8

THE FESTIVAL OF FOLK DANCINAT OPATIJA WAS AN IMPORTANTEVENT IN THE CULTURAL LIFE OF

YUGOSLAVI

(pages 4-5)

1 1

UNESCO COURIER-Page 2 NOVEMBER t95)

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f'dilors of the COURTIER.

Young Yugoslavs greet M. Torres Bodet, Unesco's Director-general, during his visit to an orphans'home atZagreb, in the People's Republic of Croatia.

In Belgrade, Ljubljana and Zagreb, M. Torres Bodet sees success of

CULTURAL DEVELOPMENT ON

A REG ! ONAL BAStS

Drawing on the wealth of their individual cultures and traditions, the peoples of Yugoslavia are today makinga determined effort to develop the educational, scientific and cultural resources of their country.Each of Yugoslavia's six federated republics, for example, organizes its primary, technical and higher

schools, its academy of arts and sciences, and its research laboratories, which, while fostering the culture ofthe people they serve, are designed to meet the social and economic needs of modern life.

This cultural decentralization, which is co-ordinated by the Council for Science and Culture of the FederalPeople's Republic of Yugoslavia, has been accompanied by a series of measures to make education generallyavailable for the bulk of the people, and to provide generous financial allowances for the development of culturalinstitutions.

When M. Jaime Torres Bodet, Director-General of Unesco, visited the cities of Belgrade, Ljubljana andZagreb recently as the guest of the Yugoslav Government, he was able to measure the extent of these effortsand appreciate the practical results of the constructive collaboration between Yugoslavia and Unesco.

M TonnES BODET'S visit began in Belgrade, seat of theFedel'al Govel'nment, \vhere the Yugoslav NationalCommission for Unesco was set up early this yea ;.

Severely damaged during the war, and in particular bybombing attacks m 1941, the capital of the new Yugoslaviais in the process of being rebuilt. On the ramparts of. theancient citadel, which down the centuries has occupied astrategic site between the rivers Danube and Sava, an exhibi-tion commemorating Yugoslavia's resistance and liberationfrom 1941 to 1945 has been organized. It tells. simply andeffectively, the story of a courageous four years'strugglewaged by people who showed themselves capable of thegreatest sacrifices for the sake of their freedom.

Belgrade's university, which has always filled an importantr6) e in the political and intellectual ife of the country.continues to maintain this tradition through the Intensivestudies and research carried out within Its walls. It washere on September 28 that the Yugoslav National Commis-sion for Unesco held its first meeting under its President,Professor Sinisa Stankovic.

welcoming M. Torres Bodet, Professor Stankovlc declared :"Our country has joined Unesco because It Is inspired by

a sincere wish to help the development of Intellectual co-operation between peoples and states.

"Yugoslavia's Independence and freedom to developaccording to her own ideas have only been won at the costof great sacrifices. The maintenance of this Independenceand freedom is-today more than ever-Yugoslavia's su-preme task.

"This country has been transformed into an enormousworkshop to build up a new future ; but we are flr ! !} l)' con-vinced that this task will be accomplished above all byfighting actively to safeguard and maintain peace.

"Fighting for peace means righting for the truth ; fighting.by education and science, agamst war psychoses and hateamong peoples ; fighting, in fact, for mutual understandingand respect as well as for international collaboration whichallows the different peoples of the world, great or small, todevelop freely their own national cultures."

At the same meeting, 1\1. Torres Bodet outlined the basicprinciples which guide Unesco and the goals towards whichIt works.

"Unesco takes care not to be guided in its actions by aphilosophy of uniformity"he satd."It is not the expres-sion of anv one faith, or mode of thought, or way of civil-ization. It is rather an ensemble of means of action forrealizing certain practical aims. These aims-peace andgeneral prosperity-and these means-the development ofeducation, science and culture through international collabora-ton-correspond to some of the deepest aspirations of thepeoples.

INCREASING LIFE'S VALUE

/I F OR \'ho, indeed, would not desire to dwell in security.improving by means of intellectual and moral co-operation the conditions in which the v live' ! It isthen. onlv with these aims in view. and hy means

such as these, which are common to all mankind, settingaside particular ideologies that Cnesco carries on its work.On the other hand, the universatist character of its missionsis cleal'lv not to be denied.

"If t were to sum up the programme of L'nesco in a fewwords. I should say that it aims at increasing the vatue ofhuman. life through educattun, science and culture.

"Secondly, as man cannot live In isolation, it seeks toassist every country's progress towards a better way of lifethrough the augmented capacities of fuUy-educated citizens... And lastly, taking into account the dependence of onecountry upon another, which makes collective isolation asimpossible and suffocating as individual solitude, L'nescotries to create or develop the intellectual and moral con-dilions of international collaboration in peace, mutual assist-ance, the iibertv of the peoples, and equality of rights."

During his tM'0 days'stay in the capita). 1\1. Torres Bodetwas receives, by Marshal Tito ; Mr. Edvard Kardelj, ForeignMinister : Mr. Rodoljub Kolakovic, President of the FederalCouncil for Science and Culture, and other leading figuresin the political and cultural life of the nation, includingM. Vladislav Ribnikar, a member of Unesco's ExecutiveBoard.

M. Torres Bodet then travelled to Ljubljana, capital of thePeople's Republic or Slovenia and a citv which is proud bothof its rich cultural heritage and of the advanced stage ofindustrialization it has reached. This modern progress hasbeen aided by the work of the city's institute of technology- visited by five Director-General-whose laboratories havecontributed to the economic and social progress of the wholecountry.

Yugoslavia's reconstruction and {) \'ogressive industriaii-zation has created a need for a growling army of specializedworkers. This is a problem IWluch the institutes or techno-,logy, whose numbers have greatly increased since the war,are helping to solve.

