viking orkney - settlement to 1100 history rchaeology

This is well stated in HistoriaNorwegiae, written in the 11th

or 12th century about the Pictsthat they “did marvels in themorning and in the evening, inbuilding towns, but at mid-daythey entirely lost all theirstrength, and lurked, throughfear, in underground houses'”It goes on to say “But in duecourse…certain pirates…setout with a great fleet…andstripped these races of theirancient settlements, destroyedthem wholly, and subdued theislands to themselves.”

The early 20th centuryOrcadian historian, StorerClouston, had no illusionsabout what happened, “Surelythe common-sense of the mat-ter …is evident. The firstNorsemen....proposed to settlein these islands, whether theexisting inhabitants liked it ornot. They brought theirswords, and if the inhabitantswere numerous and offeredresistance, they fought them.If they were few and fled, theytook their land without fight-ing. They did, in fact, exactlywhat we ourselves have donein later centuries, in India,America, Africa, Australia.That is the only way in whichwe can settle a new land-chance your luck, but alwaysbring your gun.”

Most of our knowledge of theVikings comes from the sagas,which describe the feuds ofgreat families and the deeds ofgreat men, but do not givemuch detail of more mundaneevents or conditions. Therewas a climatic improvement

during the Viking era whichgreatly aided westward expan-sion, the development of moreadvanced agriculture and pop-ulation growth.

It also seems that the Vikingshad mastered several otherimportant things such as(slightly) improved domestic

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HISTORY & ARCHAEOLOGY

Man’s comb found at Scar boat burial, Sanday - dates to AD850-925

Whalebone plaque from boat burial, Scar, Sanday

Linen smoother

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For six hundred years Orkneywas dominated by the Norse,initially invaders and then set-tlers from Western Norway,who rapidly colonised theislands and then went on tobuild the Earldom which at itspeak controlled much of thewest coast of Scotland, the Isleof Man, Caithness andSutherland. Orcadians todayremain proud of their Norseheritage and, though British,maintain their historic linkswith Norway.

The westward expansion ofthe Vikings started late in the8th century and, apart frompopulation and other pres-sures, was made possible by

technology. The developmentof large ocean-going sailingships, combined with a knowl-edge of seamanship and navi-gation, which could reliablytransport people, livestock andgoods for long distances,allowed them an ascendancyover other coastal Europeansfor several centuries.

Orkney made an obvious basefor these seafaring people, in atime when there was no quickland transport. While there issome evidence that contactmay already have been goingon for some time before themain influx, it now seems thatthe Norse takeover was abruptand complete. The Picts sim-

ply disappear. Existing settle-ments were taken over by theVikings, who may even havereused some Pictish pots andother household items, butsoon the invaders imposedtheir own farming style andland-holding patterns, whichare preserved as farm namesand parishes to this day.

Recent excavations have sug-gested that there may havebeen a considerable Pictishpopulation in Orkney at thetime of the Viking migrationsin the 8th century and therehave been suggestions that theNorse colonisation may havebeen "peaceful". However,there is scant evidence sup-porting this idea.

Very few Celtic placenamesand other words have survivedsuggesting that the Norsepolitical takeover must havebeen fast and virtually total,and that no "integration" tookplace. The attractiveness ofOrkney as a Viking base, dueto position and naturalresources, must have beenoverwhelming, and the Pictishpeople, leaders, churchmenand ordinary people either fledor were slaughtered.

This short but violent periodof Viking migration at the endof the 8th century, enabled theseizure of Orkney andShetland, and then much ofthe far north of Scotland fromthe Picts. Once power wasestablished there followed afurther influx of settlers suchthat Norse culture and lan-guage totally replaced Pictish.

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Brough of Birsay - Norse church

Lower guard and tang of sword Scar boat burial, Sanday

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his half-brother Torf Einar,who “took the earldom, andwas long earl, and was a manof great power”. He wasrenowned for his eyesightdespite being one-eyed, and issaid to have shown the peoplehow to use peat as a fuel. TheSaga recounts how he foundand slew Halfdan Fairhair onNorth Ronaldsay for killinghis father (Rognvald) by burn-ing him alive in his house inNorway. He then carved theblood eagle on Halfdan’sback, “Einar had his ribs cutfrom the spine with a swordand the lungs pulled outthrough the slits in his back.He dedicated the victim toOdin as a victory offering”

Thorfinn Skull-Splitter, saidto be buried in the Howe ofHoxa (South Ronaldsay),became sole Earl when hisbrothers were killed at heBattle of Stainmore in 954.He was said to be “a mightychief and warlike”, but it isnot recorded how he came byhis nickname.

Sigurd the Stout was a pow-erful Earl, who was known forhis prowess in battle, his sor-cery and his ability to invokethe old gods. His mother wasa sorceress and made him theenchanted Raven Banner,warning “my belief is this:that it will bring victory to theman it's carried before, butdeath to the one who carriesit”.

Sigurd was forcibly convertedto Christianity by King OlavTryggvesson at Osmondwall

(Kirk Hope) in Hoy in 995, onpain of the death of his son.The whole of Orkney was saidto have embraced the faith.The son, Hvelp, died soonafter, so Sigurd renouncedChristianity and refused torecognise King Olaf.

He was killed in 1014 at theBattle of Clontarf when hehimself took up the RavenBanner, after many had fallen

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Norse buildings on the Brough of Birsay

Norse sword pommel

Osmondwall, Longhope

Howe of Hoxa, said to be burial place of Thorfinn “Skullsplitter”

Norse oval brooch

hygiene and midwifery, aswell as being good black-smiths, joiners, farmers, ship-builders and seamen. Clearlymany were also good men-at-arms, but this was probablyonly one aspect of their power.Above all they were craftsmenand took great pride in theirwork as is evident by themany high quality weapons,items of jewellry and, perhapsmost important, the advancedtechnology of their ships andnavigation skills.

Today nearly all our place-names derive from Old Norse,with only a few possiblePictish remnants. TheOrkneyinga Saga and otherNorse Sagas, mostly written in

the 12th century in Iceland,give a vivid account of Vikingtimes, with many colourfulcharacters.

According to the Saga theEarldom was founded byKing Harald Harfargi(Fairhair), who set out “westover sea” to deal with theOrkney Vikings who kept

making raids on Norway.During his time Norway wasunited as one kingdom (in892AD), and the lands “westover sea” of Orkney, Shetland,the Hebrides and Man cameunder his rule.

Earl Rognvald of More wasmade Earl of Orkney, but hepassed the title to his brother,Sigurd, (The Mighty), the firstEarl of Orkney to be recordedby history. Sigurd is bestknown for his death ratherthan his life. During one of hisforays into Scottland, aboutAD893, he incurred the wrathof a man called Maelbrigte“Tusk”. A meeting wasarranged where each was tobring 40 men and 40 horses.However Sigurd put two menon each horse, with the resultthat all the Scots were killedand beheaded.

The Vikings tied the heads totheir saddles in triumph, butMaelbrigte had the last laughas one of his protruding buckteeth scratched Sigurd’s leg,causing a fatal infection. He isburied near Oykelbridge.

