m p l e t e n e s s . All entries should be complete, and all resolved datamust be finished according to unit SOPs. All entries musts Be done on the correct forms and entirely in the field. Never record

notes on scrap paper and then transcribe them to a field-recordingf or m . I f p e r for m i n g a n u n d e r g r o u n d s u r v e y , u s e a c ov e r e dclipboard to protect th e notes.

s Accurately describe the field experience. Sketches, diagrams, andnotes will reduce or eliminat e questions.

O r g a ni z a t i o n

1 -4 8 . S u r v e y n ot e s a r e u s u a l l y k e p t i n a fi e ld n o t e b o ok , o n i n d i v id u a l

recording forms, or in an automated data collector. Loose-leaf sheets should be

num bered serially to ensure t hat all sheets ar e kept an d tur ned in. Regardless

of the form at used, include

The instru ctions for the ret urn of the notes or cassette tapes (specify

a n y s p e c i a l - h a n d l i n g r e q u i r e m e n t s ) i n c a s e t h e y a r e l o s t . Us u a l l y ,they should be returned t o the comma nder of the particular unit .

An index of the field notes an d a cross-reference to additional books or

binders.

A list of party personnel and their duties and the projects beginning

and ending dates.

A list of instrument s used (include types, serial numbers, calibrat ion

dates, constan t values, an d dat es used).

A generalized sketch an d description of the project.

Th e a ct u a l s u r v ey n ot e s on e a ch p a g e t h a t con t a i n d a t a . Fi ll ou t t h e

heading an d include t he following inform at ion:

s The station names (include the establishing agency and date).

s The survey date.

s T he n a m es a n d s ur ve y d u t ies of p er s on n el (for e xa m ple ,

instrument operator or note keeper).

s The instru ments used (include t he serial nu mbers).

s Weather data.

s The a ctu al observed data (include all required r eductions).

s Pertinent notes, as r equired.

s The observers initials a t t he bott om r ight corn er of the r ecording

for m ( in d i ca t i n g t h a t t h e ob s e r v er h a s c h e ck e d a l l e n t r i e s a n d

ensures t hat they ar e correct).

F o r m a t1 -4 9 . R e co r d i n g o f fi e ld n o t e s t a k e s t h r e e g e n e r a l f or m s t a b u l a t i on s ,

sketches, an d descriptions.

T a bul a t i o ns . Numerical data is recorded in columns following a

prescribed format, depending on the type of operation, the instrument

used, a nd the specificat ions for th e t ype of sur vey.

S k e t c h e s . Sketches add much to the clarity of field notes and should

b e u s e d l i b e r a l l y . T h e y m a y b e d r a w n t o s c a l e ( a s i n p l a n e - t a b l e


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surveys), or they can be drawn to an approximat e scale (as in control

c a r d s ) . I f n e e d e d , u s e a n e x a g g e r a t e d s c a l e t o s h o w d e t a i l .

M e a s u r e m e n t s s h o u l d b e a d d e d d i r e ct l y on t h e s k e t ch o r k e y e d i n

s o m e wa y t o a v oi d c on f u s i on . Sk e t c h e s r e q u i r e t h e s a m e q u a l it y a sother field notes.

D e s c r i p t i o n s . Ta b u la t i on s wit h or wit h ou t s k e t ch e s ca n a l s o b e

s u p p l e m e n t e d w i t h n a r r a t i ve d e s cr i p t i on s . T h e d e s c r i p t i on m a y

consist of a few words, or it may be very detailed. Survey notes become

a part of historic records, so a brief description entered at the time of

the sur vey may be importan t a nd helpful in th e futu re.

1-50. Ab b r e v i a t i o n s a n d S y m b o l s . S t a n d a r d a b b r e v ia t i o n s , s ig n s , a n d

s y m b o l s s h o u l d b e u s e d i n a l l s u r v e y n o t e s a n d m u s t b e c o n s i s t e n t w i t h

g u i d e li n e s i n s u c h p u b l i ca t i o n s a s AR 3 10 -5 0 a n d FM s 2 1 -3 1 a n d 1 0 1 -5 -1 .