Unesco has already turned its attention to this acuteproblem, a partial solution for which may be found by thesetting up under the Technical Assistance Programme or amodern documentation centre and a scientific iibrary inYugoslavia.

During his visit to Ljubljana. Unesco's Director-Generalwas welcomed by Mr. Boris Ziherl. President of the Councilfor Science and Culture in the Slovene People's Republic.He also visited an exhibition commemorating the 400th anni-versary of the printing of the first Slovene Book.

INTERNATIONAL CONTACTS

I x the City or Zagreb the Director-General visited the Aca-demy of Arts and Science, set up by the Croat people inthe middle of the 19th century. From Its founda-tion this institution ptayed. in the field of cultures and

literature, a leading part in the liberation and political uni-fication of the Yugoslav peoples, and today it continues tohold a vital place in the intellectual life of Croatia.

l'nder its aegis, a series of institutes and laboratories tocarry out specialized \work of direct importance to theindusll'ial and economic development of the country hasbeen set up since 1945.

Visits to the Institute which carries out research intoproblems of workers'heaith, as well as 10 the PhysicsInstitute of the University, showed the Director-Genera) theimportant part. which Croatia can p) ay in the service of theYugoslav peoples. Similarly, in the Zagreb Academy, theCroat people. have a modern centre of artistic and culturalrife. One of the best examples of the vitality of this presentday culture is the work of the great sculptor Mestrovic.many of his sculptures are to be found n Zagreb's Museum.

Allied to the effort which Yugoslavia is making to buildits new social order is a firm wish to co-operate inter-nationally. Yugoslav intellectual circles attach the greatestimportance to the contacts and intellectual exchanger whichLnesco can help to establish in all its fie : ds of activity.

Already they are participating in the work of severalorganizations set up under Unesco's auspices such as theInternational Theatre Institute and the International Councilof Museums. Yugoslavia is turning. more and more toUnesco for help and technical advice. In this connection amission of experts may be sent to assist in the resioraionof one of the most ancient and noble monuments of medIevalYugoslavia-the church of St. Sophia in Macedonia.

Yugoslavia's scientists, scholars and men of letters areclearly showing their \viliingness to associate themselveswith all Unesco's efforts which can contribute directiy tothe maintenance of peace and the development of inter-national understanding.

NOVEMBER 1951 Page 3-UNESCO COURIER

YUGOSLAVIA'S UNIVERSITIES ARE GUARDING

TRADmONS WH ! LE SERVtNG MODERN NEEDS

Dhl'OUghout centuries of in-

yasion and oppressive outside

tJ) influences, the peoples of

Yugoslavia have retained a deepattachment for their own tra-

ditions, languages and cultures.The history of their universities

is a reflection of this strugglebetween culture and war, which

might easily be symbolized in the

story of the first Yugoslav

printing works. Shortly afterthis was set up at Cettinje in 1493,

the town was attacked by the

Turks-and the people of Cettinje

had to melt down the type to make

ammunition.

If, even in recent times, Yugo-slavia had an unduly high illiteracy

rate, this was probably because itsinhabitants were more often called

upon to take up arms to defendtheir country than to study and

work for its development. But,even after the worst devastation,

they have always found strengthand courage to rebuild on the

ruins.

Nowadays, the Yugoslav univer-sities can at last fulfil the aims ofthose who founded them and then

often fought hard to keep them

in existence. They link respect

for the rich cultural traditions of

each republic with the task of

instructing men and women in themodern techniques of which the

nation has need.

Success has meant valiant effort

and heavy sacrifices. After the

second world war, it was not onlythe universities of Yugoslavia that

had to be reconstructed, but its

entire schooling system : for

eighty per cent of the schools hadbeen destroyed. Now, not only

the universities have been rebuilt,

but many new institutes of higher

studies have been set up.

Before the war, there were three

universities in Yugoslavia, with 21

faculties and eight centres for

higher education. Now there arefive universities, with 42 faculties

and 25 attached centres. The

number of students has risen

from 17, 734 in 1938 to 60, 000 in

1950.

Shut by an empire

study of the history of

Yugoslav universities shows

that they have some common

characteristics. The oldest, which

were founded by the religious

orders, had to fight for centuries tomaintain their right to teach in

their own languages. Those most

recently established are constantly

trying to link traditional studies- philosophy, theology, law-with

technical instruction.

The University of Ljubljana,

founded by the Jesuits in 1595, is

the country's oldest. Originally

confined to faculties of theology

and philosophy, it was not until

the setting up of the Illyrian Pro-

vinces (1809-13) that it began to

extend. It was in this period that

the"central schools"first came

into being. A period of general

instruction was substituted for

philosophy, and this was followedby four or five years of higherstudies. Later, when the"se-

condary school"was separatedfrom the"academy", a university

in the real sense of the word was

formed, with five faculties : philo-

sophy, natural sciences, medicine,law and theology.

But, after the fall of Napoleon,Slovenia once again was incor-

porated into the Austro-Hunga-rian Empire, and the higher

studies of the University of Ljub-

ljana were cut down to what theyhad been before the French re-gime. In 1848, despite Slovene

pleas for a university in their

capital, the imperial governmentclosed Ljubljana's schools of

higher studies, and education wasconcentrated in the German-

language areas. The fight for the

setting up of a Slovene university,

however, continued right up to theend of imperial domination. In

1919, after the collapse of the Cen-tral Powers, the Slovene univer-

sity got back its prerogatives, withfour faculties (philosoDhy, law,

technical instruction and the-

ology), and a school of medicine.

Reconstructed and re-organized

after the second world war, the

university of Ljubljana now hasfour faculties : philosophy, natu-

ral sciences and mathematics, law

and economics. The technical fa-

culty has become an institute oftechnical studies with six facul-

ties : architecture, civil engineer-

ing, electrical engineering, ma-chine construction, chemistry,

mines and metallurgy. The faculty

of medicine is divided into two fa-

culties : medicine and stomatology.