Sigurd was succeeded byanother colourful character,

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Norse boat-burial excavation at Westness, Rousay

Norse house at Quoygrew, (Lower Trenaby), Westray

Equal-armed brooch from the Scar boat-burial

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EARLY NORSE SITESTO VISIT

Kirkwall Old St Olaf’s KirkBirsay Brough of Birsay

The Palace areaDeerness Skaill area

Brough of DeernessRousay WestnessEynhallow monasteryWestray Quoygrew

TuquoyPierowall

Sanday ScarPool

S RonaldsayHowe of HoxaSouth Walls Kirk Hope

VIKING TIMELINE 1SETTLEMENT to 1100

c.600 Development of sailinglongshipslate 700s Norse settlement inOrkney - Picts overwhelmed794 Viking attacks onislands (Irish Annals)790s Major Viking attacks onBritain800 Norse presence wellestablished in Orkney841 Dublin founded849, 852 Large fleets of Vikingships attacking Britainc.880 King Harald Fairhair ofNorway expedition to west

Rognvald of More Earlc.890 Rognvald s brother,Sigurd the Mighty, Earl ofOrkney

Torf Einar, youngestson of Rognvald of More earl

Earl Thorfinn Skullsplitter937-954 Orkney used as base byKing Erik Blood-Axec.950 Skaill hoard buried(found 1858)c.991 Sigurd the Stout earl986-989 Sigurd gains domina-tion in the west marries daughterof Malcolm II of Scotland995 King OlavTryggvesson converts Sigurdc.1000 Discovery of Vinland(America)Burray hoard buried found 19thc1014 Battle of ClontarfSigurd killed

Thorfinn the Mightymaximum power periodc.1035 Caldale hoard hidden(found 1774, now lost)by 1042 In control of westagain1046 Death of EarlRognvald Brusisonc.1065 Death of Thorfinn theMighty, Joint Earls Paul I &Erlend II1066 King Harald Hardradakilled at Stamford Bridge1098 King MagnusBarelegs expedition to west,Deaths of Paul & Erlend

Norse silver hoard found on Burray

Lead weights from the Scar boat burial, Sanday

Steatite fishing weights

Steatite bowl

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carrying it, “there was no manwho would bear the raven-standard and the earl bore ithimself, and fell there.”

Sigurd's son and successor,Thorfinn the Mighty,presided over the period ofmaximum power and exten-sion of the Orkney Earldom.Thorfinn was a close relativeof Macbeth and the Scottishauthor, Dorothy Dunnet, haseven suggested that they mayhave been the same person!He was brought up in theScottish Court by his grandfa-ther, Malcolm II, who grantedhim the Earldom of Caithnessand Sutherland.

His foster father and mentor

Thorkel Fostri played animportant part in his powerstruggle to become sole Earl.His main opponent wasRognvald Brusison who hadthe support of the NorwegianKing. Eventually after severalspectacular battles, houseburnings and escapades,Rognvald was cornered onPapa Stronsay at Yule 1046and killed by Thorkel Fostri.

By this time Thorfinn was saidto control nine Earldoms fromhis base in Birsay where hepresided over a lavish house-hold. He was to rule his earl-doms peacefully for another18 years, during which hemade a pilgrimage to Rome in1049-50, after which the first

Bishop of Orkney , BishopThorolf, was appointed.Thorfinn established ChristChurch and a Bishop’s Palaceat Birsay, next to his own.

The Norse Earls were alwaysin as close touch with Scottishrulers as they were with theirNorse superiors, frequentlymarrying the daughters ofother noblemen, or of theScottish or Norwegian King.Their divided loyalties fre-quently caused problems,which eventually led to theend of the Earldom.

In the later 10th century Norsepower in the west was at itspeak, with the conquest ofNormandy, the discovery ofAmerica by Leif Erikson andNorse migrations to northernand eastern England. Manyhoards of valuables were hid-den either by locals fearingViking attack, or by Vikingsthemselves for safekeeping.some have since been found,such as those at Skaill, Burray,Burgar and Caldale.

In addition the climate wasconsiderably better than today,greatly facilitating sea voy-ages in open boats. OrkneyViking tradition was that afterthe crops were sown a Springcruise was made, while lateron after harvest a secondAutumn cruise followed. Thelate 20th century definition of acruise is slightly different fromthat of our Viking ancestors!

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Replica longship “Gaia” in Kirkwall Bay

The Broch of Burgar in Evie was the site of a hoard of silver, now lost


lect taxes and administer thesequestrated estates on behalfof the king. More seriouslyShetland was from nowadministered directly fromNorway, while the Earl,Harald Maddadson had togive an oath of fealty toSverre. Thus Orkney, andeven more Shetland, becamemuch more strongly under thecontrol of Norway.

The situation was further com-plicated when the ScottishKing, William the Lion, tookadvantage of the situation byinvading Caithness. Theresult was that the Earldomlost its Scottish lands but hadto submit also to the King ofScots. On the death of HaraldMaddadson, himself three-quarters Scottish, in 1206,Norse power was neverthelesson the wane . The firstScottish Earl, albeit withstrong Norse connections, wasMagnus II, in c.1233.

In 1262 Norway annexedIceland and Greenland and inlate Summer 1263 KingHaakon Haakonson arrived inOrkney with a large fleet of

over 100 ships intent onreasserting Norse power in thewest of Scotland and theHebrides. The fleet musteredat Elwick Bay in Shapinsaybefore heading out into thePentland Firth from StMargaret’s Hope bound forthe Clyde.

There was an indecisive skir-mish, now called by the Scots

the Battle of Largs, but themain culprit was the arrival ofa sudden severe gale duringwhich the fleet was scatteredand some vessels damaged.Haakon retreated to Orkney toregroup, but took ill and diedin the Bishop’s Palace at Yule.He was temporarily buried inSt Magnus Cathedral beforebeing returned to Bergen in1264.

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The “Maeshowe Dragon” was carved about 1152 by returning Crusaders

Up Helly Aa Jarl’s Squad at Langskaill, Gairsay, home of Sweyn AsleifsonCrusader’s cross in Maeshowe

The 12th century saw the mar-tyrdom of Earl Magnus, fol-lowed by a pilgrimage to theHoly Land by his cousin, EarlHaakon Paulson, the instigatorof his death. On his returnHaakon built the St NicholasRound Church in Orphir,beside the Earl’s Bu with itsfamous drinking hall. He wassucceeded by his son Paul in1123, who in turn was suc-ceeded in 1135 by EarlRognvald Kolson, nephew ofMagnus during whose timeOrkney continued to flourish.

St Magnus Cathedral, com-menced in 1137 by EarlRognvald, in memory of hismartyred uncle Magnus, ismuch the most spectacularNorse structure in Orkney.There are many other remains,such as parts of the Bishop’sPalace in Kirkwall, and theNorse secular buildings andchurch at the Brough ofBirsay. Of the several other12th century churches, theruins at Westness in Rousayand Eynhallow Monastery areparticularly evocative.

About 1152 a group ofVikings returning from theCrusades left a spectacularcollection of runic graffiti inMaeshowe, thus greatlyadding to the interest of themonument for today’s visitor.In addition to runes, theycarved a dragon (claimed bysome to be a lion, but mostpeople think it is a dragon) andother carvings which haveprovided much inspiration to20th century artists.

With the death of the UltimateViking, Sweyn Asleifson, atDublin on a raid in 1171, theindependent power of theEarldom of Orkney was com-ing to a close. In 1193 a fleetmanned by the IslandBeardies, many of the leadingmen from Orkney andShetland, invaded Norwaywith the support of the Earl.They were roundly defeated atthe Battle of Florvag in 1194near Bergen by King SverreSigurdsson.

The estates of those involvedwere taken by the NorwegianCrown, and a RoyalSysselman appointed to col-

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St Magnus Kirk on Egilsay dates from the 11th century

St Magnus cenotaph, Egilsay The Orphir Round Kirk was built by Earl Hakon about 1122


Relatively few excavationshave been made at Vikingsites in Orkney. Sadly so faronly a few of the recentlyexcavated artefacts are on dis-play in Orkney and even fewerof these sites are on display tovisitors. Worse still, muchearlier work was poorlyrecorded and has never beenreported on. Many artefactsfound last century simply dis-appeared, or are of unknownprovenance.

Despite this lack of tangibleevidence, the wealth of OldNorse language in the place-names and in the words still incurrent usage by Orcadians is

a constant reminder of ourNorse heritage. Local birdnames are particularly pre-served in common usage.

