CHAPTER IV

AN OVERVIEW OF IRON-

ORE INDUSTRY IN INDIA

AND GOA STATE

CHAPTER IV

AN OVERVIEW OF IRON-ORE INDUSTRY

IN INDIA AND GOA STATE

4.1 Introduction

The geological and metallurgical history of India is similar to mineral rich Australia,

South Africa, South America and Antarctica, all of which formed a continuous landmass

before the breaking up of Gondwanaland. Indian reserves are easily comparable to present

quality of reserves in the US; what remains of the famous Lake Superior iron ranges, and

ranks next in tonnage to the Brazilian ores of Minas Gerais, to which they closely resemble in

mineral consumption and ease of extraction. Indian geography contains minerals and

resources and some of them are known to be in abandon supply, while many are least known.

The metallurgical and minerals industries constitute the bedrock of industrial development as

they provide the basic raw materials for most of the industries. At the current level of

knowledge India faces deficit in many minerals, particularly base metals and hydrocarbons.

However considering the growing future needs and security of supply of these minerals, the

country enhances its resource base considerably through various options including intensive

exploration drive, improving the recovery and production from the existing resource base and

ensuring supplies through imports. India has enhanced its export potential of a number of

minerals and metals in which it has sufficiently large reserves.

This chapter aims to outline the broad contours of the Indian iron-ore and the steel

industry, and deals with its antecedence and its present position. The significant part of this

chapter provides a conceptual clarity on emergence, development, geographical spread of

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iron-ore industry in Goa and the institutional assistance provided to its exporters. This chapter

is arranged in 6 sections. The second and the third section presents the broad picture of the

India's mineral sector through its indication (section 4.2) and evolution (4.3). Subsequent two

sections, Section 4.4 presents the overview of Goa's Iron —ore industry describing in detail its

history, present status, potential of Goa's iron-ore industry while the subsequent section

presents the institutional assistance to Goan exporters (in section 4.5). The last section (4.6)

summarizes.

4.2 Overview of India's Mineral Sector

The history of mineral development is as old as the civilization. In case of India,

mineral production dates back to the ancient times as the mining activities can be traced as far

as 6,000 years or so. Rust free iron pillar in New Delhi is considered to date back to the 4 th

century and the remains of the old mine workings are a witness to this fact. A few of these

workings have led to the discovery of a number of significant minerals deposit, which are

being worked in the present time. India is fairly rich in mineral deposits but there is a lot of

variation in terms of their distribution. As far as Ferrous (Fe) minerals like iron, manganese,

etc. are concerned India has very rich deposits but in non-ferrous minerals like copper, lead,

zinc etc., India has fewer reserves than ferrous minerals. In terms of mineral oil deposit, India

has only a few reserves on land but is confined to Assam, Gujarat and Bombay High. New

reserves of natural gas have been located in Andhra Pradesh in the delta of Krishna and

Godavari rivers. Among non-metallic minerals, India has significant reserves of mica and

very large reserves of coal. But the major amounts of the coal deposits are by and large of

poor quality but useful for developing thermal power. India is very rich in mica but its

demand has decreased considerably due to invention of substitutes. In terms of distribution,

the great northern mountains and the northern plains are generally devoid of mineral deposits.

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Likewise, the Deccan Trap region of peninsular India is almost without mineral deposits. The

highly concentrated area of mineral reserves is in the Chhotanagpur plateau covering

Jharkhand, Chhatisgarh and adjoining parts of Orissa and West Bengal. The other significant

mineral belts lie along the Aravalli's in Rajasthan and in the southern parts of the peninsula,

i.e. Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Eastern Maharashtra, Goa and some parts of Tamil Nadu.

Apart from these areas, Kerala possesses enormous concentration of heavy mineral sands,

which contain monazite and limonite. As mentioned above, Gujarat has a few on-shore oil

deposits and it is the largest producer of sea salt. Similarly Assam has some on-shore oil

deposits apart from some coal reserves. After the re-organization of States, the present State

of Bihar is left with a few insignificant mineral deposits, as the bulk of mineral reserves now

fall in the jurisdiction of Jharkhand State.

The minerals can be classified on the basis of their properties. The minerals from

which metals are obtained are called metallic minerals. The metals thus obtained can be

melted and on solidification, can be given different shapes (wires, sheets etc.). Metallic

minerals consist of two sub-groups: Ferrous (Iron, Manganese) and Non-ferrous minerals

(Copper, Gold). Non-metallic minerals cannot be melted, nor can they be moulded into

different shapes. One of their sub-groups consists of mineral fuels such as coal (solid),

petroleum (liquid) and natural gas (gaseous). Other non-metallic minerals include mercury,

diamond, mica, sulphur and table salt. Ferrous minerals are those minerals, which contain

iron. India has very rich deposits of ferrous minerals. Today India produces as many as 84

minerals comprising 4 fuel, 11 metallic, 49 non-metallic industrial and 20 minor minerals.

More than 80% of minerals production comes from open cast mines and therefore, one must

add the quantity of burden to that of the mineral production in order to assess the total amount

of annual excavation in India's mining sector.

In recent times the impetus to the mineral development was imparted in the country

only after the political independence came in the year 1947, the period when the significance

of the role of minerals was realized in nation building. On the eve of independence the annual

value of mineral production was merely Rs. 0.58 billion and only a few minerals were mined,

and the country largely depended on imports of commodities such as copper, lead, zinc,

sulphur, graphite, petroleum and their products. The inventory details were available only in

respect of coal, iron-ore, chromite, bauxite, manganese ore and magnesite.

With the concept of conservation of minerals assuming an important role, mineral

processing plants were set up. National Metallurgical laboratory was established in 1950 for

undertaking beneficiation tests. During the same year, the Metal Corporation of India set up

the first beneficiation plant in the country to process its zinc ore. Realizing the significance of

industrial development of the country, Industrial Policy Resolution (IPR) was promulgated in

1956 by the Central Government. The exploration of minerals was intensified and the

Geological Survey of India was strengthened for the purpose. Under the IPR 1956, ambitious

program of developing several industries such as steel, non ferrous metals, cement, power,

fertilizers etc were launched which required increasing quantities of minerals. The Indian

Bureau of Mines (IBM) was established to look after the scientific development and

conservation of mineral resources. IBM was also assigned the responsibility of conducting

exploration with more of emphasis on coal, iron-ore, limestone, dolomite and manganese ore

keeping in view the requirement of the proposed steel plants. Later, in 1972 when the Mineral

Exploration Corporation was established, this function was transferred to it. Coal was one to

have received the maximum attention for being the basic fuel for a whole range of industries

such as steel, railways and power plants. In the infancy of mineral consuming industry, no

significance was assigned to beneficiation of minerals, therefore; only high-grade minerals

were mined. The Mineral Policy opened the gates of Indian mineral industry to domestic and

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foreign investment, much of which was earlier reserved for the public sector. It aims to boost

the country's exploration and mining efforts and render the mineral industry more

competitive.