Autonomous institutes, outside the

university, have taken over instruc-tion formerly given by the faculties

of theology, agriculture and forest-

ry. Its scope therefore is very va-

ried, but its modern techniqueshave not meant any lessening of

respect for Slovene traditions andculture.

State aids 60 her cent

If tel'Ljubljana, Zagreb is the

i oldest of Yugoslavia's uni-

versities. It was in 1632

that the Jesuits started to

widen the scope of their Zagreb

school by adding theology and

philosophy to the curriculum.On September 23, 1669, the

Emperor Leopold I accorded therights and privileges of an inde-

pendent university to the Academyof Zagreb-privileges already en-

joyed by those of Cologne and

Prague. This meant the rectorhad the right to confer the degrees

of doctor, licentiate and bachelor,

and that these degrees would be

recognized elsewhere. But, in

practice, the university could only

partly avail itself of these rights.

In 1773, at the suppression of

the Jesuits, the Academy of Za-

greb was placed under the autho-

rity of a bishop. Three years la-

ter, the Academy of Sciences wasset up by order of the Empress

Maria Theresa. In 1848, however,

this Academy of Sciences was sup-

pressed, and the Faculty of Phi-

losophy dissolved. Only the Facul-

ty of Law continued to function,as an independent juridical acade-

my, and from 1853 to 1860 lec-tures were given in German. It was

not until 1874 that a university

was established again in Zagreb,

with three faculties : philosophy,

theology and medicine.

Today, the University of Zagrebhas ten faculties, compared with

seven before the war. The number

of students has risen from 6, 436

in 1939 to 16, 000 in 1950. Sixty

per cent are assisted by State

grants, and the annual influx ofnew students is such that the

building of a vast university cityhas been undertaken.

Respect for diversity

melgrade University was, at its. origin, a secondary school in

Kragujevac. Founded in

1838, it was transferred to Bel-

grade in 1841. In 1863 it becamea centre for higher education with

three faculties (philosophy, law

and technical instruction) and in

1905 it was designated as Belgrade

University. Of all the Yugoslavuniversities Belgrade suffered most

in the second world war. Out

of 174 institutes, seminaries and

laboratories, 72 were completely

destroyed, while another 58 losthalf their installations and col-

lections.

It was largely thanks to the ef-

forts of the students themselves

that the University of Belgrade

has since, not only been recon-

structed, but also enlarged. Once

again, the need to expand and tofacilitate studies and technical re-

search has led to wide changes in

its structure. In 1948, the tech-

nical faculty was separated from

the University and made into a

higher education centre whichranks as a university. It is com-

posed of the faculties of architec-ture, civil engineering, electrical

engineering, machinery construc-

tion, mines and technology, geolo-

gy. Today the faculties of medi-

cine, pharmacology and stomato-

logy are being reorganized, andwill soon be formed into a Schoolof Medical Studies. Over 25, 000

students now attend the Univer-

sity.

The reform of the old Yugoslav

universities, which was under-taken at the same time as their

postwar reconstruction, answeredthe need for extending and improv-

ing the technical instruction that

they could give. It is this sameneed that has led to the foundation

of new universities, and the estab-

lishment in each of the Yugo-

slav republics of an independent

cultural centre. Thus, in the same

way as Ljubljana is the Slovene

University, Zagreb the Croat Uni-

versity, and Belgrade the Serbian

one, so Skoplje is the UniversityCentre of Macedonia, and Sarajevo

that of Bosnia-each of them

deeply steeped in the traditions andcultural lives of the people they

serve. Respect for this diversity

has also led the Yugoslav Govern-

ment to set up schools for many

linguistic minorities. Thus, Ru-

manian, Czech and Slovak children

living in Yugoslavia receive in-struction in their own languages.

Entry will be difficult

The progressive elimination ofilliteracy and the economic

progress made by the countryhave caused a number of students

to increase three-fold since the

war, thus raising serious problems.

Entry to the universities, there-

fore, will shortly become. more dif-

ficult, and examinations will aimmore and more at restricting en-

try to those who show themselvesmost likely to benefit from the

instruction.

These then are Yugoslavia's uni-

versities. Built and maintained

over the centuries with courage

and perseverance, rebuilt or newly

established despite every diffi-

culty, they show the attachmentof their founders to their own

cultures. Since the last war, the

enthusiam which has led teach-

ers and students to join their

efforts in constructing-sometimeswith their own hands-laborator-

ies and libraries, university cities

and faculty buildings, is further

proof of the courage and faithwith which the Yugoslavs are

making their ancient country intoa modern one.

Medical students listen as Professor Andrija Stampar, President of the Faculty of Medicine at Zagreb and President of the

Yugoslav Academy of Science and Art in Zagreb, gives a lecture in the University of Zagreb.

UNESCO COURIER-Page 4 NOVEMBER 1951

FOLKLORE IS AN EVERYDAY

EVENT) N YUGOSLAV ! A

YUGOSLAVIA is one of the few European countrieswhere folklore is not something to be revivedon special occasions, but a prominent featureof everyday life.

The Yugoslav villager consider it quite normalto sing or dance over his daily joys and sorrows.He can express his joie de vivre in humorousdances, work dances, miming dances, his unhappi-ness in combined song-dances. He can display hisvigour in the so-called"deaf"or"mute"dances,which have no musical accompaniment.

But all these vary wlaely U'onone region to another. Yugo-slavia's cultural heritage hascome under Greek, Turkish, evenRussian influences ; yet, the na-tional obstacles which her moun-tains present have, to a largeextent, resulted in each arearetaining its own original anddifferent folklore.