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A “Tog” is held every year in Kirkwall on Norwegian National Day(17 May)

Christmas tree lighting ceremony, the tree is donated annually by Hordaland

LATE NORSE TIMELINE 1100 to 14681102 Bishop William installedc.1104 Earls Haakon & Magnusc.1105 Magnus marries Ingarth, a

Scottish noble woman1116/1117 Martyrdom of Magnusc.1120 Haakon to Rome & Jerusalemc.1122 St Nicholas Round Church1123 Death of Haakon, Earl Paul II1135 Earl Rognvald takes over1137 St Magnus Cathedral startedc.1140 First Kirkwall Castle1151 Consecration of St Magnus1150/51 Maeshowe runes carvedc.1151/3 Rognvald at Crusades &

Rome1158 Death of Rognvald, Harald

Maddadson sole Earl1171 Death of Sweyn Asleifson1192 Rognvald canonised1194 Battle of Florvag1195 Florvag settlement 1190s

Threats from Scottish crownagainst Caithness

1206 Earl Harald, succeeded by sonsJohn & David Strong

c.1231 Murder of John last Norse Earl1232 Loss at sea of heads of some of

Orkney’s leading familiesc.1233 First Scottish Earl Magnus II1248 King of Isle of Man drowned at

Sumburgh Röst with bride1256 Magnus III1263 Annexation of Iceland and

Greenland by Norway1263 Battle of Largs1266 Settlement of Perth1290 Margaret dies (Maid of

Norway), daughter of King Erik1292 King Erik remarries to

Isabella sister of Robert the Bruce1321 Angus line of Earls endsc.1336 First Sinclair Earl Malise1349 Plague in Norway & Orkney1379 Earl Henry Sinclair I the last

Viking Earl1398 Expedition to America 1400 Earl Henry II first Scottish

nobleman Earl1425 Complaint of the People of

Orkney against David Menzies 1420 Thomas Tulloch Bishop &Scottish commissioner runs Earldom

1425 Last Norse official document1433 Earliest Scottish charter1434 Earl William Sinclair1461 Raid by Scottish & Irish on

Orkney much damage1468 Impignoration1470 James III buys earldom from

Earl William end of Norse Earldom

LATE NORSE SITESTO VISIT

Kirkwall St MagnusBishop’s Palace

Firth DamsayOrphir Round Kirk & BuStenness MaeshoweRendall Tingwall

St Thomas’s KirkRousay WestnessWyre Cubbie Roo’s CastleEgilsay St Magnus ChurchWestray QuoygrewPapay St Boniface KirkGairsay Langskaill

By the Treaty of Perth in 1266Norway resigned all of theHebrides and the Isle of Man,but only on condition thatNorway retained Orkney andShetland. The agreement wasthat the Scots would purchasethe Hebrides for 4,000 merksplus an annual payment there-after in perpetuity of 100merks. This “Annual ofNorway” was to be handedover in St Magnus Cathedraleach year.

Norwegian- Scottish connec-tions were strengthened by themarriage of Alexander III’sdaughter to King Erik ofNorway, but the accidentaldeath of the former and the saddeath of their daughter, theMaid of Norway, on her wayto become Queen of Scotlandwas a severe setback, com-

pounded by the death soonafter of the mother.Eventually the success ofRobert the Bruce and the mar-riage of his sister, Isabella, toKing Erik were to greatly set-tle relations for some time.

The Scottish Earls continuedto have very strong ties withNorway, but their twin loyal-ties often caused them prob-lems. During the 14th centurythey gradually lost power andinfluence as the nation statesof Norway and Scotland grew.However, in about 1379 thevery colourful Henry Sinclairbecame Earl and is reputed tohave held a remarkably afflu-ent court at Kirkwall Castle.

Henry was not only expectedto defend Orkney from attack,but also Shetland. In additionhe was expected to provideships and men to theNorwegian King on demand.

Increasing Scots influence anda steady influx of lowlandScots during the 15th centurygradually eroded the oldOrkney Udal Law and theNorn language, the last knownofficial Norse document beingdated 1425. With the takeoverof Norway by Denmark, theNorse interest in the NorthernIsles further reduced, particu-larly as the connection hadalways been with WesternNorway, rather than withDenmark.

When the daughter of theDanish King was to marry theScottish King in 1468, theDanes had no compunctionabout using Orkney, whichhad been Norway’s closestcolony, as a guarantee for thedowry - which has never beenpaid. Thus ended ignomin-iously over 600 years of Norserule of the islands.

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Cubbie Roo’s Castle on Wyre

Memorial to King HaakonThe Earl’s Bu in Orphir, near the Round Kirk


in new St Olaf’s on DundasCrescent A hogback tomb-stone from the graveyard isnow in the Orkney Museum.

Orphir St Nicholas RoundChurch was built by EarlHakon Paulson on his returnfrom Jerusalem about 1122,probably next to his skali, ordrinking hall, at the Bu inOrphir. The apse is all thatnow remains of the only sur-viving round church fromthis time in Scotland.

Birsay was the main seat ofthe Earldom and Bishopric,at least during the time ofThorfinn the Mighty (999-1064). Much of the exten-sive ruins on the Brough ofBirsay probably date fromthis time. They include acharming little chapel and acomplex of buildings, someprobably secular and othersperhaps ecclesiastic.

The Bishop’s Palace andChurch were most likely inthe vicinity of the present StMagnus Church and laterEarl’s Palace. The discoveryof very substantial red sand-stone foundations under thischurch, as well as the

“Mons Bellus” stone arevery suggestive of this.

Deerness A hogback tomb-stone dating from the 11th or12th century, which wasfound in the graveyard isnow kept inside the Skaill

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Possible foundations of Christ Church under modern St Magnus Church

Hogback tombstone from Skaill, Deerness

Chapel on the Brough of Birsay

from St Magnus Church, Birsay - now part of two lintels“Mons Bellus” stone

Apse of Orphir Round Kirk

Papa Names The Papanames may attest to the pres-ence of Christian sites inOrkney when the Norsemenfirst arrived. Alternativelythey may date from the 11th

or 12th century, when pre-Norse sites may have been

reused. Whichever is true,the many symbol stones andancient chapel sites suggestthat Christianity was wellestablished here duringPictish times.

However the invading Norsehad no respect for theseinstitutions and probablytook over their farms with-out paying much heed to thePapae, their religious arte-facts or special buildings.Later of course Christianitydid reassert itself, perhapsinitially by force, but laterby the will of the commonpeople.

There are several survivingNorse churches, in varying

states of ruin. Some of theseare in turn built on top ofmuch more ancient chapels.Other churches have beenrebuilt, often several times,and contain the foundationsor some of the walls of muchmore ancient structures.

In many cases churches havebeen rebuilt several times onthe same site, so that littlenow remains of the Norse orearlier buildings. Howevera remarkable number ofchurches remain substantial-ly intact. To date only one(St Boniface on Papay) hasbeen renovated fully.

Kirkwall St MagnusCathedral, is of course,much the most spectacularof all the Orkney Norsechurches. However to get afuller picture of Late NorseOrkney it is really necessaryto visit some of the earliersites. St Olaf’s was the firstViking church in Kirkwall,and was probably built byEarl Rognvald Brusisonabout 1035. All that remainstoday is an archway in StOlaf’s Wynd and an aumbry

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The choir is the oldest part of St Magnus Cathedral

Aumbry from Old St Olaf’s Kirk Watergate arch, Bishop’s Palace


Kolbein Hruga, who lived atthe Bu nearby and also builtCubbie Roo’s Castle.

Eynhallow The 12th centurychurch on Eynhallow hasextensive surrounding build-ings. There was probably amonastery here in Norsetimes and the present ruinsmay well overly and earlier,Pictish religious site..

Westray has evidence ofconsiderable Norse settle-ment. There was a largecemetery in the dunes atPierowall. Lady Kirk, onthe shore nearby, was rebuiltin the 1600s on top of a 13th

century Norse church. TheCross Kirk, on the shorenear Tuquoy, has a largelyintact apse and dates fromthe 12th century.

Papay. St Boniface Churchis originally 12th century, butmuch altered over the years.There is a 12th century hog-back tombstone in the grave-yard and two Pictish crossslabs were also found here.The small chapel of StTredwells is on a smallisland on the eponymousloch built on top of a broch.

Papa Stronsay St NicholasChapel dates from the 11th

and 12th centuries. It wasrecently excavated and wasshown to be built on top of asmall 7th or 8th centuryPictish monastery, whichconsisted of a small chapel

with several surroundingcells.

Stronsay There are severalchapel sites on Stronsay, butonly St Peter’s, west ofWhitehall still has substan-tial ruins visible.