4.3 Evolution of India's Iron-ore and Steel Industry

India is a country of large dimensions and spread over a geographical area of 3.29

million square kilometers, which is about 2.5% of the globe and makes the country the

seventh largest in the World. Its population of over 1,000 million ranks it the second largest

only next to China. India is Asia's third and World's eleventh largest economy. Its growth is

intertwined with the growth of the economy at large, and in particular the steel consuming

industries such as manufacturing, housing and infrastructure. The iron-ore industry is a direct

feeder to the steel industry. The Indian iron and steel industry is the backbone of the Indian

economy currently providing direct/indirect employment to over 2.6 million people (by year

end 2007). It Ranks 4 th out of 60 sectors in the Central Statistical Organization (CSO) index

of Indian economy with a forward linkage of Rupees one lakh of output generating 1.5 man

years of employment by year end 2007. Iron and steel is a highly capital intensive industry

and cyclic in nature. As India moves ahead in the new millennium, the iron and steel industry

will play a critical role in transforming India into an economic superpower. India is 8 th largest

steel producing nation in the World with crude steel production of 35 MT in 2006-2007 with

per-capita consumption is approx. 30 Kilograms (Kgs.). India is a net exporter with imports of

approx. 2 MT in 2006 registering a growth of 33% and is the largest producer of sponge iron

in the World (production of 10 MT approx. in 2006), registering a growth of 24%. For

practical purposes, virtually all steel is produced by one of two basic technologies through the

input of iron-ore. Blast Furnace (BF) iron making, which uses iron-ore as feedstock, or the

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Electric Arc Furnace (EAF), which primarily uses steel scrap as feedstock {see Labson et al.

(1994), for a description of steel-making technologies}.

Among the Asiatic countries, India alone emerged from the Second World War with

her iron and steel plants undamaged and with the prospect of rapid growth in productive

capacity and output. Before 1945, Japan led the orient in the development of iron and steel

manufacturing; war damages to plants and the loss of pre-war markets and sources of raw

materials disrupted her significant growth. During the mid-1950's India appeared as an

elderly leader and appeared to be the largest producer on the continent outside the Soviet

Union. Until the Second World War, India had a surplus of pig iron for exports. Out of the 2.0

MT of pig iron produced in the year 1941, some 600,000 tons was exported. But steel

manufacturing lagged, and Indian mills could not meet the domestic demand for finished

goods of many kinds. In 1941 steel consumption averaged about 1.0 MT, of which one-third

was imported.

The Indian iron and steel industry is almost 100 years old now. Till the year 1990, the

Indian steel industry operated under a regulated environment with insulated markets and

large-scale capacities reserved for the public sector. Production and prices were determined

and regulated by the Government, while the Steel Authority of India Limited (SAIL) and Tata

Steel were the main producers, the latter being the only private player. The industry took its

first faltering steps in the year 1907 with the setup of the first integrated steel plant in

Jamshedpur by Tata Iron and Steel Company (TISCO). Since then the Indian iron and steel

industry has emerged as one of the core sectors in the Indian economy with a very significant

impact on economic growth.

The decade of 1990's was a very tumultuous time for the Indian economy. The years

1991-1992 saw India take concrete steps towards economic liberalization. Along with the

opening up of the economy, Indian iron and steel also saw the entry of a number of domestic

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players. Private investment flowed into the industry adding fresh capacities. The major

growth in the industry thus came after economic liberalization periods in 1992. Iron and steel

production and consumption which were earlier controlled by government were liberalized.

This encouraged the growth of private enterprises that were further responsible for the growth

of the industry, especially during the period 1990 through 2007. In 1990's, the Indian iron and

steel industry had a production capacity of 23 MT, the last decade saw the Indian steel

industry integrating with the global economy and evolving considerably to adopt World-class

production technology to produce high quality steel. The total investment in the Indian steel

since 1990 is over Rs. 25,000 crores mostly in plant equipments, which have been installed

after 1990. The production capacity of Indian steel is an estimated 43 MT by the year end

2005. The economic reforms initiated by the Government since 1991 have abolished licensing

requirement for capacity creation in the industrial sector. The present thrust of deregulation in

the mineral sector is considerably driven from the fact that most of the mineral deposits,

which are found on surface and easily extractable, have already been explored and the future

exploration has to be done in increasingly difficult terrain and greater depths with more

sophisticated technology. Domestic and foreign private sector participation may be lot helpful

in this regard. Price and distribution controls have been removed from January 1992, with a

view to making the iron-ore / steel industry efficient and competitive. This industry has been

removed from the list of industries reserved for the public sector. Automatic approval of

foreign equity investment up to 100% is now available. Restrictions on import and export of

steel have been removed and import duty rates have been reduced drastically. The Advance

Licensing Scheme (ALS) under the Export Import Policy allows duty free import of raw

materials for exports. At present only the top two Indian steel makers (SAIL and Tata Steel)

have captive iron-ore mines, while the others have to purchase ore from domestic iron-ore

miners. In the past two years many more steel makers have applied for mine leases. While the

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government is speeding up the lease approval process the States of Orissa, Jharkhand and

Chattisgarh have policies that stipulate steel makers cannot export iron-ore from the State.

The iron-ore miner has to process the raw material into steel in that State. For example, the

State of Orissa will consider granting mining leases only after 25% of the proposed steel plant

expenditure has been incurred. This is why we feel that many proposed steel projects will not

see the light of the day. We feel that in States like Orissa and Jharkhand, which have lagged in

investments so far, the governments will endeavor to tap their large mineral resources for

employment generation. However, we also feel that this approach is likely to accentuate the

situation where Eastern India is the primary supplier of steel to the rest of the country. Indeed,

many of the new steel plants may find it prudent to export their output rather than transfer it to

other end of the country, thus circumventing the already stretched road/rail route.