Musical traditions in the townsfor instance, are quite differentfrom those in the country. Urbanfolklore is mainly homophonic,while that of the rural areas ispolyphonic. These local va-riations are also found in dancesteps. In the mountains, wherethe shepherds are usually alert,their dancing is nimble. In theplains, it is more"heavy"-nearer to the soil, so to speak.

by Georges Fradiershuttle. Then there is the sostarska, which imi-tates the shoe repairer as he sews, drills and drivesin the nails. In Macedonia, the metalworker isrepresented in a dance which shows the cleaningof copperware with the feet before it is tinplated.

The work of the farm has also inspired thepoetry of the dance. Six singing youngsters drag-ging a plough which bears a couple of festoonedpine trees will pretend to dig three furrows in

INTERNATIONAL MUSIC COUNCIL WILL ISSUE

'GUIDE BOOK'FOR LOVERS OF FOLK MUSIC

Serene, tenacious

THE Yugoslavs, it is said, areserene and tenacious : cer-tainly these qualities arereflected in the oro dances.

These dances will often have asung accompaniment, which canvary from plaintive chants to(what is more usual) the mostjoyful of rhythms. At othertimes, musical accompany. meant isplayed on instruments made bythe peasants with tools they usein their daily work-flutes anddrums in Bosnia and Hercego-vina, gusle violins in Monte-negro, gajde bagpipes in Croatia.The art of making these instru-ments has been handed downfrom father to soy. But chaneesare creeping in : instead of using these instruments,more and more people now go to the shops in thetowns to buy accordeons.

The Yugoslav dances to express the most variedof emotions or circumstances. Sometimes hisdances are transformed into pantomimes, withhumorous digs at the individual or at people ingeneral. Drunkenness and laziness are typical sub-jects for this satire in dance which easily becomesa play or comedy.

An infinite variety of dances deal with his manycrafts. In Slovenia, for instance, he likes thethalecka polka, a survival of the weavers'countryfetes. A handkerchief which the dancers passunderneath their knees represents the weaver's

T XTEREST in folk music is becoming Increasingly widespread. while some people findin it something of the spirit of life in pre-industrial times, others are attractedby the musical richness of folk melodies from which so many modern composers

have drawn inspiration.Though they cannot be classed directly with the concert-going public, such people do,

however, represent the strongest group of opponents to mass produced melodies andpseudo-jazz.

Never satisfied with their own often too arbitrarilv defined national folklore. theseenthusiasts feel the urge to explore the wider avenues of the world's musical folklore.They like, for example, to compare a Scottish song with one from Iceland, or a Frenchballad with a chant from the Russian steppes. Wet, in their desire to come closer to thethings that attract them, they meet with all snorts of difficulties.

Today one rarely comes across collections of folk music, and those that exist generallycover a few selected areas or are intended only for specialists. Moreover their authen-ticity is by no means assured. In any case the writing down of folk songs presentsmany problems, especially when their essential characteristics lie in the vocal inflexionsof the singer. Yet, despite such difficulties, the International Music Council is publishing.with Unesco's help, an international collection of this type of music compiled by leading-specialists, which should be especially useful for the teaching of folk music in schools.

As a teaching aid, however, no book or published text can replace a recording ofauthentic folk music. The value of these records, unfortunately, varies considerably,and it is generally impossible for the public to verify, their genuincnøss.

It. is true that valuable work is being done by such institutes as the Library of Congressin the United States, Ie Musée d'Ethnographie in Switzerland, and the Musee de I'Hommein France. Up to the present, however, no international authority has ever offered toprovide lovers of folk music with a complete and accurate catalogue.

This situation is now to he changed by a recent decision of the International musicCouncil. At its conference at Opatija, in Yugoslavia, the Council decided to compile acatalogue of all authentic folk musIc recordings made to date both by commercial com-panies and scientific institutions.

Unesco is supporting this initiative, which complements its own past work in thisfleld. Under the Organization's auspices, for example, the International Music Councilis publishing a World Collection of Recorded Folk Music, the first album of which wasreceived M'ith enthusiasm by experts at the Opatija conference.

is stripped from a birch tree in a ceremony honour-ing the spirit of Spring.

The origin of the ritual dances goes back intothe distant past, and in certain cases-such asthe rusalia-they are a reminder of pagancults. Some still bear traces of ancient customswhich called for sacrifices.

No people and no era is without its romanticdances. The Yugoslavs have their wedding dances,which imitate the ceremony and the preparationsfor it, and the young bride going to her new home.

tion and elopement.War, too, is an inevitable

theme. A favourite dance recallsthe exploits of a princely hero.Another, probably dating fromthe 16th century, tells of Turkishraids into Croatia, and is a formof defiance against the con-queror.

The koala, which originated inthe centre of Serbia-so rich infolklore-is the most widelyknown dance, although its stepsvary greatly in the different pro-vinces and villages. But the koala,like another Yugoslav dance, thelessee, always remains a collectivedance.

In each of these, the leaderplays an important role-and, inMacedonia, an indispensable one.It is he who starts and finishesthe dance, and orders the change-over from one movement to an-other, like the leader of a quad-rille. He may separate himselffrom the others to perform spe-cial steps ; for he is not only thebest dancer, but also a person ofnote, worthy of this honour andthe reponsibility it brings.

The extraordinary vitality ofthe Yugoslav dance-the mostexpressive and richest form ofa centuries-old culture-surprisedforeign visitors at the recentOpatija festival. Every Yugo-slav republic chose. from theremotest villages the groupswhich were considered mostworthy to represent their art.More than 700 men, women and

front of a house, and wish the owner of the housegood luck and an abundant harvest. Evil spiritsof winter, darkness and illness flee before theyouthful strength of the"ploughmen,"who repre-sent the good spirits of spring, light and health.In Serbia, masked dancers perform magic ritescalled koleda, as they dance around platters contain-ing the products of the soil to frighten off evil.