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Cross Kirk at Tuquoy, Westray was largely demolished in the 18th century

St Mary’s Chapel on Wyre may have been built by Kolbein Hruga

St Magnus Kirk, Egilsay

EARLY CHRISTIANSITES TO VISIT

Kirkwall Old St Olaf’sSt Magnus CathedralBishop’s Palace

Orphir St Nicholas RoundStenness Stenness KirkHarray St Michael's KirkBirsay St Magnus

Broch of Birsay“Mons Bellus” stones

Holm St Mary’sTankerness St Andrew’sDeerness Skaill - hogback

Brough of DeernessBurray St LaurenceS Ronaldsay St Peter’s Kirk

Old St Mary’s KirkHoy OsmondwallRousay St Mary’s, SwandroEgilsay St Magnus KirkWyre St Mary’s ChapelEynhallow MonasteryWestray Cross Kirk, Tuquoy

St Mary’s, PierowallSt Peter’s, Rapness

Papay St BonifaceSt Tredwell’s

Stronsay St Peter’s, WhitehallKildinguie

Papa StronsaySt NicholasShapinsay St Catherine’s, Linton

Church This is one of fiveso far discovered in Orkney

The Brough of Deerness,north of the Gloup, has theruins of a Norse chapel andseveral small houses. Thechapel is built on top of anolder structure, which maybe a Pictish chapel. A ram-part protects the entrance tothis precipitous headland.

Burray St Laurence Kirkhas unusual sculpted sand-stone door jambs and lintelsand may be on the site of amuch earlier chapel dedicat-ed to the 7th century clericknown as the “Apostle of thePicts”.

South Ronaldsay St Peter’sand Old St Mary’s Churches

are both built on much olderfoundations, the formerincluding a Pictish symbolstone as a lintel. The latter ison what may be the oldestchapel site in Orkney andhas an enigmatic “footprint”stone inside.

Rousay St Mary’s Kirk atSwandro dates from the 12th

century and, though muchrepaired, parts of the nowdilapidated structure arevery old. It was the mainchurch for the Westside untilthe 19th century clearances.

Egilsay St Magnus Kirkwas built about 1136 on thesite of an earlier chapelwhere Magnus is reputed tohave prayed before his mur-der. Its distinctive type ofround tower is the only oneremaining in Orkney today,but in the past churches atDeerness and Stenness hadsimilar tall towers.

Wyre St Mary’s Chapel isalso from the 12th centuryand was probably built by

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St Laurence Kirk, Burray

St Boniface Kirk on Papay was restored in the 1990s

The monastery on Eynhallow probably dates from Norse times or earlier

St Mary’s Kirk, Burwick, South Ronaldsay


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In May 1398 Henry St Clairleft for an expedition west,but after passing theFaeroes, received a frostyreception from theIcelanders who refused tosupply water and provisions.Ten days after departurefrom Iceland on a fair windland was reached to thewest. probably Nova Scotia.

The Zeno Narrativedescribes a landscape verylike that of Louisburg, CapeBreton Island, where anancient cannon was discov-ered in 1849. This cannon isvirtually identical to a 14th

century Venetian cannonnow in the Naval Museum atthe Arsenale in Venice andthe implication is that itcould only have been madeby Venetians, as no one elsemade guns like that.

The story says that most ofhis fleet returned home andthat Henry, Antonio andsome of his men returned in1400, having repaired theirships and built a new shiplocally. The MicmacIndians have a legend about"Glooskap", who is said tohave sailed away home tothe country of the east.There are apparently a largenumber of "coincidences" inthe Micmac tale, whichmake it possible that Henrydid really visit here. Thereal Henry, however, did notsurvive to develop his fledg-ling colony as he was killedduring an English raid onOrkney shortly after hisreturn.

What is clear is that knowl-edge of the Atlantic andNorth America was far morewidespread among seamenin the 14th century than haspreviously been realised byhistorians. Portuguese,Venetian, Basque, Bretonand English fishermen,traders and pirates were allinterested in anything whichcould make money. It is notsurprising that they did nottell the world much!

Henry St Clair's son, alsoHenry, was subsequentlycaptured by the English in1406, and Antonio Zenoreturned home to Venice.When finally released EarlHenry II was far too

embroiled in local events topossibly be able to mountanother expedition to NovaScotia, and the small colonywas left to its own devices.The foundations of"Sinclair's Castle" are said tostill be visible on a headlandnear Cape Caruso.

Whether or not the tale hasany truth in, it is quite clearthat by the 1390s fishermendid know about the GrandBanks and that the OrkneyEarldom was quite capableof mounting just such anexpedition. Whether Henryever did so is open to specu-lation.

OR THE LEGEND OF GLOOSKAP

Map of the North Atlantic said to be copied from “Inventio Fortunatae”

In 1365 the young Henry StClair and other knightsassembled in Venice to goon a crusade to Egypt, dur-ing which Alexandria wasoccupied. He also went toJerusalem and was subse-quently called "Henry theHoly" on his return toScotland. He had been lefthis father's estate at Rosslyn,near Edinburgh and in 1379became Earl of Orkney.Thus Henry came intowealth, power and contactwith Venice. He also had theusual divided loyalties toNorway, Orkney, Scotlandand England.

He appears to have beenwell respected by Norse andScots, and by 1390 had asmall fleet of vessels at hisdisposal to look after hisearldom. He is said to havehad a decked longship forbattle, two open galleys per-haps like the Birlinn illus-trated here, and up to 10small decked barks which

were small cargo ships well-suited for northern waters.

In 1391 a Venetian shiparrived with Nicolo Zeno,brother of Carlo Zeno (the"Lion" of Venice who hadpioneered the use of cannonat the Battle of Chioggia).After a time his brother,Antonio, too joined him.They could supply expertisethat Henry lacked, such ashow to forge the new cannonfor shipboard use, and theywere familiar with the latestnavigational theories, instru-ments and cartographicskills. The Zenos were awealthy Venetian family ofseafarers whose motivewould have involved tradingand the extension of stateinterests, including perhapspiracy and slave trading.

Henry is said to have madetrips to Shetland and theFaeroes on behalf of theNorwegian crown to collectrent, while In 1393 Nicolo

went to Greenland with theOrkney Bishop, duringwhich time he surveyedmuch of the southern coast.On returning with theBishop from Gardar, hedied, but his brother stayedon to take part in a remark-able voyage across theAtlantic. This voyage mayhave been inspired by a pre-vious expedition toGreenland and the Arctic byan English geographer,Nicholas of Lynne about1360, which resulted in abook (Inventio Fortunatae)and a new map of theAtlantic (Pope Urban’smap), the latter produced inVenice in 1367 by the broth-ers Pizzigano.

At about this time also tradebetween England andIceland was increasing, withmuch export of dried fishand import of a wide rangeof goods. English trade withGreenland was also develop-ing. This in turn encouragedpirates, who not only stolegoods, but also traded inslaves, to operate in the area.

The story goes that somefishermen from Greenland,fishing on the Grand Banks,were caught in a storm anddriven far south, only to becaptured by Indians, towhom they taught the use ofnets. Eventually one of thefishermen escaped andcame in contact with HenrySt Clair. He may haveoffered to act as pilot on anexpedition west, but he diedbefore departure.

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HENRY ST CLAIR AND THE ZENO NARRATIVE

Replica Birlinn “Aileach” in Hoy Sound on its way to the Faeroes


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DERIVATION OF THE NAME “ORKNEY”The name “Orkney” derivesfrom ON Orkneyjar, SealIslands, however the “Ork” partis much more ancient.Diodurus Siculus, in about59BC, referred to Orkney as the“Orcades”, quoting from amuch earlier report by Pytheasfrom about 320BC. Writing inc.70AD, Pliny the Elderreferred to the “Orcades” andstated that “Cape Orcas liesacross the Pentland Firth fromthe Orcades...there are 40Orcades separated by moderatedistances.” Cape Orcas is prob-ably Dunnet Head in Caithness.

The Old Irish name for Orkneywas Innse Orc, Isles of the

Orks. The Vikings also referredto Maeshowe as “Orkahowe”,suggesting is that “Orc” was thetotemic name of the inhabitantsin former times and was recog-nised as such by the Norse.

In Old Irish Orcan means pig,however in Gaelic Orc alsorefers to a small whale or dol-phin. In fact Pliny himself callsthis kind of whale “orca”, andtoday the Orca or Killer Whale(Orchinus Orca) is still fre-quently seen around Orkney. Itshould also be noted that in OldNorse Orkn refers to “a kind ofseal”.