The years between 1997 and 2001 once again saw a downturn in the global steel

industry some of the significant characteristics of this period were /he demand and supply

mismatch, un-remunerative prices and erosion of bottom lines. But the industry weathered the

storm only to recover in 2002 and is beginning to get back on its feet given the strong

domestic economic growth and revival of demand in global markets. Today, India produces

international standard steel of almost all grades/varieties and has been a net exporter for the

past few years, underlining the growing acceptability of its products in the global market.

4.3.1 The Present Status of Iron-ore Industry in India

India is exceptionally rich in iron-ore deposits both in quantity and quality. Hematite

and Magnetite are the two major iron-ores of India. They contain nearly 70% of iron,

testifying to their richness. Table 4.1 demonstrates that the reserves of Indian iron-ore are

dynamic and increasing as new sources are being discovered. Iron-ore is one of the most

widely available mineral in the earth crust. As one goes for intensive mining, there is more

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exploration and discovery of more resources. It is evident from the fact that despite

considerable depletion of reserves, Indian iron-ore resources have increased on an average

300 MT per annum in the last twenty five years and 600 MT per annum in the last five years.

This is the position when the haematite resources have been estimated at a cut of grade of

55% Fe and above. If the cut off grade is reduced to say 45% Fe, the iron-ore resources would

increase substantially. With the modern technology it should be possible to utilize iron-ore of

45% Fe and above. It is therefore quite obvious that the country has enough resources to meet

the increasing domestic demand as well to export. Secondly, the production capacity of non-

captive mines is not being fully utilized. In 2006-07, out of the total production of about 172

MT, only 45 MT were produced in captive mines and the balance is non-captive mines. It is

therefore necessary that no new captive mines should be given to any existing or prospective

steel plants till the surplus capacity in non-captive mine is fully utilized.

Table 4.1 Reserve Potential of Indian Iron-ore (in '000 MT)

Grade Reserves

as on 1/1/1980

Production between 1980-90

Reserves as on

1/4/1990

Production between 1990-00

Reserves as on 1/4/00

Production between 2000-05

Reserves as on

1/4/2005

Haematite 11469 - 12197 (+728) - 11426

(-771) - 14630 (+3204)

Magnetite 6095 - 10590 (+4495) - 10682

(+92) - 10619 (-63)

Total 17564 470 22787 (+5223) 656 22108

(-679) 532 25249 (+3141)

Note: Figures in Parenthesis denotes the difference in reserve position compared to the previous reserves Source: Indian Bureau of Mines-Nagpur, Various Publications.

It is estimated that India has rich tonnage of recoverable reserves of ore with at least

location of one-fifth of the World's total reserves. India possesses large resources of good

quality iron-ore located in a number of States such as Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Goa, Karnataka,

Madhya Pradesh, Maharastra, Orissa, Rajastan etc. and the reserves are adequate to meet the

growing requirement for indigenous consumption and for exports. Jharkhand, Orissa and

Chhatisgarh are the leading States both in terms of reserves as well as production. Half of the

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deposits are located in Singhbhum districts of Jharkhand and adjoining three districts of

Orissa namely Keonjhar, Sundergarh and Mayurbhanj, which is believed to be the World's

largest iron-ore field. This field further extends into Chhatisgarh. Chhatisgarh stands next

only to Jharkhand and Orissa in iron-ore reserves. Bailadila mine in Chhatisgarh is the second

largest iron-ore field in India, Bailadila in Chhatisgarh, Kiriburu in Orissa and Babaudan hills

in Karnataka are fully mechanized and hundred percent export oriented. Major amount of ores

from these fields are exported to Japan.

The production of iron-ore was less than 4 MT in 1950-51 which rose to 74.94 MT per

annum in 2000-01. Much of it is exported as iron-ore or as iron concentrates. On the other

hand, finished iron and steel is imported each year to meet our growing needs. While we get a

very low price for exporting iron-ore, we have to pay a high price for imported steel and steel

products. Blending of medium grade with high grade for indigenous consumption and for

exports has been resorted to meet the quality requirement. Thus the scenario appears to be

quite comfortable. Use of iron-ore fines has also helped to further improve the situation. India

produced about 73.5 MT of iron-ore in 1999-2000 from both public sector and private sector

mines. Out of 213 mines (1999-2000), 34 are owned by public sector undertakings, which

produce 55% of the total production. Of this, 11 mines have the capacity to produce more

than one MT per annum and contribute about 48% of the total output. Private sector also has

large mines of which six have annual production capacity exceeding one MT these six mines

contribute about 16% to the national production. As much as 25% production comes from

Madhya Pradesh followed by Karnataka (21%) and Goa (21%). Approximately, 34,000

persons are employed in Indian iron-ore mines. About 47% of the total production is

domestically consumed in iron and steel, sponge iron, ferrous alloys and alloy steel industries.

The process of economic liberalisation initiated by Government of India has made it

imperative to switch over to United Nations Classification (UNFC) system, which is aimed at

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internationally acceptable classification of reserves and resources. Based on UNFC the total

resources of iron-ore are placed at 22,108 MT. Out of these resources, 6,312 MT are actual

reserves, which are readily available for exploitation. Rest 15,796 MT are remaining

resources.

Table 4.2 State-wise Reserves of Iron-ore as on 1.4.2000 (in 000' tonnes)

States UNFC Classification

Reserves Remaining Resources Total Andhra Pradesh 15493 1588064 1603557 Assam 0 27980 27980 Bihar 0 644 6444 Chhattisgarh 664590 1455438 2120027 Goa 460342 397328 857670 Jharkhand 2547765 506608 3054373 Karnataka 748467 8283704 9032171 Kerala 0 83435 83435 Madhya Pradesh 33069 167588 200657 Maharashtra 17472 253425 270897 Nagaland 0 5280 5280 Orissa 1822312 1967080 3789391 Rajasthan 2063 539974 542037 Tamil Nadu 0 481876 481876 Uttar Pradesh 0 38000 38000 All India Total 6311571 15796423 22107944

Source: Same as in table 4.1.

From table 4.2 it would be seen that out of the total resources of 22,108 MT of iron-

ore 41% are concentrated in Karnataka followed by 17% in Orissa, 13% in Jharkhand, 10% in

Chhattisgarh, 8% in Andhra Pradesh, 4% in Goa and remaining 7% are contributed by

Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh etc. From the above table we can

conclude that there is wide scope for exacting the resources by exploration and feasibility

with economic consideration of the resources.