'Hagic* is dying out

BUT Yugoslavia's magic and ritual dances, whichare reserved for special feasts, appear to bedying out, although they have lost nothing oftheir liveliness and freshness. In Slovenia, for

instance, during the ritual dance of St. George, bark

children took part in the festival, which wasacclaimed by the critics as something of un-forgettable beauty and passionate interest.

To preserve their artistic traditions in all theirtrue anthenticity, every village has its own folk-lore group, while the youth societies and the tradeunions have brought together over 50, 000 dancersin the towns. There are also professional groups.

In Yugoslavia, folk dancing therefore is not justsomething reserved for special occasions. It haskept its vitality, fostered by the creative imagina-tion of the people. It is something that is spon-taneous and improvised. There can be fewcountries where folklore has such enthusiasticsupport.,

AFTER 500 YEARS,

MOSLEM WOMEN IN

YUGOSLAVIA NOW

SHED THEIR VEILS

Since the end of the war, social legislation inYugoslavia has been progressively aimed atremoving inequalities in status between men andwomen. This year, the promulgation of a lawabolishing the wearing of the veil by Moslemwomen was an important step in efforts tohelp these women to take a more active part inthe social and economic life of the country.Whole districts of Bosnia-Hercegovina and ofMacedonia are completely Moslem in cultureand population. These peoples, however, arenot a Turkish minority left behind after 500years of Ottoman rule, but the descendants ofSouthern Slavs who embraced Islamism during

this period. The effect of this law prohibitingthe wearing of veils-a custom which has setYugoslav Moslem women apart for some 500years-is illustrated above in the photographsof one woman member of the country's 1, 600, 000Moslem people. Until this year, Miss HankaZeko, village school teacher at Katcharevo, inthe province of Kosmet, had to wear thefaredjia or veil whenever she went out (1).After the passing of the Government decree,Miss Zeko, without her veil for the first time,gives a geography lesson in the classroom (2),and leads playtime games in the schoolcourtyard beside the minaretted mosque (3).

o [f) J ø

Page 5-UNESCO COURIER

A young man joins village girls from Macedonia in na struga ducan, one of the most popular dances of this region.

Recital by an old Slavonic piper in national costume. Lightness characterizes this dance performed by the Rumanian minority.

The tchifte tchantche is a popular dance in Bitol

NOVEMBER 1951

LAND OF COLOURFUL DANCES

The Slavonic kolo visa colourful round dance full of movement.

A NEW nation will be born on Jan-uary 1, 1952, when the three pro-vinces of a former Italian colony

will be united as the independent Stateof Libya-the first country in historyto be created by a world organization.

Since World War II, Cyrenaica andTripolitania have temporarily beenadministered by the United Kingdomand the Fezzan by France. The futurestatus of the three regions was finallysettled in November 1949, when théUnited Nations General Assembly, withouta dissenting vote, recommended thatCyrenaica, Tripolitania and Fezzan"shall be constituted an independent,sovereign State."

PoliticaIIy, Libya is weIl on the road toshouldering the responsibilities of State-hood. A provisional government wasestablished by the Libyan NationalAssembly in March, 1951. This Assemblyalso recommended that Sayed MohamedIdriss El Sennusi, the Amir of Cyrenaica,should become the constitutional monarchof the new country, the United Kingdomof Libya.

But national viability requires morethan a political constitution. Mr. AdrianPelt, who has been United NationsCommissioner in Libya since January1950, has continually emphasized thatthe United Nations has an equally greatresponsibility in providing Libya withthe technical assistance it needs todevelop a sound economy and set upefficient governmental machinery.

The immensity of this task is express-ed in his reports. The three regions ofLibya total 1, 150, 000 inhabitants living on1, 750, 000 square kilomètres, but much ofthis land is desert. The country'saverage per capita income is a mètre$35 a year.

Mr. Pelt summed up Libya as"an

THE UNITED NATIONS HELPS A NEW STATE

. Ta PREPARE FOR INDEPENDENCE

LI BYA

underdevelcped area with a marginalagricultural economy, basically handi-capped by inadequate rainfall and poorsoil :' Irrigation, dry farming, andanimal husbandry in the coastal regions,however, can support Libya once shepossesses the knowledge and skills neededto work land in these regions efficiently.

This need raises serious educationalproblems. From 1942 to 1946, no schoolswere open in Libya. Even today, theelementary school population of theentire region is only 39, 000 (and no morethan a few hundred children attendsecondary schools). Mr. Pelt reported thatLibya's minimum requirement is school-ing for 100, 000.

This deficiency, couplet with antiquat-ed agricultural methods and heavy wardamage, Jed him to write :"Unless meansare found to improve the agriculturaltechniques of the country and to bringin new capital investment, there is agrave danger that the Libyan economywill sink back toward a pastoral economyof nomadism, with inevitable social andpolitical consequences which may jeo-pardise the very existence of the State."

In July 1950, at Mr. Pelt's request, aUnited Nations mission surveyed Libyato ascertain in what ways the UnitedNations Expanded Programme of Tech-nical Assistance for Economic Develop-ment could help the creation of the newState. On the recommendations of thismission, a programme was drawn upshowing the means by which the UnitedNations and its Specialized Agenciescould begin furnishing aid.

This called for international experts tobegin work in Libya in such fields aspilblic finance, education, agriculture,viticulture, irrigation, wool production,electric power and social welfare.

A study of public finance in Libya hasalready been published, and the UnitedNations experts are now advising onspecifie problems. In the field of vitalstatistics, a sample census of threeselected tribes has been conducted, thusgiving the region reliable demographicstatistics-a prerequisite for any soundeconomic development plan.

In the field of education, Unesco wasgiven a specialized rôle. Working inco-operation with the British administra-tion of Tripolitania, it has set up atechnical training centre to prepareyoung Libyans for posts in the newgovernment.