The Vikings were nearer the

mark and Ork probably means“Sea Pig” which could meaneither a small whale or a seal.Wild Boars were never a majorfeature of Orkney but smallcetaceans such as Orcas,Grampus, and other Dolphins,Pilot Whales as well as Greyand Common Seals were prob-ably even more numerous inprehistoric times than now.

Seals or “Selkies”, (ON Selr,Seal), are also traditionallyrespected and the subject ofmuch folklore in Orkney. Thusthe name Orkney or Orcadesmost likely always meant “SealIslands” and the people werethus “Orcs” or “Selkies”.

Modern Name Norse Name Derivation

Mainland Hrossey Horse Island (from its shape)Rousay Hrolfsey Rolf’s IsleEgilsay Egilsey Egil’s Isle or Church IsleEynhallow Eyinhelga Holy IsleWyre Vigr Spearhead-shaped IsleGairsay Gareksey Garek’s IsleWestray Vestrey West IslePapa Westray Papa Meiri Big Island of the Papar (priests)North Ronaldsay Rinansey Ringan’s Isle Sanday Sandey Sandy IsleEday Eiðey Isthmus IsleStronsay Strjonsey Gain or Profit Isle, or Beach IslePapa Stronsay Papey Minni Small Island of the Papar (priests)Shapinsay Hjálpandisey Helping Isle or Hjalpandi’s IsleHelliar Holm Elliarvik Holm Elwick Bay or Cave (Hellia) HolmDamsay Daminsey Twin Isle (with Holm of Grimbister)Copinsay Kolbeinsey Kolbein’s IsleHoy Háey High IsleWalls Vágaland Land of BaysFlotta Flat-ey Flat IsleFara Faer-ey Sheep isleCava Kalf-ey Calf IsleGraemsay Grímsey Grim’s IsleBurray Borgarey Broch IsleSouth Ronaldsay Rögnvaldsey Rognvald’s IsleSwona Svíney or Swefney Swine Isle or Sweyn’s IslePentland Skerries Pettland-sker Pictland Firth Skerries


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ORKNEY PLACE NAMES

The vast majority of place names in Orkney are derived from Old Norse, with a very few earlier elements.Orcadian pronunciation is distinctive, and is derived from the “Orkney Norn”. Gaelic influence neverreached the islands, and despite the influx of people from other parts of Britain over the years, many ofthe old words have survived. This glossary includes many of the most common place name elements, butit is not exhaustive, and fuller details can be found by referring to the Further Reading section. Referencesto many placenames is included in the text. The glossary is set out as follows:

Place name, prefix or suffix as in use today; Old Norse derivation, English translation

a, o, or; A, burnaith; Eid, isthmusayre; Eyrr, gravel beach-back; Bakki, banksbarth; Barth; projecting headlandberry; Berry, -ber; Berg, hillbigging; Bygging, building-bister, -bist; bolstadr, farm, dwellingbreck-; Brekka, slopebrett-; Bratt, steepbrim; Brim, surfbring; Bringa, breastbro-; Bru, bridgebu, -by; Bu, Baer, farm-buster, -bister, -bist; Bolstadir, house-clett, cleat; Klett, low rock, stone-built house-croo; Kro, sheepfoldcumla-, -cuml; Kuml, burial mound-dale, -dall; Dal, valleydeep-, jub-; Djup, deepEvie; Efja, eddyey, ay, a; Ey, islandfar-; Faer, sheep-fell, -fea, -fiold; Fjall, hillfirth, -ford; Fjord, wide bayfoul; Fugl, birdfurs-; Fors, waterfallgarth; Garth, enclosuregeo-; Gja, chasm-gill; Gil, narrow valleygloup; Glup, throatgra; Gra, greygraenn; Graenn, greengrind; Grind, gategrut-; Gryot, gravelho-; Ha, highhack-; Hagi, enclosed pastureham, hamn-; Hafn, harbourhammar; Hammar, crag-hellya; Hellir, cave-hellya; Hella, flat rockhellya; Helgr, holyhest; Hest, horseholm; Holm, small islandhope; Hjop, shallow bay-house,-ass; Ass, ridgehowe, hox-; Haug, moundhund; Hund, doghous-, -house; Hus, housekame; Kamb, ridge-keld, kelda; Kelda, spring

kir-, kirk-, -kirk; Kirkja, churchknap; Knapp, knob, hill-toplanga-, -land; Langr, long-lee; Hlith, slopeler-; Leir, clayling; Ling, heathermel-; Mel, sandbank, dunesmoul, mull; Muli, muzzle, lipmous-, muss-, -mo; Mor, pl.mos, moormuckle; Mykill, large, greatmyre; Myri, wet meadow-ness; Nes, nose. pointnev; Nef, small headlandnoup; Gnup, peaknoust; Naust, boat beaching-placeod-; Oddi, sharp pointoyce; Oss, burn-mouthpeerie, peedie; ??, small quholm; Hvamm, grassy slope-quoy; Kvi, cattle penram-, ramn-; Hrafn, raven-ret; Reyy, sheepfoldro-; Raud, redruss-; Hross, horsescap-; Skalp, shipseater, -setter, -ster; Setr, out-pastureselli-; Sel, setter hut-shun; Tjorn, small loch-skaill; Skali, hall, houseskel-; Skal, soft rockskerry; Sker, skerryskip-; Skip, shipskippi-; Skipti, boundarystack; Stakk, pillar rocksten-, -stain; Steinn, stone-ster, -sta; Stadr, homesteadstove; Stofa, housestrom-; Straum, tide?streamswart-;Svart, black-taing; Tangi, tongueting; Thing, assembly-toft, -taft; Thopt, site of dwelling-ton, -town; Tun, enclosuretoo; Thufa, moundvel-, -wall; Vollr, valleyvoe, -wall; Vagr, baywaith; Vath, fordward, wart; Varda, beaconwatten; Vatn, waterwheetha-; Hvit, whitewick; Vik, bay

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Tapestry by Leila Thomson for J&W Tait’s 125th anniversary

What is an Orcadian from the Storm GMB 1954First the aborigonesThat houked Skara Brae from the sandThen the Picts,Thoe small dark cunning menWho scrolled their history in stone…And then the tigers from the east over sea,The blond butchering Vikings,Whose last worry on sea or landWas purity of race, as they staggered couchwardsAfter a fill of ale.Finally, to make the mixture thick and slab,The offscorings of Scotland,The lowliest pimps from Lothian and the MearnsFawning on the train of Black Pat,And robbing and raping ad lib,But that’s not all.For many a hundred ships have ripped their flanksOn Rora Head, or the Noup,And Basque sailor lads and bearded skippers from BrittanyLeft off their briny ways to cleave a furrow Through Orkney crofts and lasses.Not to speak of two world warsAnd hordes of English and Yanks and Italians and PolesWho took their stations here:By the day the guns, by nigh the ancestral box-bed.Only this morning I delivered a bairnAt Maggie O’Corsland’sWith a subtle silk-selling Krishna smile.A fine mixter-maxter!

Tennyson

See what a lovely shellLying close to my foot…What is it? A learned manCould give it a clumsy name.Let him name it who can,The beauty would be the same.

The Bloody Orkneys, Cap HBlair RN.

This bloody town's a bloody cuss --No bloody trains, no bloody bus,And no one cares for bloody us --In bloody Orkney.

The bloody roads are bloody bad,The bloody folks are bloody mad,They'd make the brightest bloody sad,In bloody Orkney.

All bloody clouds, and bloody rains,No bloody kerbs, no bloody drains,The Council's got no bloody brains,In bloody Orkney.

Everything's so bloody dear,A bloody bob, for bloody beer,And is it good? No bloody fear,In bloody Orkney.

The bloody flicks are bloody old,The bloody seats are bloody cold,You can't get in for bloody gold,In bloody Orkney.

The bloody dances make you smile;The bloody band is bloody vile;It only cramps your bloody styleIn bloody Orkney.

No bloody sport, no bloody games,No bloody fun, the bloody damesWon't even give their bloody namesIn bloody Orkney.