It thus follows that the iron-ore industry in India at present in a evolving stage. There

is an established export market for iron-ore and Indian steel industry is till waiting to be

counted amongst the ranks of major steel producers in the World.

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4.3.2 Employment Potential of Iron-Ore Industry in India

With the growth of production, employment in the mineral industry has also grown

phenomenally during the last few decades.

Table 4.3 Average Daily Employment in Indian Mines, 1951 through 2001 (in '000)

Year Coal. Oil Copper- ore

Gold- ore

Iron- ore

Lime stone

Manganese- ore Mica Stone Others

1951 351.9 N.A. 3.7 21.9 20.2 16.0 55.5 25.2 5.1 49.5 1961 411.2 N.A. 4.2 16.3 54.5 54.6 46.9 29.6 8.5 45.1 1971 382.3 13.6 7.6 12.4 52.8 53.2 30.4 12.2 8.8 57.5 1981 513.4 14.5 13.4 12.3 44.9 49.8 26.5 6.7 7.7 60.6 1991 554.1 35.5 12.8 9.3 40.1 43.5 17.9 2.2 11.2 63.2 2001 510.7 29.0 9.3 7.4 36.7 32.3 15.4 0.9 6.9 61.0 Source: Same as in table 4.1.

The time-trends in the table 4.3 reveals that there has been a gross reduction in

employment potential in mining of gold-ore, manganese-ore and mica and iron-ore

(particularly from 1971). This has come about basically due to two reasons. Firstly the lack of

demand of the minerals due to substitution of the same in the user industry viz. the manganese

ore in manufacture of steel and mica as insulating material in electrical industry, secondly to

the rising cost of production of such minerals from the poor quality of ore available in the

country vis-a-vis global market. Barring above the employment in the mineral industry has

shown tremendous growth over the years. The coal mining industry has been the consistently

largest employment provider during all periods under study. It is anticipated that the average

daily employment in the mineral industry at present is about one million.

Table 4.4 picturizes the latest state-wise employment generating capacity of Iron-ore

mines in India. During the year-end 2006-07, the iron-ore mines provided employment to

1,44,894 workers in mining operations and about 1.5 million indirect in ancillary activities

related to mining. These ancillary activities covered operation such as overburden removal,

drilling and blasting, supporting staff, loading/unloading at mines/railway site, truck

transporters and their labours, waste dump stabilization and rehabilitation, canteen, rest house

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and crèches for mine workers, maintenance workshops, water and ward staff,

hospitals/medical facilities, crushers/grinders, beneficiation and up gradation of ore like sizing

and washing. In other words, for every direct employment in mining operation, there are 10

indirect employments (1:10) as against manufacturing sector where this ratio is only 1:4.

Further small townships have come up around mining areas giving employment to local

population, leading to all-round economic growth and prosperity.

Table 4.4 State-wise Employment Potential in Indian Iron-ore Mines

State Leases during year ending

Area (ha)

2006 - 07 No. of Mines in

operation

Direct Employment (No of persons per

day) No. of Granted /

Executed Andhra Pradesh 27 1519.17 5 1079 Chattisgarh 14 10681.22 10 36219 Goa 222 17025.55 55 20250 Haryana 1 86.20 - - Jharkhand 53 13805.52 18 22517 Karnataka 90 13818.63 69 26990 Madhya Pradesh 10 163.30 6 578 Maharastra 26 963.10 4 458 Orissa 140 35695.10 78 36633 Rajasthan 18 1270.86 2 170

All India 601 95028.65 247 144894 Source: Same as in table 4.1.

4.4 An Overview of Goa's Iron-ore Industry

Goa is a small State in India with a population of approx. 1350,000. But in economic

terms it is certainly no diminutive to its neighbors, Maharastra and Karnataka who lead the

country in virtually all economic indicators. Its Net State Domestic Product (NSDP) has

increased significantly over the years since its liberation from Portuguese rule. The sectoral

composition of Goa consists of Primary, Secondary and Tertiary sector. The composition of

the total NSDP reveals that over time there has been a substantial change in the contribution

of the major sectors of the economy. The share of the primary sector, which was 43% of

NSDP during 1970-71 dropped to 11% during 2006-07. This fall in the share of the primary

(In

sector in NSDP could be attributed to the decline in fish catching, agricultural production and

the forestry sector. As far as the contribution of the secondary and the tertiary sectors is

concerned, the secondary sector, which accounted for 15% during 1970-71 increased to 30%

during 2006-07 while that of the tertiary sector to NSDP has increased to 65%. The growth is

mainly due to the contribution from trade, hotels and restaurants, banking and insurance

sectors. Production and exports of Iron-ore is a major economic activity in India in terms of

its contribution to the State's gross domestic product and in terms of its employment potential.

The State of Goa bears controls approx. 37% the total leases executed/granted covering

around 18% of the total country's iron-ore mining area, employing 14% of the total daily

labour employed in the country's iron-ore mining industry. The States of Orissa and

Chattisgarh employ around 50% of the total daily labour employed in the industry followed

by Karnataka (19%), Jharkhand (16%) and Goa (14%) respectively. The talukas-wise

classification of iron-ore mining activity in India depicted in table 4.5 reveals that the

maximum area under mining is in Sanguem taluka followed by Bicholim, Sattari, Quepem,

Ponda and Canacona. From the point of view of mineral production Bicholim, which

contributes 60% of the value of minerals produced in Goa is more important and Sanguem

takes the second place. Based on concentration, iron-ore deposits can be broadly divided into

three parts, namely, Northern zone, Central zone and Southern zone. Usgao river forms the

dividing line between the northern and the central zone and Sanguem between the central and

southern zones. The northern zone is dominant in iron-ore, comprising about 60% of the total

iron-ore reserves of Goa while the central zone comprises of both iron-ore and ferruginous

manganese ore deposits.

Table 4.5 Taluka-wise Classification of Iron-ore Mining Activity in Goa State

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Talukas Area Under Mining Lease (In Hectares Approx.)

Percent of Area to the Total Surface Area

Bardez 1,123 4.4 Bicholim 10,766 46.12 Canacona 2,008 5.7 Tiswadi 755 3.8 Mormugao 11 0.1 Pernem 718 3.0 Ponda 4,714 16.0 Quepem 5,026 15.9 Salcette 1,610 5.5 Sanguem 31,481 35.83 Sattari 7,288 14.7

Total 65,400 17.9 Source: Goa Mineral Ores Exporter's Association, Panjim Goa.