Spell out words if there is any doubt about the meaning or interpretation of a

symbol or abbreviation.

1-51. C o r r e c t i o n s . Field notes are considered legal documents and can beused in court proceedings. As such, no erasur es or write overs ar e permitted.N o p o s i t i on w i l l b e v oi d e d o r r e j e ct e d i n t h e f ie l d , e x ce p t i n t h e c a s e o f disturbing the instrument or target or observing the wrong target. In eithercase, the position should be reobserved and th e location of th e reobserved da tas h o u l d b e n o t e d i n t h e r e m a r k s s e ct i on . F o ll ow t h e s e r u l e s f or m a k i n gcorrections:

N o e r a s u re s . All fieldwork will be done in black or blue-black ink( wi t h n o e r a s u r e s ) t h a t i s s u i t a b l e f or p h o t oc op y i n g . T h e o n l yexception is the field sheet of a plane-table survey.

N o w r i te o v e r s. Field notes show what happened in the field. If anumber is changed, make a single slanted l ine through the incorrectn u m b e r . Th e i n d i v i d u a l m a k i n g t h e c o r r e c t i o n s i n s e r t s t h e c o r r e c tnu mber directly above or n ext to the corrected value, creatin g the n ewentry a nd initialing th e change. A note will be entered in the remarkscolumn st ating why the n umber was chan ged.

OFFICE WORK

1-52. Sur veying pr ocedures also consist of converting t he field mea sur ement si n t o a m o r e u s a b l e fo r m . U s u a l l y, t h e c on v e r s i on s or c om p u t a t i o n s a r erequired immediately to continue the fieldwork. At other times, they must beheld until a series of field measurements is completed. This is called officework even t hough some of th e opera tions may be perform ed in th e field duringlapses between m easur ement s. Some office work requires the use of specialequipment (calculat ors, P Cs, or dra fting equipmen t) or extensive references

a n d w or k i n g a r e a s . D u r i n g s u r v e y op e r a t i o n s , m a n y f i el d m e a s u r e m e n t sr e q u i r e s o m e f o r m o f a r i t h m e t i c a l c o m p u t a t i o n . F o r e x a m p l e , a d d i n g o rs u b t r a c t i n g D E s t o d e t e r m i n e t h e h e i gh t o f i n s t r u m e n t (H I ) or e l e v a t i onduring leveling or checking angles to see that the allowable error (AE) is notexceeded.

COMPUTING

1-53. Office compu ting converts distan ces, an gles, GPS m easur ements, a nd

rod readings into a more usable form or adjusts a position of some point or


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mark from which other measurements can be made. This process involves the

computation of

D i s t a n c e s . The desired result is the horizontal distance between two

p oi n t s . I n e l ec t r o n i c d i s t a n ce m e a s u r e m e n t (EDM ) , t h e d i s t a n c e isu s u a l l y o n a s l o p e a n d h a s t o b e c o r r e c t e d f o r t e m p e r a t u r e a n d

b a r o m e t r i c p r e s s u r e a n d t h e n r e d u c e d t o t h e c o r r e c t h o r i z o n t a l

distance.

A z i m u t h s a n d b e a r i n g s . In many operations, the observed angles

are converted into directions of a line from nort h (azimuth s) or n orth-

south (bearings).

R e l a t i v e po s i t i o ns . The distance and direction of a line between two

points determ ine th e position of one point r elative to the other point . If

the direction is given as an azimuth bearing, a trigonometric formula

(using t he sin e or cosine of th e an gle multiplied by th e distan ce) can be

used t o determine a coordinate difference between t he t wo points.