Best bloody place is bloody bed,With bloody ice on bloody head,You might as well be bloody dead,In bloody Orkney.

SOME VERSE (AND WORSE)

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Lord's Prayer, recorded by Wallace onNorth Ronaldsay (18th century)Favor i ir i chimeri. Helleut ir i nam thite, gillacosdum thite cumma, veya thine mota vara gort oyurn sinna gort i chimeri, ga vus da on da dalightbrow vora, Firgive vus sinna vora sin vee firgivesindara mutha vis, lyv vus ye i tumtation, mindelivera vus fro olt ilt, Amen: or "On sa metethvera."

ORKNEY LANGUAGE

Sanctuary, Allison LeonardThere is one place where I may lay my head:The inquiring mind from roving has returnedTired with the immortal passions of the dead.The flame of intellect, a star that burnedAeons afar, cold, clear and very bright,All rayed with beauty in the dreaming dark,Sinks with the constellations of the nightInto perspective. Oh, the passing markOf pain fades with all unimportant thingsLike an old unremembered fear. I shedFalseness. Alone I’ll take the path of kingsBut at the journey’s end I’ll lay my headIn that one place where I can be at rest-Upon the healing quiet of your breast.

But John, Robert RendallBut John, have you seen the world, said he,Train and tramcars and sixty seaters,Cities in lads across the sea –Giotto’s tower and the dome of St Peter’s?

No, but I’ve seen the arc of the Earth,From the Birsay shore like the edge of a planet,And the lifeboat plunge through the PentlandFirth?To a cosmic tide with the men who man it.

Cragsman’s Widow, R RendallHe wis aye vaigan b’the shore,An’ climman amang the craigs,Swappan the mallimaks,Or taakan whitemaa aiggs.

It’s six year bye come Lammas,Sin’ he gaed afore the face,An’ nane but an aald dune wifeWis left tae work the place.

Yet the sun shines doon on a’ thing,The links are bonnie and green,An’the sea keeps ebban an’ flown-As though hid had never been.

NM

S

Pictish brooch found at Westness, Rousay

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The Stenness folk are known as Merry Dancers or Skeggs

Parish Max popn Max popn 1961 1981 1991 2001(year) (Number)census census census census

Birsay & Harray 1861 2593 1390 1168 779Eday 1851 947 198 147 166 121Evie & Rendall 1851 1455 731 564 670Firth 1871 789 513 598 1088Holm 1881 1042 578 553 615Hoy, Graemsay & Flotta 1851 1841 685 660 605 494Kirkwall & St Ola 1991 6881 5672 6881 7445North Ronaldsay 1881 547 161 109 92 70Orphir & Stenness 1851 1842 899 787 686Papay 1861 392 139 91 85 65Rousay, Egilsay & Wyre 1841 1400 338 253 291 267Sanday 1881 2075 670 634 533 478Sandwick 1861 1225 832 777 779Shapinsay 1881 974 416 329 322 300South Ronaldsay & Burray 1881 3305 1248 1173 1306 1221St Andrews & Deerness 1881 1788 859 733 754Stromness 1821 2944 1414 2160 2175Stronsay 1871 1289 497 419 382 358Westray 1881 2190 871 702 704 563

Orkney resident population 1861 32225 (Maximum)1961 186501981 184191991 196122001 19245

ORKNEY POPULATION

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The people from each parish or island in Orkney have their own nickname or "tou-name”.The name probably derives from the township, or some aspect of life there. It has long beenthe tradition that tou-names come from when St Magnus Cathedral was being built, but theycould easily be much older. Generally amusing or mildly derogatory, they were used to referto individuals or groups who had come to help with the construction work.

Until recently the names were in common use in the North and South Isles, especially at ferrytimes, when people would shout “Auks”, or “Limpets”, etc. as appropriate. In wartime theIsles steamer timetables used tou-names rather than island names to lend confusion to theenemy. Some parishes have two or more tou-names, one of which is often quite rude.

Birsay Dogs or Hoes DogfishBurray Oily Bogies or Bogglers skin bag used to store fish oilDeerness Skate Rumples Skate tails are uselessEday Scarfs CormorantsEgilsay Burstin Lumps Corn dried in a kettle over a fireEvie Cauld Kail Perhaps suggesting dull and uninterestingFirth Oysters The Bay of Firth was good for OystersFlotta Flukes or Grouties FloundersGairsay Buckies or Kiddy Baas WhelksGraemsay Goslings or Limpets young geese or shellfishHarray Crabs only land-locked parish Holm Hobblers people who walk with a hobbleHoy Hawks or Tammienories Hawks or PuffinsLonghope Whelks shellfishKirkwall Starlings or Scooties Large numbers roost in the townN Ronaldsay Selkies, Tangie Wheesos or Hides SealsNorth Faray Spickoes DogfishOrphir Yirnings or Sheep Grippers Rennet, sheep grippers is unmentionablePapay Dundies thin or spent CodRendall Sheep Thieves Rendall folk were said to be suchRousay Mares a Rousay man bought mares but no stallionSanday Grulie Belkies fat belliesSandwick Assie Pattles one who sits by the fire poking itScapa Luggies Lug WormShapinsay Sheep following along like sheep on a pathS. Ronaldsay Herston Hogs most probably Dogfish

Grimness Gruties the land in Grimness is stonySandwick Birkies lively folkSt Mgts Hope Scooties Arctic Skua (Scootie Allan)South Parish Teeicks LapwingWidewall Witches There were said to be many

South Walls Lyres Manx Shearwater, or muddy peopleStenness Merry Dancers or Skeggs Aurora BorealisStromness Bloody Puddings Black PuddingsStronsay Limpets of sailors who “stuck to the pier like limpets”Tankerness Skerry Scrapers Shores are good for shellfishWestray Auks many auks nest on Noup HeadWyre Whelks shellfish which live on the shore

ORKNEY PARISH NICKNAMES OR TOU-NAMES


Considerable amounts of hillland are still held in thisancient manner, which cancause problems for publicbodies at times.

There was a policy on thepart of the Scottish Crown toacquire the Udal rights toland, because although theScottish Parliament had"abolished" Norse Law in1611, this could not be retro-spective. Indeed in view ofthe pawned nature of theislands any Scottish Act overthe Norse Law even nowmay be in doubt. SteadilyScots "landowners" acquired"ownership" of Udal landsby often dubious means,until the Udallers were verymuch reduced. Ironicallythis was eventually to lead tothe downfall of the incominglaird class themselves.

The fundamental difficultywith Scotland was that theKing was nominally theowner of all of the land,which was held by landlordswith the Crown as superior,and with services and pay-ments to be made, as well asa written title, whereas theUdal system was virtuallythe direct opposite. Thisremains incomprehensibleto Edinburgh lawyers, wellversed in Feudal Law butnot in Udal Law. After theImpignoration the Udallerscould no longer appeal to theKing of Norway, and werethus exposed to abuse by theincoming Scots. However,now that the ScottishParliament has abolished

Feudal Law, interest hasrevived in the older laws.Udal Law still exists today,most apparent in the owner-ship of the coastline.Whereas in the rest ofBritain ownership of landextends only to the HighWater mark, in Orkney andShetland this extends to thelowest Spring ebb, plus vari-ously as far as a stone can bethrown, or a horse can bewaded, or a salmon net canbe thrown.

This has enormous implica-tions to building work,inshore fisheries and piers.Also anything arriving fortu-itously on the shore is tech-nically the property of the

landowner. Naturally thelairds used Udal Law to con-trol their lucrative Kelp-making trade.

Since the foreshore belongsto the adjacent landownerand is not Common Land,there is no absolute right ofaccess to the inter-tidal zonein Orkney (or Shetland).However traditionally noone objects to folk goingalong the shore. If in doubtit is polite to ask. Norseownership of the sea andseabed is claimed by someto have extended out to theMarebekke - the edge of theContinental Shelf - owner-ship of fishing, sealing andwhaling rights were and

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HISTORY & CULTURE

Burning kelp at Birsay

Warebeth, Stromness with Hoy Sound and the Hoy Hills

Udal Law (ON odal, landheld in allodial tenure), isthe ancient Norse system ofinheritance and law whichthe Viking settlers broughtwherever they settled. Notrace remains of the previouslegal system, which nodoubt derived from the dis-tant past with influencesfrom earlier incomers, suchas the Picts, but in Orkney itseems that that the Norsetook total control of an exist-ing pattern of settlement andthen modified it.