The emergence and evolvement of the Goa's iron-ore industry is discussed in the three

following sections, namely the history of Goa's iron-ore industry, the developments in the

industry in the pre-liberation and lastly, during the post-reform periods respectively.

4.4.1 History of Goa's Iron-Ore Industry

The State of Goa is richly endowed with the industrial minerals like iron-ore,

manganese ore, bauxite, limestone, and dolomite etc. however, the chief minerals explored in

the State are iron-ore, manganese ore and bauxite. Though the presence of minerals ores in

Goa was known since ancient times, little attention was paid to the commercial exploration till

a French firm by the name Tompagnie des Mines de Fer de Goa' undertook, at the beginning

of the century, prospecting of some of the iron-ore deposits in and around Bicholim. Some

private entrepreneurs also made some efforts in the early years of the century, to explore

manganese ore deposits in south Goa. These attempts of exploration were based on the

information provided in the 16th century by Dutch traveler John H. V. Linschotion (Angle

2001) signifying the existence of iron-ore deposits in Goa. According to him, some Italian

alchemists were interested in digging for copper and gold but the Portuguese ruler and the

viceroy did not permit it due the fear that reports of such treasure might attract the enemies.

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In the year 1905, a few French and German companies carried out prospecting of iron-

ore in Goa. Sir L. L. Fernor of the Geological Survey of India paid a visit to Goa in 1909 and

studied the Bicholim deposits to obtain a comparative picture between Goan iron-ore deposits

and those in the Sawantwadi area of Sindhudurga District, Maharastra. The first concerted

attempt was however made by Oertal (1954-57), a German geologist, who was commissioned

by the Portuguese Government to prepare a geological map of Goa. Although in the rest of the

country the geologist of Geological Survey of India carried out considerable work, they could

not study Goan geology since the State was under alien rule. Though authentic records are not

available, knowledgeable sources in mining industry indicate that the Italian firm B. W. Lam

& Co did some commercial exploration of manganese ore, sometime in 1908. The outbreak of

the Second World War also aborted attempts by some French and German firms to explore

mineral ore mines around that time It was only after 1945 that serious efforts were made by

some enterprising individuals to explore the mineral ore wealth of Goa and a quantity of

52,000 tons was exported through the MPT in the year 1946.

Under the Portuguese regime, mining concessions were given under a decree

promulgated in 1906 and, at one time, there were 786 concessions of various areas, a single

party could own each not more than 100 hectares in extent and not more then five contiguous

concessions. But these concessions were granted in perpetuity and were hereditary in nature.

The outbreak of the First World War virtually brought the mining operation to a stand still.

However, they were resumed in 1947, which marked the beginning of the development and

export of iron-ore and manganese ore.

Actual mining in Goa started from 1949-50. For the first 10 years it was manual in

nature and production was mainly manganese and ferromanganese. From 1958-59, the

production of iron-ore picked up and within a period of about three years, the iron-ore mining

was no longer the pick and shovel exercise as it was earlier. Planned geological studies

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Thr

commenced only after the integration of Goa with the rest of the India in 1961. The

Geological survey of India undertook assessment of mineral deposits of certain regions and

also carried out geological mapping during the period 1962-68. This study resulted in the

assessment of iron, manganese and clay deposits and also led to the discovery of a number

bauxite deposits. Based on the data available in the sixties, the reserves of iron-ore, as

available in 1970, were estimated to be 411 MT, comprising of 81 MT of lumpy ore with

+60% Ferrous (Fe) content and the rest of iron-ore fines assaying around 62% Fe. About 1.1

MT of black iron-ore and 3.57 MT of manganese ore were also assessed. Besides, reserves of

China clay of the order of 3 lakhs tons were estimated to be available.

Up to the Sixties, exploration by drilling was essentially carried out down to the

magniferrous phyllite horizon underlying the iron horizon as it was considered to be the

footwall and limit of the iron-ore bodies. Similarly, drilling was .suspended at the ground

water level because of the difficulties involved in wining the ore beyond this point.

Subsequent exploring work has revealed the presence of two to three bands of iron-ore; with

inter bands of magniferrous phyllite, and also the presence of powdery ore below the present

ground water level. Consequently, the prospects of proving additional reserves of powdery

ore at depth have improved. The studies so far carried out have indicated that, based on the

mode of occurrence and origin, certain areas have potentially an additional 120-125 MT of

low grade lumpy ore with 50 — 55% Fe content.

While determined efforts are necessary for proving additional reserves, it is feared that

the new reserves will pose fresh problems of mining. For one thing, the depths at which these

reserves will be exploitable will have a higher overburden to the ore ratio. In addition, as

mining is extended to below ground water levels, in view of safety requirements, the pit slope

angles have to be flatter and this would again increase overburden removal and overburden

ore ratio. There is a point up to which economic exploitation is feasible. Assuming that

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economic considerations are favorable, the physical task of carrying out exploitation will be

formidable. Very often, the area where development work has to be carried out is outside the

concession area and also, since the mines are situated very near populated areas and

agricultural fields, the disposal of rejects poses serious problem. Where deposits of powdery

ore lie at depths of 50m below sea level, there is a copious flow of ground water, rendering

mining very difficult and expensive. The monsoon and the abundant rainwater compound the

problem. It must also be borne in mind that there is a possibility of the anticipated additional

reserves being of marginal and lower grades, which will require beneficiation. Conventional

methods of beneficiation, which include grinding and washing, may reduce the alumina

content to an extent resulting in a slight improvement in the grade. This is insufficient; there

has to be resort to a better and more effective method of beneficiation, which will result in

higher concentration and better recovery. While commendable progress has been made,

bringing credit to the entrepreneurs and the geoscientists responsible for the success achieved

so far, the industry faces a grim situation owing to factors which are at play: dwindling

reserves, decrease in the grade of ore, difficulties of mining and the price of machinery,

equipment and spares, frequent hikes in the prices of fuel, the high wage rate structure in all

segments of the industry etc. the industry needs multi-pronged action in the technological,

commercial and administrative directions, if it is to face the challenges of the 21 st century. As

things are, assuming that the reserves of ore as indicated firmly by the Geological Survey of

India are any criterion, the balance of commercially exploitable reserves may not last much

beyond this century.