This centre, in which 230 studentswere enrolled during its first year ofoperation, does not aim much higherthan supplying the foundations-theclerks, the typists and the secretaries-needed for an efficient civil service.

Unesco is alsQ awarding fellowships toenable Libyans to study abroad andprepare themselves for higher adminis-trative posts in their country's newgovernment.

In addition, Unesco has begun toestablish another centre in Libya design-ed to train primary school teachers andto produce the teaching materials theyrequire. This centre is also intended tofurnish specialized personnel tue attackthe problem of illiteracy, of which Libyahas a high percentage.

In ail, more than sixty experts havebeen sent te Libya by the United Nationsand its Agencies and nearly 50 fellowshipsand scholarships have been awarded.

This aid has been described byMr. Pelt as"one of the most constructiveand most useful examples"of how theUnited Nation's technical assistanceprogramme for underdeveloped regionscan operate.

FEZZAN

Greatest area, fewest people

THE Fezzan is bounded on the west bv southernJL Algeria, southern Tunisia and Tunisia, on thesouth by Trench zest Africa and French Equa-

torial Africa, on the East by Cyrenaica and on the northhy Tripolitania. It is a vast depression, with an areaof some 800, 000 square kilometres, enclosed within pla-teaux which isolate it from the sea-some 500 to 600 kilo-metres distant-and from the neighbouring lands.Within the depression lie three oases-Sebha, Brak andMurzak-around which is grouped the non-migratorypopulation. Widely scattered and thinly plantedpalm groves are also to be found in the Zelal.

The population of the Fezzan is estimated at 50, 000,of which one-fifth are nomads or semi-nomads. Thenon-migratory population is found within the depres-sion ; on its fringe and beyond live thé nomadic or semi-uomadic peoples. In the north these are tribes of fair-skinned stock with a strong Berber influence. In thesouth, in the foothills of the Tibesti and in ail thé areaas far as Fort Lamy, Tebbous of Hamitic origin are tobe found. ln the Tassili, in the west, there are sectionsof the Berber Confederation of the Tuareg-Adjer, whoare scattered between Timbuctoo and Nigeria.

Ethnically, the non-migratory population of theinterior is mixed, containing Elements of both fair andblack races. They ! ive among palm trees, cultivatingwheat, dates, barley, millet and sorghum. This popu-lation can be divided into two groups ; three-quartersare very poor, deriving their livelihood from the harshand unremitting labour with which they irrigate smalllots of land ; the remaining quarter might be describedas the middle class of the country, living in relative ease.These are the landowners, traders and officiais.

The subsistence economy of thé Fezzan, based uponan oasis pals-gardien culture, is handicapped hy thedifficulty of obtaining water and by primitive methodsof irrigation and cultivation. The depressed economicsituation is reflected in the under-nourishment of thepopulation and the al1llUal emigration, which furtheraggravates the problem of manpower.

The chief resource of the Fezzan is the date patm.Estimâtes of their number vary considerably, but mostof them are wild and uncultivated, and it is probablethat not more than 1, 000, 000 date palms are product-ive. The date crop, of about 15, 000 tons annuaUy,is in excess of local needs, and the surplus is barteredfor oil and barley with the nomads or exported by cara-van or lorry. The poor quality of the crop, togetherwith the transport cost to markets, limits its exportvalue. Local production of grain is insufficient tomeet the requirements of the population 3nd must besupplemented by imports. The meagre grazing sup-ports few animais.

In the three principal valleys of the Fezzan, a watertable of varying depth makes it possible to increase thearea of irrigated land, either by open wells in the areaswhere the phreatic folds are near the surface or byflowing wells from the artesian lever. open weus, inthe present stage of technical development, can onlybe exploited by traditional methods, efforts to introduce

Free elections were a novel experience for the people of Libya, some of whom areshown here in animated discussion during polling at Tobruk (Cyrenaica). About

80 per cent of Cyrenica's townsmen and 66 per cent of tribesmen voted.

A citizen of the new United Kingdom of Liya.This Tuareg from Fezzan wears the litham orshawl muffler, which is wound round the mouth

to keep out the blown sand of the desert.

A meeting of the National Assembly of Libya, taking place under the chairmanship of the Mufti of Tripoli, Mohammed AbdulAsa'd AI Alem. The three territories are represented equally, each by 20 delegates : the Cyrenaicans at left, theTripolitanians

at right and the Fezzanese in the foreground.

pctroieumpumps havingprovedafaiiure. Artesianwells, which do not require the labour of men and beast,not only relieve the pressure on the utilization of man-power, but also provide for a greater area of irrigableland in proportion to expenditure.

The condition of the serf-like jebbad or drawer ofwater, bound by a system of contracts to the proprietorand receiving only a share of the harvest, has been pro-gressively improved during the French administration.The lot of the jebbad and the entire population can beimproved by the further distribution of newly irrigatedlands, continued supervision of the harvesting and stor-age of crops and maintenance of the security of thenon-migratory population against raids by nomads.

The only known minerai resource of commercial valueis natron (sodium carbonate), the annual export ofwhich is less than 100 tons. There is no industry ;rudimentary handicrafts have only limited local import-ance.

TRtPOUTAN) A

Main asset-farming

THE existing administrative division between Tripo-± Utania and the Fezzan was agreed between Franceand the United Kingdom for the duration of the

occupation of Libya. Tripolitania, by this definition,extends over some 250, 000 square kilometres betweenTnnisia and Cyrenaica. The greater part of its area isdesert. The widely settled parts of Tripolitania consist,first of the narrow coastal belt of oases between ; \visu-rata and Zuara, which contains 60 per cent of the popu-lation of the territory, and, secondly, of the northernedge of the Jebel, a broken plateau running north-eastfrom the Tunisian frontier to Homs, where it intersectsthe coastal belt. The Jebel is separated from the coast-al area by a wedge of steppe, and south and west ofthe Jebel this merges into semi-desert and desert countrysuitable only for pastoralism and the shifting cultivationof barley. The total area of productive land varieswith the annuairainfai), but only about 1. 6 per cent ofthe total area is devoted to static farming. This areais, however, generally well-watered and ofIers a fertilityin striking contrast to the greater part of Libya.