About 1037 King MagnusThe Good supervised thecodification of the old laws,which of course applied toOrkney and Shetland as partof Norway. Later, in about1274, King MagnusLagabote (the Lawmender)was to go even further inrevising and amending thelaw to suit the muchchanged times.

In essence Udal Law is total-ly different to Scots Law asapplied to property.Udallers have absolute own-

ership of their land, with nosuperior, gained by holdingthe land over a number ofgenerations, normally origi-nally by settlement. Thisland was held in (unwritten)freehold, with no obligationexcept a duty to pay tax orskat to the king. The eldestson inherited the father'smain residence, while therest of the property wasshared among siblings,daughters inheriting half asmuch as sons. Over theyears this led to an extremefragmentation of land own-ership and, despite reform,left Orkney wide open toexploitation.

In particular the fact that nowritten documents wererequired to substantiate pos-session greatly confused theScots. The lack of TitleDeeds was much used byScottish "landlords" andtheir lawyers, as one of themeans of grabbing landsfrom the real owners.

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UDAL LAW - THE OLD NORSE LEGAL SYSTEM

Kirkwall from Cromwell’s Fort

Part of the Skaill Hoard, now in the National Museum of Scotland


authority over the intertidalzone in Orkney. TheCompany had apparentlyeven paid the CrownCommissioners for a privi-lege that they had no author-ity to dispense when thelandowner realised that hisrights had been infringed.Thus state ignorance of Udallaw continues to this day.The Crown had to admit thesupremacy of Udal Law inthis respect and refund theircharges in favour of theactual landowner.

In 1990 the Court of Sessionruled against ShetlandSalmon Farmers Associationand Lerwick Harbour Trustin their claim that the Crowncould not own the seabedaround the Northern Isles.The blatant farce of theCrown ruling for itself wasof course ignored by politi-cians at the time. LerwickHarbour Trust in this caseargued for Udal Law, achange of position from1903 and 1953.

More recently Udal Lawagain was invoked inKirkwall by the owners ofthe foreshore below ShoreStreet when the Councildecided to build a road alongthe foreshore. A similar sit-uation occurred more recent-ly with the construction ofan access road and breakwa-ter for the new Kirkwallmarina, also by the Council.In both cases the localauthority was forced tonegotiate with the (udal)owners of the foreshore.

While this may have held upthe works, it also confirmedthat Udal Law is alive andwell, at least in the case ofthe foreshore.

There has been little changein the attitude of Edinburghlawyers in the last 600 years.They still treat Udal Lawwith contempt, at their con-tinued peril! The currentdebate about Udal Law hasbeen fired by the attempt ofthe Crown Estate to chargevery large sums of "rent" fora new fibre optic cablewhich was to link Orkneyand Shetland with Icelandand Scotland. The mainresult is that the cable nowbypasses our islands.

Along with local concernsabout the control of fishingand fish farming, it seemsthat the Crown is going tohave a hard time until a con-stitutional settlement ofOrkney and Shetland's statusis finally achieved - afterwell over 500 years ofimpignoration.

Orcadians and Shetlanderslike to think that the class-less society of today derivesfrom the Udal tradition,where every man is equal,but also every man has anequal duty to society. Wemay be a mixture of Norse,Scots and others, but we arenevertheless independent bynature whateverway.

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Kirkwall shorefront was the site of recent application of Udal Law

Swans do not belong to the Crown in Orkney

HISTORY & CULTURE

remain important. Howeverthis is a hotly debated issuewhich is denied by many.

Although in 1468 Orkneyand in 1469 Shetland wereimpignorated (mortgaged)to Scotland, and annexed in1472, there have been manyconfirmations of the recog-nition of "Norse Laws"including by the ScottishParliament in 1567. Further,in 1667, the Treaty andPeace of Breda confirmedthe right of redemption wasunprescribed and thusunprescribable.

Various cases during the 19th

and 20th centuries confirmedthe primacy of Udal Law incertain instances, while oth-ers did not. Whereas owner-ship of the foreshore seemsto be accepted, the positionregarding the sea and seabedis undecided. In all cases todate the Scottish High Courthas ruled that the Crownowns these assets, but it ishard to see how the Crownmorally can rule in favour ofitself in such a case.

When the owner of theQueens Hotel in Lerwickargued that he owned theforeshore, this was upheld in1903, when LerwickHarbour Trustees claimedthat they held the land undera Crown grant. A similarcase in 1953 was won by theTrustees on the basis that theproperty was feudal, a statuswhich applies to someShetland property.

One interesting anomaly isthe Mute Swan. About 1910a Kirkwall lawyer was deter-mined to prove that UdalLaw still had force, andaccompanied by his friend,the Procurator Fiscal, wentout to Harray Loch and shot

a swan. The case went to theHigh Court and the Crownlost. Everywhere else in UKthe Crown owned the Swans- in Orkney they were, andstill are, the property of thepeople as the NorwegianCrown never claimed suchownership. Nowadays wedo not shoot swans, but theprinciples of the old NorseUdal Law still stand.

Udal Law was invoked in a1965 attempt to keep the StNinian's Isle Treasure inShetland when the Crownclaimed it as treasure trove.Not unnaturally the Crown'scourts found in favour ofitself, and now the Pictishsilver languishes inEdinburgh, while visitors toShetland can only see paleimitations.

In the mid-1970s when theOccidental Oil Companywas building its pipeline toFlotta, it negotiated with theCrown Estate for rights tocross the foreshore at theend of the 4th ChurchillBarrier at Cara without real-ising that the Crown has no

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Remains of the blockship “Collindoc”at Cara, South Ronaldsay

Salmon farming has become an important part of the Orkney economy

UDAL LAW - THE OLD NORSE LEGAL SYSTEM


resided on lovely greenislands that could be seenfloating on the sea. The kingof the Fin Folk put a curseon the fishermen ofSandwick until he was killedat the Bay of Skaill. Burntstones can still be seenwhere his body was cremat-ed.

The Fin Folk’s women weremermaids. They were saidto be the most beautifulcreature ever created,though not all stories claimthat they had fishes’ tails.They would try to lure aHuman man to join themunder the sea and becometheir husband. If they mar-ried a Human they wouldkeep their beauty forever,but if they married a Finman they would grow ugly.

Selkie Legends Seals havealways been much liked byOrcadians, and although acertain amount of huntingwas always done in the past,it was never judged to begood luck to kill one. Thereare many variations on theselkie story, where a manmay take a seal-wife, bystealing her skin and hidingit while she is ashore.

They make exceptionallyfine wives, but always pinefor the sea and frequentlyescape back to it when theyfind their skins. It is saidthat when the seals comeashore they remove theirskins to reveal a humanform. The women areexceptionally beautiful,

while the men are also veryphysically attractive. The seal-women bear beau-tiful daughters. Sometimesunsatisfied Human wivesmay also take seal-men. It issaid that the issue of suchunions are recognisable bytheir features, and especiallyby their skin, which may be

scaly. Interestingly there isnever any suggestion of evilor bad intent with seal peo-ple, and seals have the repu-tation of saving fishermen indistress, sometimes with adeal being made about thereturn of their seal-wife toher own kind.

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HISTORY & CULTURE

There are many legends about seals or selkies as they are called in Orkney

Fin Folk put a curse on fishermen at the Bay of Skaill

Eynhallow is Orkney’s magical, disappearing isle

Orkney has a rich folkloreheritage that has its roots inboth the Celtic andScandinavian worlds. TheNorsemen brought many oftheir own customs to theislands where they weremixed together with localbeliefs. A whole assortmentof supernatural creatureshaunted both land and sea,and many tales concerningthem were told during win-ter nights by the fire.

Fairies in Orkney are calledtrows, from the Old Norseword troll. They lived inmounds and would stealbabies, leaving changelingsin their place. They alsostole away mothers who hadjust given birth, leaving anobject that magically resem-bled the dead woman. Thismethod was also used tosteal cattle and horses.