ADJUSTING

1 -5 4 . S o m e s u r v e y t e c h n i q u e s a r e n o t co m p l et e u n t i l on e o r m o r e of t h e

f o l l o wi n g a d j u s t m e n t s a r e p e r f o r m e d . Ad j u s t i n g i s t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n a n d

applicat ion of corr ections to da ta . Adjust ing provides a mean s of dealing with

t h e r a n d o m e r r o r s i n a s u r v e y n e t wor k a n d ca u s e s t h e d a t a t o b e con s i s t e n t

w i t h i n i t s e l f a n d t o a g i v e n s e t o f r e fe r e n c es . S m a l l e r r o r s t h a t a r e n o t

a p p a r e n t d u r i n g i n d i v i d u a l m e a s u r e m e n t s c a n a c c u m u l a t e t o a s i z a b l e

amount. In a l inear adjustment, for example, assume th at 100 measurements

we r e m a d e t o t h e n e a r e s t u n i t a n d r e q u ir e d d e t e r m in i n g wh i ch u n i t m a r k i s

closer to the actual measurement. Adjusting the result requires reducing each

m e a s u r e m e n t b y t h e p r od u c t t h a t r e s u l t s fr o m d i vi d in g t h e e r r o r b y t h e

n u m b e r of m e a s u r e m e n t s . S i n ce t h e m e a s u r e m e n t s w e r e on l y r e a d t o t h e

nearest unit , a single adjustment would not be measurable at any point and

th e adjusted result would be correct. Some of the more pr ecise surveys require

least-squar e a djustment s.

GP S n e tw o r k a n d l e as t -s q ua re a d ju s tm e n t. A l ea s t -s q u a r e

a d j u s t m e n t i s t h e b a s i s fo r c or r e c t i n g GPS ( a n d t r a v e r s e ) n e t wo r k s

t h a t u s e a u t o m a t i o n t o c om p u t e s o lu t i o n s i n g e om e t r y a n d p r o d u ce

g e o d e t i c a c c u r a c y . A l e a s t - s q u a r e a d j u s t m e n t i n a s u r v e y n e t wo r k

allows for the computation of a single solution for each station and

m i n i m i z e s t h e c o r r e c t i o n s m a d e t o t h e f i e l d o b s e r v a t i o n s . A l e a s t -

s q u a r e a d j u s t m e n t u s e s p r o b a b i li t y i n d e t e r m i n i n g t h e v a l u e s f or

p a r t i c u l a r u n k n o wn s , i n d e p e n d e n t l y we i g h s a l l f i e l d o b s e r v a t i o n s ,

h i g h l ig h t s l a r g e e r r o r s a n d b l u n d e r s t h a t w e r e o ve r l oo k ed b e f or e

a d j u s t m e n t , a n d g e n e r a t e s i n for m a t i on f or a n a l y s is a f t e r t h eadjustm ent (including est imat es of the precision of its solutions).

T r a v e r s e . T ra ve rs e is t h e m ea su r em en t of len gt h s a n d t h e

determination of directions of a series of lines between known points

t h a t e s t a b l is h e s t h e co or d i n a t e s of t h e i n t e r m e d i a t e p o in t s . W h e n

c o m p u t e d , t h e a c c u m u l a t e d c l o s i n g e r r o r s h o w s u p a s a p o s i t i o n

d i s p l a ce m e n t o f a k n o wn p o i n t . Th e d i s p l a ce m e n t i s co r r e c t e d a n d

distributed among the intermediate (traverse) points.


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E l e v a t i o n. Depending on the purpose, the elevations on some level

lines are computed as the measurements are taken. When the l ine is

c los e d , t h e D E b e t w e e n t h e m e a s u r e d a n d t h e k n o w n e l e va t i o n i s

adjusted over a ll the sta tions in th e line. In higher-order leveling, onlythe DEs are recorded during the measuring and all adjusting is done

at the completion of the l ine. The error is th en distributed a mong the

various sections of the line.

ESTABLISHING RECORDS

1-55. Office computations reduce the field notes to a tabular or graphic form.

They become a permanent record and are stored for further use or subsequent

op e r a t i o n s . M a n y s t a n d a r d i ze d f or m s a r e a v a i l a b le a n d s h ou l d b e u s e d . As

l on g a s t h e s h e e t s a r e c le a r l y i d en t i f ie d a n d b ou n d a s a s e t , t h e y a r e

acceptable. Norma lly, all field n otes should be abst ra cted a nd filed separ at ely.