4.4.2 Goa's Iron-ore Exports during Portuguese Regime

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The Portuguese had been ruling Goa for over four hundred fifty years until 1961, but

they neither displayed the imagination nor the capacity to visualize its development. Right

from the beginning Goan Iron-ore has been 100% export oriented. An early 17 th century

Portuguese report refers to iron mines not far from the city of Goa that could be used in the

manufacture of artillery and cannon balls. Ore was manually extracted in small-scale

throughout the Portuguese period to meet the local needs.

In the early 19th century the British during the Napoleonic wars, occupied Goa. A

report of the time showed that there were iron mines at Ponda. However, the Portuguese

government made no efforts to conduct a survey and encourage large-scale extraction of ore

until the fag end of their rule.

A revival of interest in mining, particularly in manganese ore was noticed in the

1920's. About four mining concessions were granted between 1929 and 1931. Iron-ore was

consistently extracted at Siolim, Surla in the north and Khandepar area near Ponda. Some

foreign companies, including the ones operating from Bombay and Calcutta, showed interest

in mines of Goa. Certain events in the rest of Asia during this period might have contributed

to the revival of this interest.

In 1946-47, Goa entered into iron-ore export trade with a total yearly shipment of

52,000 tons. A naval base has being established at Singapore required iron-ore. Secondly for

the Japanese, who were rebuilding their steel industry after the War, new sources of iron-ore

were needed. Since they were deprived of Manchurian and Pacific Ore who was the regular

suppliers to the far Eastern countries could not send supplies due to the political crisis, India

with its ore potential was considered to be the nearest source of iron-ore. As Japan's trade

links with Britain were broken because of the war, Goa, then under Portuguese rule, was a

convenient place for such a deal; and a most proper person came forward to exploit the

situation, Shri Vishwasrao Chowgule was the person.

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The first major contribution of Shri Vishwasrao Dattajirao Chowgule to laying the

foundation of what was to prove the backbone of Goan economy was convincing the Japanese

that they could ensure for themselves good quality ore if the right parties were approached to

the development of this industry. In December 1950, `Shozen Maru', the first Japanese ore

carrier sailed away carrying the first consignment of 9,000 tons of iron-ore exported by

Chowgule to Japan. The iron-ore was brought in country craft from the Sirigaon mines.

Chowgule took the pioneering role in the development of Goan iron-ore industry, which even

today remains the mainstay of Goa's economy. Soon, the other exporters to name Salgaocars,

Dempos joined the fray.

Prior to liberalization, the exporters had been suffering from the financial crisis due to

lack of banking facilities. Hence, financial assistance from the foreign buyers was the only

possible solution to the crisis. It was Shri. Vishwasrao Chowgule's relationships with the

Japanese buyers that helped provide necessary financial facilities for the mechanization of

mines as well as for building ore handling plant at Murmagoa Port. In October 1951,

Chowgule's bought the Japanese steel industry directly into the picture by negotiating an

agreement for the supply of machinery worth Rs. 80 lakhs, to be paid for over a period of

three years through the sale of 15 lakhs tons of iron-ore. This agreement was described by the

Japanese steel industry as the Chowgule Formula. But its significance for Goa's iron-ore

industry was that it heralded the introduction of the mechanization of mines with a view to

securing for Goan iron-ore a place in the competitive World market.

In 1951, Japan's demand for iron-ore was the order of only 10 lakhs tons and they

were happy to receive two shipments per month with a total of one lakhs tons. Goa was the

first in 1951 in the list of exporters of iron-ore to Japan. Export trade got an impetus after

1953-54 on account of economic blockade of Goa by the Indian Union on account of

favorable terms of trade with West European countries and Japan in particular. Exports of

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mineral ores in Goa alinost doubled in 1953-54 to 1.4 MT over 0.5 MT in 1952-53. The ore

industry of Goa was export oriented. It brought foreign exchange and good profits. Mine

owner's exported ore from the mines owned or leased by them and at times ore brought from

small mine owners. The early years were a period of prosperity for mine owners. The largest

contribution to the State income in the 1950's came from mining. During the year 1961-62

that is last year of Portuguese rule, mineral ore exports reached an all-time high peak of 6.34

MT, majority of which was iron-ore exports.

4.4.3 Goa's Iron-ore Export During Post-Liberation Era

Goa was reunited with the Republic of India upon its liberation from the Portuguese

Rule on 19th December 1961. In the year 1962, the Government of India introduced the export

Policy for iron-ore exports. First two years after liberation i.e. 1962-63 and 1963-64 was a

period of recession in the World steel production and the exports of iron-ore in 1962-63

drastically came down to 5.25 MT. To a great extent, the Export Policy of the Government of

India in the fixation of the floor F.O.B. prices was responsible for this downward trend.

During this time GMOEA was formed to tackle the Government of India policies and

safeguard the interest of Goan private exporters. The Government of India, under its Export

Policy gave special status to the Goan Exporters to export iron-ore to Japan, South Korea,

Taiwan and west Europe and also envisaged a unique role to MMTC as exporter of iron-ore to

communist and East European countries. For some years MMTC procured major quantity of

its export commitments from small mine owners but thereafter it had to purchase iron-ore

from private exporters due to the reluctance on the part of the small mine owners to supply the

required quantity of iron-ore to MMTC.

Exports of iron-ore again picked up in the year 1964-65 to 5.9 MT and steadily

reached an annual export growth of 10 to 12% till 1973-74 when the exports reached an all

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time peak of 12.6 MT. This growth of exports of iron-ore since 1969-70 is due to an increase

in the fines exports by leaps and bounds. As a result of the mechanization of mines, there had

been an increase in the production of iron-ore fines which though marketable, would realize

much less than the lumpy ore. It goes to the credit of Shri Vishwasrao Chowgule that his

organization set up the first pelletisation plant in the country in the year 1967 at Pale. From

the point of view of Goa's economy, this development meant better returns from the natural

resources. During the 1960's and 70's, the pelletisation process was firmly established as the

optimum method of conversion of iron-ore fines into agglomerates, which proved to be a

premium feed-stock for blast furnaces for the production of iron and their steel. As a logical

sequence to the first pelletisation plant, Chowgule set up a 1.8 MT modern pelletisation plant

in partnership with the Steel Authority of India under the name Mandovi Pellets Ltd. Located

at Shiroda, Goa. The new plant commenced production from May 1979 and their Pellets were

regularly exported till 1981-82 after which the plant was shut down due to some internal

problems. However, it again resumed production of pellets from 1991-92 up till date.