The population of Tripolitania is estimated at 800, 000.The indigenous population, numbering about 730, 000,is Arab with a considerable admixture of Berbers, ofwhom some groups in the. western part of the countryhave retained their distinction of community and theirlangage, and continue to folio,,'the schismatic lbaditerite. Arabs and Berbers live amicably together in spiteof past différences. AIl are ; \Ioslems ; the religiousfollowers of the Senussi Order have been estimated at 30per cent of ail ; \Ioslems.

The urban population is about 165, 000. Some 105, 000Moslems live in the towns, mainly engaged in handi-crafts and small trade. ylost of the rural populationare settled farmers living in the coastal oases and in theDjebel. Semi-nomads are numerous, both in the Jebeland in the steppe areas bordering the oases. lnasmuchas many of the non-migrating population combinepastoralism and shifting cereal cultivation with statìcfarming during parts of the year, it is impossible rigirlly

tociassify thé population bynumbersaccordingto théways of lifte. The wholly nomadie population is muchless important than in Cyrenaica and is found principallyin the Sirtica and Ghibla areas. Only among the nomadsand a few of the hi) i tribes exists the closely knit tribalstructure which characterizes Cyrenaica. ln the moreprosperous and populous coastal ares thé tribe is grad-ually giving way to a village and town society.

The minorities comprise about 45, 000 Italian, 13, 000Jews, 2, 000 Maltese and 400 Greeks. The level of theItalian community has, as far as possible, been main-tained numerically by the British Administration at thepoint ta which it had fallen at the end of the war. TheItalians, about haIf of whom are town dwellers, havelarge commercial and agricultural interests which hadbeen developed during Italian rule.

The Jewish minority, now almost exclusively urban,has been rapidly diminishing in the last 18 monthsbecause of emigration, largely to Israel.'fhis sxodushas reduced the Jewish community from about 29, 000in 1948 to 13, 000. The rate of Emigration has recentlys) ackened.

The economy of Tripolitania is based principally onagriculture, animal husbandry and fisheries, with espartograss and rough handicrafts as auxiliary resources.Olives, barley, citrus fruits and grapes, which cover aconsiderable area of the coastal beat, are the principalcrops. The Moslem population of the coastal belt liveschiefly by gardens and palm groves, cultivating marketcrops and fruit tress irrigated from wells operated1I10stly by animal power. Some Arabs have, however,undertakenfarmingona) argersca) e. Inthenorthernpart of the Jebel olives and other fruits are grown inimportant quantities and tobacco, which is a monopolyof the British Administration as it was of the Italian,is grown with some success, although it is mostly ofinferior quality. ln the steppe and semi-desert sheepand goats are pastured and bar) ey cultivated by scratchpioughing.

The ltalian cOll1munity outside the town is chieflyengaged in the cultivation of olives, citrus fruits, vines,almonds, and, on a lesser scale, wheat. Thé Italianfarms, both private concessions and para-statal settle-ments, represent a remarkab) e feat of pioneering andland recJamation, which, chiefly owing to the comparat-ively long period of immaturity of the olive tree, hasonly recently begl\n to demonstrate its full productivevalue. Indeed, many of the plantations wili not bearfully for some years ta come. They are, however, thegreatest economic asset of the territory, an asset whichcan easily be lost if constant care to prevent erosion andother deterioration is not maintained. Both the con-cessions and the ettlements were assisted by the con-siderable tax exemptions, subsidies and credit facilitiesaccorded to agriculture by the Italian Government. Acertain unbalance is becoming apparent in their nnan-cial position as a resu) t of the graduai expiration of thesefacilities, and it is likely that some measures wiII beneeded in order to maintain them, since production andmarkets are not yet proportionate ta the capital andmaintenance outlays.

After two years of serious droughts in 1947 and 1948,the territory has enjoyed good harvests, and export-able surpluses of agricultural products have increased.

CYRENAICA

Problem No. 1 is water

CYRENAICA extends over 700, 000 square kilometres.It lies between the Western Desert of Egypt ontheeastandTripolitaniaonthewest. On the

south, it reaches to the Anglo-Egyptian Sndan and themountain wilderness of the Tibesti, in French EquatorialAfrica. Its area is almost enÜrely désert, which israinless throughout the year. In the north, however,a low plateau of limestone hills benefits from rainfalladequate for the profitable cultivation of cereals andfruit. A number of fresh-water springs are also to befound in the hills, which support a considerable vegeta-tion. This plateau is fringed by a narrow coastal belt,where the rainfaIl again declines. The plateau grad-ually falls away to plains in the south and east, whichprovide pasture over a considerable area and wherebarley is grown, as the rainfaIl permits, year by year.In the few oases of the southern desert, date palms andsome vegetables are grown.

The population of Cyrenaica is estimated at 300, 000,the overwhelming majority of which are Arabs. Thereis a Jewish minority of some 200, reduced from 4, 500in 1948, and smalt Maltese and Greek communities.Except for a few priests and nuns, the Italian pre-warpopulation left the country before its final occupationby the AIlied Forces.