The abstracts should be bound along with all computing forms into a single

binder or folder a nd m aint ained on file for furth er r eference. All pages should

h a v e t h e n a m e a n d d a t e o f t h e p e r s o n p e r for m i n g t h e wor k a n d a t l e a s t o n e

p e r s o n w h o v e r i f ie d t h a t p a g e . D o n o t d i s p os e o f or d e s t r o y a n y o f t h e s e

records.

CHECKING

1-56. Surveying involves a series of checks. The field notes should be checked

by the observer, the recorder, and the party chief before they are turned in for

office work. Before computing, the assigned person should check the notes

again. Most mat hemat ical problems can be solved by more t han one m ethod.

In checking a set of computations, i t may be desirable to use a method that

d i ff er s fr o m t h e or i g in a l c om p u t a t i on m e t h o d . An i n v e r s e s o lu t i o n m a y b e

u s e d , s t a r t i n g wi t h t h e c om p u t e d v a l u e s a n d s o lv in g f or t h e f i el d d a t a or a

graphic solution. Ea ch step tha t cann ot be checked by any other m eans m ustbe checked by a totally independent r ecomputa tion by another individua l. Any

errors or mistakes t hat are found must be resolved and rechecked before t he

computation is accepted.

SU RVEY COMMUN ICATION

1 -5 7 . Su r v e y -p a r t y m e m b e r s m a y f in d t h e m s e l ve s s e p a r a t e d . Th e a b il it y t o

communicate with each other may mean th e difference between su ccessfully

completing a section of work or not. Even at relatively short distances (as in

s i t e s u r v e y s o r l e v e li n g o p e r a t i on s ) , b a c k g r ou n d n o i s es ca n o bs c u r e d i r e c t

voice contact. At longer distances, such as in EDM or direction-measurement

operations, effective direct voice contact is impossible. Ther efore, some other

type of commun icat ion is requ ired.

VOICE

1-58. On long lines, where hand signals are impossible, a radio must be used.

Each theater of operations or Army command has published communications-

e l e c t r o n i c s o p e r a t i o n i n s t r u c t i o n s ( C E O I ) t h a t u n i t s m u s t f o l l o w . O n l y

fr e q u e n c ie s o b t a i n e d t h r o u g h t h e l o ca l s i g n a l o ffi ce r m a y b e u s e d . A ll

p e r s o n n e l m u s t b e fa m i l i a r wi t h t h e CEOI a n d t h e u n i t s c om m u n i c a t i on s


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SOP before using a ra dio. All radio commu nications m ust be kept a s short a nd

secure as possible.

1 -5 9 . O v er s h o r t e r d i s t a n c e s , d u r i n g a l l t y p e s o f s i t e s u r v e y s , t h e A IS I

provides one-way voice communication. Two-way communication is preferredfor short distances. Most units have some type of hand-held radios, although

they ar e not TOE equipment. These r adios should be able to commu nicate up

to 5 k ilometers a nd should not be limited to line of sight only. Portability, ease

of o p er a t i on , a n d fr e q u e n c y p r o g r a m m a b i li t y s h o u l d b e co n s i de r e d w h e n

procur ing th is type of communication equipment. Military h an d-held r adios

are readily available in m ost milita ry commu nities.

1 -6 0 . T O E c h a n g e s a r e r e p l a c in g f r e q u e n c y m od u l a t e d (F M ) r a d i o s w i t h

Si n g l e -Ch a n n e l Gr o u n d - t o -Air Ra d i o Sy s t e m s ( SI NCGARSs ) . Th e n e e d t o

communicate across large distances is increasing in frequency. GPS-Ss are

c o n d u c t e d a t d i s t a n c e s o f u p t o 2 5 k i l o m e t e r s a n d d e p e n d u p o n

synchronization between receivers during data collection. Any disruption from

a single stat ion in a GP S net work can resu lt in a total loss of effort.