4.5 Institutional Assistance for Iron-ore Exports from Goa

The above sections bring to light that the evolution and development of the iron-ore

industry of Goa has been private-sector driven, with little or no support from the

governmental authorities. The Goa Mineral Ore Exporters Association plays a pivotal role in

this regard and the Mormugao Port Trust provides the logistic support. The efforts of both

such institutions in providing export assistance in the Goa's iron-ore export industry are stated

in the two sub-sections and follows:

4.5.1 The Goa Mineral Ore Exporters Association (GMOEA)

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Immediately after the liberation of Goa from the Portuguese rule in December 1961,

Government of India announced its export policy for iron-ore. It was reproduced in the

official Gazette dated 12 th March 1962 which States, inter alia. There were a number of

exporters of iron-ore in Goa. For the first time, they had to abandon the practice of negotiating

individual contracts with the foreign buyers, where an element of competition was inevitable.

It was at this time that the Goan exporters of mineral ore saw the necessity for the formation

of an association. The constitution was draw up ad received the formal assent of the chief

secretary of the Government of Goa, Daman and Diu of June 12, 1963.

The Association began with 32 members, under the name and style of the Goa Mineral

ore Exporters Association (GMOEA), with its office in Panjim. The members of GMOEA are

all engaged with varying degrees of success in the export of iron-ore. Since inception,

GMOEA through their negotiating committee played an active role in the negotiation and

fixation of prices for iron-ore with the Japanese Steel Mills as a body, such prices being

operative for one year at a time commencing on April 1, each year.

After getting the guidelines from the Ministry of Commerce, GMOEA negotiating

committee proceeds to foreign markets for the negotiation of the prices with the foreign steel

mills. The negotiated prices are then informed to the Ministry of Commerce for their

approval. Once the approval is granted from the Ministry of Commerce, GMOEA gives their

consent for the prices to the foreign steel mills. Thereafter, Ministry of Commerce furnishes a

copy of the revised prices to the Chief Secretary of the Government of Goa. The Goa

Government who is authorized to approve such export contracts of iron-ore, set up a separate

department headed by a special officer under the title of Iron-ore Advisor to handle the

approval of Iron-ore Export Contracts. This Iron-ore Advisor post was also later entrusted to

Director of Industries and Mines. Apart from the Iron-ore advisor to cope up the work, an

additional post of Assistant Iron-ore advisor was created in the Department of Mines. All the

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sale contracts of iron-ore when received from individual exporters are scrutinized and

approved subject to the Free on Board (FOB) prices ore within the prices approved by the

Ministry of Commerce for respective grade of iron-ore. This procedure being tedious and time

consuming continued till the year 1988.

Considering the role played by GMOEA in promoting the export of iron-ore and in

order to avoid procedural delays in the approval of contracts and also to avoid delays

occurring due to frequent changes in the administrative set-up of the Goa Government, the

Ministry of Commerce issued a notification dated 29 th April, 1988, by amending Exports

(Control ) Order 1988 by exercise of the powers conferred by section 3 of the Imports and

Exports Control Act, 1947, thereby empowering GMOEA as a Registering Authority for the

export of iron-ore of Goa origin to countries like Japan, South Korea, West Europe and

Taiwan.

GMOEA, as a Registering Authority maintains the Export prices to ensure that the

FOB prices received by exporters are within the Minimum Floor Prices fixed by GMOEA

every year based on International lion-ore Prices. The Ministry of Commerce also set up an

Advisory Committee to monitor and guide the Registering Authority from time to time.

GMOEA Managing Committee members have regular meetings to discuss and decide among

others the Floor Prices for various grades of Iron-ore and issue guidelines to their exporter

members.

Goa Exporters submit their sale contracts as and when finalized to GMOEA for their

approval. GMOEA, after scrutiny of contracts submitted by the members issue an approval

letter with a copy to Customs. It also maintains all relevant documents relating to each

shipments made by the exporter every year. Thus, it enables GMOEA to maintain exact

shipment quantities and values for all the shipments made to overseas buyers. It is the

responsibility of Mormugao Customs to verify whether the shipping documents like Shipping

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Bill, GR-Form and Proforma Invoice submitted by the exporters are in conformity with the

prices approved by GMOEA.

Being satisfied by the performance of GMOEA as a Registering Authority, the

Government of India extended its power for Registering of Contracts for the shipments made

from Reddy Port for all markets, situated on the border of Maharastra by notification dated

August 14, 1991. By virtue of the same notification referred above, the Government Jot' India

further extended the geographical limit to register the export of Goan Iron-ore to any part of

Europe and also to China apart from the traditional area mentioned. GMOEA has always been

able available to the members in an advising capacity and the Association also maintains

database for easy accessibility of up to date information. The Association has proved in itself

to be an effective means of communication between the members and the Government at the

Centre and the State.

4.5.2 The Mormugao Port Trust (MPT)

Mormugao Port, a protected open type natural harbor is situated on the west coast of

India, in the State of Goa, at the mouth of the Zuari River. Goa is endowed by nature with a

magnificent and hospitable coastline on the West providing access to two big rivers, Zuari and

Mandovi with navigable waters. Though Mormugao Port could not for may decades flourish

as best as other ports, circumstances such as discovery of iron-ore deposits in Goa, the

liberation of Goa from Portuguese rule etc. have been mainly responsible for bringing it to the

forefront as one of the premier ore exporting ports, not only India, but also in the World.

Mormugao port handles roughly half the total iron-ore exports of the country, is

considered to be the leading iron-ore loading port in India. Goa-mined iron-ore is the principal

cargo handled and accounts for 90% of the total traffic or the port. The total iron-ore exports

from Mormugao which at merge level of 52,000 tonnes in 1946-47, raised to 6,335 MT in

Ina

1961-62. However, the highest figure of the total iron-ore exports from Mormugao Port is

30,000 MT in the year 2007. A unique feature of the iron-ore transport system in Goa is the

carriage of the ore from the mine head to the Port in barges which pass through the two rivers,

Mandovi and Zuari. Infact, a major percentage of the total iron-ore exports from Goa are

received by barges at the Mormugao Port.