They had a great love ofmusic, and there are tales ofpeople who entered theirmounds to join a party andnever returned for a year ormore. There were also seatrows who stole the fishfrom fishermen’s hooks,sometimes they too were

caught and pulled to the sur-face. Another mounddweller was the hogboonwho brought good luck tothe farm. His reward was tohave offerings of food, milkor ale poured over themound where he lived.

Attempts at bridge buildingby giants were pointed out,as were the huge rocks that

they threw at each other. Agroup of dancing giantswere turned to stone as theywere caught in the rays ofthe rising sun, and can stillbe seen as the Ring ofBrodgar. The nearby CometStone was the fiddler.

The sea was ruled by spiritswho could bring calm orcause storms. The evilNucklavee was the most ter-rifying of all the supernatu-ral creatures. He was like alarge man that had no skin,and he rode on a horse ashideous as himself as helooked for victims along theshore.

Fin Folk lived under the seain a beautiful city calledFinfolkaheem. They also

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ORKNEY FOLKLORE

Dancing giants caught at sunrise became standing stones

Hogboons and trows lived in mounds such as Maeshowe


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was dropped into the tub andthe finder would be the nextto marry. On the weddingday the party left the bride’shouse in pairs and walked tothe church. I t was good luckif the wedding walk crossedrunning water on their wayto the church, but bad luck ifthey met a funeral party.

Guns were fired to frightenoff the trows, while the per-son at the end of the line,known as the tail sweeper,dragged a brush behind himto hide their tracks from evilspirits. Feasting and danc-ing went on all night, thedancers went with the courseof the sun (clockwise).Cogs of ale were passedaround all night, the last cogcontained a mixture of hotale and spirits, sweetenedand spiced, called the bride’scog. It is still used in Orkneyweddings to this day.

When a person died it wasbad luck to speak their namebefore they were buried.Cats and mirrors wereremoved from the house,and a candle or lamp wasleft burning in the room thatcontained the body. An openBible helped to ward offevil, while a watch, called a“leek-wak”, was carried outnight and day by the familyand friends of the deceased.

The coffin was carried to thekirkyard, but it could nevertouch the ground, as this wasbad luck. There were lowstone walls at regular inter-vals so the bearers could

rest. Daily life, work andfestivals had their customs,and if you look closely you

can still find many survivingto the present day.

HISTORY & CULTURE

Beggars sold prophecies for food

Stromness Distillery suggests that its product might even make the wife like boats!

Standing stone with a holeThus when listening to theplaintive calls of the GreySeal always remember thatyou may be listening to aseal-man or his lovely seal-wife! Selkie folk were saidto be the souls of drowned

people who had to roam theseas as seals. Others say thatthey were angels cast fromHeaven, but not evil enoughto be sent to Hell. Theycould take off their sealskinsat certain times of the tide

and dance on the shore intheir human form.

Birth, marriage & deathEvery stage of life was gov-erned by a set of rules thathad to be obeyed to ensure ahappy life. This was espe-cially true for births, mar-riages and deaths. When awoman was pregnant shewould often avoid going outto ensure that the trows didnot find out, as they mightchange the child.

The baby’s first drink had tobe off silver to ensurewealth. If a silver spoon wasnot available, then a silvercoin was placed in thespoon. The drink was nor-mally warm water, sugar andspirits, usually whisky. Achild’s fingernails could notbe cut with scissors as thiswould mean that it wouldgrow up to be a thief. Theyhad to be bitten off instead.

Before a woman was mar-ried she had her feet washedin a large tub of water by herunmarried friends. A ring

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ORKNEY FOLKLORE

The wedding walk from the bride’s home to the kirk was an important part of the proceedings

The work of the blacksmith was filled with folk tales

There was much superstition about wells - nearly all brochs have one


The transfer of the Bishopricfrom Nidaros in Norway toSt Andrews in 1472, andlater the Reformation furtherbroke the connection withNorway. The presentationduring the Cathedral's 800th

anniversary, by the Bishopof Nidaros, of a Statue of StOlav, shows that connec-tions remain, in spirit atleast.

The oldest surviving rental(ON riggarental, the runrigsystem of land division)records date from Henry SrClair’s detailed survey of1492 and provide a fascinat-ing insight into the pattern ofland tenure at the time. At

this time the traditional Udalpractices were giving way tosomething more like the restof Scotland as the majorityof the land was now heldeither by the Scottish Crownor Scottish Church, and thusmost farmers were tenants.

Henry St Clair, was killed atFlodden in 1513, and wassucceeded by the locally-elected Sir William Sinclairof Warsetter, Sanday.Sinclair family feudingbetween the Caithness andOrkney family branchesresulted in the Battle ofSummerdale in Orphir in

1528, where the son of theprevious Earl, anotherWilliam Sinclair, enlistedthe help of the Lord ofCaithness. The Caithnessmen were roundly defeated,but the feud was notresolved.

James V came to Orkney in1540, and was surprised tofind that the islands were ina state of some civilisation.Indeed it was said that veryfew 16th century towns

would have surpassedKirkwall for architecturalelegance, which sounds likea polite exaggeration.James' pilot, Lindsay, drewup a detailed nautical chartand pilot of the islands forthe first time.

In 1567 the ScottishParliament ruled thatOrkney & Shetland shouldbe subject to and enjoy their'own' Udal Law rather thanScots Law. In 1575-7 theOrkney Lawbook was pro-duced for the Scots PrivyCouncil, its last recordedsighting. From now onScottish influence graduallyeroded the Udal Law, andthe Old Norn language asOrkney was steadily assimi-

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Armorial panel above Tankerness House doorway

Broad Street, Kirkwall about 1780

HISTORY & CULTURE

Earl’s Palace, Kirkwall, built about 1600, abandoned about 1720

Impignoration By the lat-ter part of the 13th century,Norway was part ofDenmark, under KingChristian I. The annuity forthe Hebrides, the "Annual ofNorway", agreed at thetreaty of Perth in 1266, hadnot been paid by the Scotsfor about 200 years. Afterlong, and at times acrimo-nious, negotiations, CharlesVII of France was asked toarbitrate. He suggested aRoyal marriage betweenMargaret, daughter of KingChristian of Denmark, andthe future James III ofScotland.

The contract of marriagewas finally agreed on 8September 1468. Not only

was the "Annual" abolished,and all the arrears due byScotland to Denmark can-celled in the marriage settle-ment, but also the youngprincess was to bring adowry of 60,000 florins ofthe Rhine. Since Denmarkcould only pay 10,000 atonce, Orkney was to be heldin pawn (sub firma hypothe-ca et pignore) by theScottish Crown until the bal-ance was paid. After a yearonly 2,000 more was forth-coming, so Shetland wasalso pawned (impignorated)on 20 May 1469.

Although it has beenclaimed that the right toredeem the islands was dis-charged at some time, there

is no evidence for this. Theissue was brought up manytimes subsequently byDenmark, but always reject-ed by Scotland, whichclaimed that title had passedover due to the long periodof occupation and adminis-tration from Edinburgh. Thefact remains that the impig-noration has never been dis-charged and that the agree-ment expressly states theintention that Denmarkwould do so. Thus the con-stitutional position of theislands remains unsettled tothis day.

King James did not delay insecuring his position. InSeptember 1470 he and EarlWilliam Sinclair exchangedby excambion the lands ofRavenscraig in Fife forKirkwall Castle and theEarldom lands held underthe King (et toto jure ejuscomitatus orchadie). EarlSinclair however retainedhis "conquest" lands inOrkney, which he or hisancestors had acquired bypurchase or other meansover the years.

In May 1471 the Act ofAnnexation to Scotland waspassed. The Bishopric inturn leased the Earldomlands, and in 1486 theCorporation of the RoyalBurgh of Kirkwall was con-stituted. Care of theCathedral was handed to thisnew body. A schoolmasterwas appointed and the TownHouse now assumed impor-tance for a time.

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Kirbister Loch, Orphir - site of the Battle of Summerdale is in the background

THE SCOTTISH CONNECTION

Earl’s Palace, Birsay in the late 16th century


viking orkney - settlement to 1100 history rchaeology

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