DIGITAL

1 -6 1 . Th e p r i m a r y f ocu s of s u r v e y op e r a t i on s d u r i n g wa r t i m e i s t o o p er a t e

q u i ck l y ov e r l a r g e d i s t a n c e s . T h i s r e q u i r e s t h e a b i l it y t o t r a n s m i t d a t a

digitally over the battlefield. The type of data will be largely or entirely GPS

data . In order for a survey team to provide accura te positions where n eeded

a n d i n a t i m e ly m a n n e r , t h e y n e e d t o op e r a t e i n r e a l t i m e wit h o u t h a v in g t o

process out t he er ror code embedded in a GPS signal. The process of real-time

GPS su rveying begins with a base-station receiver th at broadcasts corr ections

t o t h e s i gn a l s e m a n a t i n g f r om t h e GPS s a t e l li t e s . Ar m y s u r v e yor s h a v e t h e

following two means of transmitting this data:

R a d io m o d e m . Su r v ey or s h a v e a r a d i o m od e m t h a t i s d e s ig n edprimarily for broadcasting DGPS corrections or raw GPS data from a

s u r v e y b a s e s t a t i on t o o n e o r m o r e r o v in g r e ce i ve r s f o r r e a l -t i m e

d i f f e r e n t i a l o r k i n e m a t i c ( R T K ) s u r v e y i n g . T h e s e r a d i o m o d e m s

require line of sight between each radio modem. They can be set up in

a series of repeating stations that extend a cross the sur vey area. This

system is effective only over a small, local area.

SINGARS. T h e p r im a r y s ys t em for d a t a t r a n s m is s ion ov er t h e

distan ces r equired on t he ba tt lefield is SIN CGARS. GPS-S is designed

to transmit encrypted GPS data over SINCGARS. Any user that can

receive the data will have a real-time correction to the broadcast GPS

signal. This gives topographic surveyors the operational capability to

p e r f o r m t h e m i s s i o n u n d e r c i r c u m s t a n c e s w h e r e G P S s i g n a l s a r ed i t h e r e d o r s p o o f e d o n t h e b a t t l e f i e l d . A G P S s i g n a l c a n b e

retransmitted over a communication network to multiple users, which

extends the range and capability of survey operations.

MISCELLANEOUS

1-62. Mirrors and lights can also be used for communication. A signal mirror

ca n u s e t h e s u n a s a l ig h t s ou r c e a n d i s a f a i r l y a ccu r a t e s i g h t i n g d e v ic e.

M or s e c od e o r o t h e r p r e a r r a n g e d s i g n a l s c a n b e u s e d t o e ff ec t iv e ly


27/329

FM 3-34.331


com m u n i ca t e d u r i n g t h e d a y . At n i gh t , t h e s a m e s i gn a l s c a n b e u s e d wi t h a

light.


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Project Planning 2-1

Chapter 2

Project Planning

Survey operations, whether under combat conditions or not, are l ike a nyot h e r m i l it a r y op e r a t i o n a n d m u s t b e c a r e fu l l y p l a n n e d . E n t h u s i a s m ,technical pr oficiency, an d dedication do not m ak e u p for poor plann ing. Allp la n s m u s t b e d y n a mi c i n n a t u r e a n d mu s t b e con s t a n t l y ev a lu a t e d a n du p d a t e d . T h i s ch a p t e r a d d r e s s e s p r oj ect p l a n n i n g , p r i m a r i ly fr o m alogistics and administrative standpoint. Most of the information containedi n t h i s ch a p t e r i s con c e r n e d w i t h p r e b a t t l e op e r a t i on s . S o me t e c h n i ca lp l a n n i n g w i ll b e a d d r e s s e d , b u t o n l y a s i t i m p a c t s o n l o gi s t i cs a n d

adm inistrat ive support. Pr oject planning can be divided into th ree pha ses:e v a l u a t i o n a n d s c h e d u l i n g , i n f o r m a t i o n - g a t h e r i n g t r i p s , a n d p r o j e c texecution.

2 -1 . E v a l u a t i on a n d s ch e d u l i n g i n c lu d e s t h e i n i t i a l p r o je ct e v a l u a t i on ,determ inat ion of th e project r equiremen ts, assess ment of th e units ability toaccomplish th e project, deter minat ion of a pr eliminar y plan an d m ilestones,and coordination of the necessary a dministr at ive an d logistical su pport. After

r e c e ip t o f a p r oj e ct d i r e c t i ve , p r o je c t p l a n n i n g b e g in s . T h i s p r e l i m i n a

army topographic surveying

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