Usually, the iron-ore loading modes practiced at Mormugao port comprises of

Alongside Facilities and the Stream loading facilities. The Port has constructed Berth no. 9

exclusively for handling iron-ore exports with a much larger MOHP having a handling

capacity of 90 lakhs tonnes per annum. However, the draft alongside Berth no. 9 is presently

limited to 13 mts. on conjunction with tide; thereby the ships of about 60,000-70,000 DWT

size are the largest that can be loaded fully at the berth. With limited alongside loading

capacity, vessels can be loaded in the outer harbor without draft restriction during fair seasons

only by privately owned `Transhipper Vessels'. These vessels are provided with special

grabbing cranes and conveyors on the deck for transfer of ore from barges into vessels.

4.6 Summary

The present chapter introduces the study by providing a birds eye view of the Indian

iron-ore and steel industry and aims to outline the broad contours of the industry by tracking

its antecedence and its present potential. Also, a summary of the emergence, development,

geographical reach of the iron-ore industry in Goa and the institutional assistance provided to

its exporters is sketched to set the tone for the subsequent research on various aspects of

Goa's iron-ore export business. It is found that the iron-ore deposits in India are mainly

confined in three tectonically defined basins of Jharkhand—Orrisa, Bhastrar—Rowghat and

Bellary—Hospet—Goa. They have a very complex structure due to multiple tectonic

deformations. In view of this, though India has a sound resource base in iron-ore the

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assessment of reserves need to be done based on grade-wise classification taking into account

physical and chemical characteristics. This would ensure the quality of ore amenable for

exports and local steel making.

The quality of iron-ore dictates not only the productivity of blast furnaces but also the

quality and cost of steel produced. The Indian iron-ores are rich in iron content but contain

unusually high alumina. The adverse alumina to silica ratio of iron-ore feed to the blast

furnace should be 1% but the Indian iron-ore fines it is as high as 3% to 5%. Therefore the

performance of our blast furnace has been at lower levels in comparison with the developing

countries, and presses for exports. Indian iron-ore may be or are utilized as blend of various

grades of ores for blast furnace to maintain the quality requirement (+63% FE and Al203Sio2 :

5%) after washing but the average feed grade of +63% Fe iron-ore content for blast furnace is

comparatively too high as compared to international norm of +60% Fe average feed grade.

The consumption norm of iron-ore per tonne of steel is also higher in Indian steel plants

which come to 1.7 to 1.8 tonne of ore as against 1.54 average international norms. In this

context a need is felt for exports of Indian iron-ore and in the long term, make sustainable

efforts so as to reduce energy and enhance raw materials quality by sustained R&D to utilize

lower grades by beneficiation and agglomeration by modern technologies. The domestic steel

sector is not expected to be adversely affected by such a gradual move considering the large

resource base of iron-ore in India.

With the growing consumption of iron-ore within the country by the domestic steel

industry, iron-ore exports may taper. In case the targets set in the National Steel Policy 2005

are to be achieved, a production capacity of around 300 MT per annum of iron-ore (including

the exports) would be required but most of the iron-ore mined may not be suitable for direct

use for steel making as it contains lot of impurities. It needs washing/beneficiation before use.

In such a scenario the export avenue should not be entirely switched off as it provides cushion

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against fluctuations in the domestic market and vice-versa. Indian iron-ore mines have latent

capacity to increase production which they have not been able to take full advantage because

of inadequacy of infrastructure and recent uncertainty created through media publicity

Though our iron-ore resources are vast but all of those may not meet the specification

for steel making. But an important issue relevant to India's iron-ore resources is that unlike

Australia and Brazil, there has been no exploration for locating new additional deposits.

However, judicious utilization of all existing deposits of all grades of iron-ore is called for

taking into consideration a cut off grade of 45% Fe in assessment of reserves and resources. In

the changed scenario of iron-ore industry, BIF needs to be given a serious attention. The BIF

bearing horizons have to be studies systematically for their spatial distribution, lithological

characteristics and their amenability for processing and related geological and geochemical

studies. The ultimate aim should be to treat them as potential sources of iron-ore. It would

also have greater impact on preserving the high grade ore and help in preservation of ecology

and prevent environmental degradation.

The steel demand as well as production in India has grown significantly in comparison

to the steel growth centres. In India it is feared that higher rate of mining to meet internal and

export market demands would exhaust our resource base. But on the contrary, the limits of

supply of the resources would be quite far away as the resources are as constantly being

renewed due to technological innovations. It is also felt that in the backdrop of prevailing

World and domestic scenario of growth in steel production and iron-ore exports of various

grades will lead to more funds flowing into different areas such as exploration, mining and

processing, environment, R&D etc. India stands to benefit economically as a consequence of

the liberalized policy. In case of any restriction on iron-ore exports, the country may be

deprived of economic benefit of this growing sector.

Due to a large difference in the domestic and international price of the ore, the

development of Goa State and its local communities where these mines are located is

accelerated. However, the policy must encompass the social issues arising from mineral

development and deal effectively with issues of local/regional inequality between adjacent

areas in terms of power, roads, health, education and social services. Simultaneously a gradual

shift towards integration with the World market will help Goa's mineral industry to become

competitive in terms of modern technology.

Goa Government should make a cause with the Ministry of Commerce; Government

of India should keep export policy stable and continue support to the iron-ore industry

according to its production capacity. This will enable Goa to be a reliable and long-term (and

not a spot) supplier of iron-ore particularly to China. This will help industry to plan their

production on long-tern basis for domestic requirements as well as exports. Mines have latent

capacity to increase production which they have not been able to take full advantage because

of inadequacy of infrastructure. At the same time, Goan iron-ore industry has to take into

account the emerging scenario and prepare for their retaining position in the international

market by being competitive and by entering into long term contracts through hard price

negotiations each year. Consistent export policy will help in involving the export of value-

added products like pellets, pig iron, sponge iron, etc. however, there is need to develop mines

for much higher production capacity as the case is in China. Also it would be imperative to

provide value to the low grade ores particularly in Goa through technology up gradation in

mining and crushing plants thereby increasing the total capacity. In this context, the non-

captive mines may consider emerging iron making technology for value addition using iron-

ore fines.

This chapter attempts to provide a holistic conceptual clarity of the India's and Goa's

iron-ore industry in particular. However the evolution of Goa's mining industry and its

no

manifold contribution on the State's economy need to be quantitatively analyzed. The study

of time-trends with regards to share of Goa's iron-ore exports to India and the World during

pre/ post-statehood and pre/post-liberalization periods could provide substantial clues to

understanding the contribution of such an industry to the economy. Such an attempt follows in

the next chapter titled "Goa's Iron-ore Exports, 1962-2007: A Spatio-Temporal Analysis".

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