The town-dwellers number some 85, 000. The ruralpopulation consists mainly of semi-nomadic tent-dwetlers, mostly inhabiting the coastal plateau wherethey cultivate their barley and herd their animais. Onthe plateau tribal boundaries are weIl defined and nomad-ism consequently severely restricted. In the de sertfringes to the south of the plateau the vagaries of therainfall necessitate a greater latitude of movement, butit is only a minority which leave their habitat on theplateau to find grazing and cultivate in the désert. thérural population is organized in tribes, among whom theland is divided. The main tribes (Sa'adi) hold theirland by right of conquest dating from the Arab invasioninthellthcentury. In addition, there are dependentgroups (Marabitin) who have attached themselves tothe powerful Sa'adi tribes. AU the Bedouin daim pureArabian extraction, but there is undoubtedly an admix-ture of Berber stock, especially in the oases to the southof the plateau.

The economy of Cyrenaica is handicapped by thelack of natural resources and the underdevelopment ofits land and water. lt is based on the raising of live-stock which is carried on, together with the shifting culti-vation of barley, by the majority of the rural population.On the northern plateau, however, and in some partsof the coastal belt, wheat is grown by modern mothods,and olives, vines, apricots, and other fruits thrive to-gether with market vegetables. The development of thisarea is actively encouraged by the ministre of Agricul-ture.

11ljornlatÎol1 yiuen ÌIl these payes reyardiny the yeoyraphy,populalion and economy of Ihe Ihree regions of Libya, is lakentram Ihe report of Ihe United Nations Commissioner i/1 Libya la1/.. l'nited l\"alions Secretary-General.

UNESCO COURIER-Page 8 NOVEMBER) 95)-

TEACHING OF COLLECTIVE SECURITY

AIDED BY UNESCO PAMPHLETS

PEACE and collective security among annations ultimately depend upon thethoughts and feelings of individual men

and women ever. ywhere on earth-and educa-tion remains an indispensable means fordeveloping such individual attitudes of aware-ness and co-operation.

The authority for this view is Professor A.Appadorai, formerly of Madras University inIndia, one of the world's most distinguishedexperts and educators in the field of inter-national relations, and author of a pamphletentitled Collective Security, one of three onthe subject prepared for Unesco and justpublished by the Organization as part of itsvigorously continuing efforts to explain andmake widely known the principles and activ-ities of the United Nations.

"The relevant attitude to be cultivated,"theIndian educator explains,"consists of two ele-ments : nrst. the attitude of'live and let live',a sense of tolerance and cha-rity, a recognition that the veryexistence of a diversity of cul-tures contributes to the increaseof human happiness ; and, se-cond, the attitude of non-vio-lence, that is, the recognitionthat a bellicose attitude is notsomething inherent in man, butthat man is by nature a socialunit capable of living in neigh-bourly friendliness and love."

Parallel with Professor Appa-dorai's pamphlet, written inEnglish, Unesco has publishedtwo companion works, one inFrench prepared by Dr. JeanDupuy, Secretary-General ofthe French Association for theUnited Nations, and one inSpanish by Professor GuillermoFrancovich, Rector of the SanFrancisco Xavier University ofSucre, Bolivia. Their titles areL'Etablissement de lea SecurityCollective and La Seguridad Co-lectiva lnternacional.

of Unesco's General Conference in Parisin July 1951 declared moreover"that, ifthere is to be widespread understanding of-andpopular support for United Nations action,there must be adequate education regardingspecific acts of aggression and breaches of thepeace, as well as the actions taken by theUnited Nations to maintain and restore thepeace". (The full text of this resolution ispublished on this page.) The Executive Boardand the Director-General were authorized toprovide"widespread understanding"of UnitedNations action to maintain or restore peacewhenever the Security Council or the GeneralAssembly took such action.

"History", says Professor Appadori inanalyzing the meaning of collective security,"is in large measure a record of man's effortsto achieve greater security together with per-sonal freedom. War, with the aid of science,has come to mean total annihilation. Clearly,

Foundations of peace

T HEI preparation and pub-j lication by Unesco stemsdirectly from the Con-stitution of the Organiza-

tion, for the view of ProfessorAppadorai, shared by Dr. Dupuyand Professor Francovich, thatcollective security depends uponthe attitudes of individual menand women, links directly withthe statements in Unesco's basicCharter that :

"Since wars begin in theminds of men, it is in the mindsof men that the defences ofpeace must be constructed... theeducation of humanity for jus-tice and liberty and peace areindispensable to the dignity ofman and constitute a sacredduty which all nations mustfulfll in a spirit of mutualassistance and concern... peacemust therefore be founded, if itis not to fail, upon the intellect-ual and moral solidarity ofmankind."

All three pamphlets are de-signed to provide teaching aidsfor use in primary and adulteducation, as part of the sup-port which Unesco gives in thevarious fields within its compet-mint t. n t. np. < : t. ru ! ! ! ! le of the'-'. 1.. 1.'-''''' \IV \1. 1.. 1."'" VU"'''''''bÞ'''''''.............-United Nations on behalf of the collectivesecurity on which a just and durable peacedepends. From the very start of its existence,Unesco has carried out educational activitiesin the light of the judgment that the subjectof collective security is of such vital import-ance to mankind that it demands well-informed and objective study.

The decision that the Organization shouldselect collective security as a major theme inits educational work was made by the Execut-ive Board in September 1950, in the light ofthe action taken by the United Nations withrespect to Korea, and at the request of theEconomic and Social Council of the UnitedNations.

The Board instructed Director-GeneralJaime Torres Bodet to develop"the executionof the programme resolutions concerningteaching about the United Nations and itsSpecialized Agencies, putting particular em-phasis on the necessity for collective security,based on respect for law, with the aid of con-crete examples."It also authorized him"toprepare, in close and constant collaborationwith the United Nations, both written andaudio-visual materials for use in schools, adultclasses and universities".

A Resolution adopted by the Sixth Session

ACTION IN THE SERVICE OF PEACE

Resolutions adopted by the Unesco General Conference

at its seventeenth plenary meeting on July 77, 1951

T THE various Governments repre-JL sented at the Sixth Session otthe Unesco General Conference.conscious of the collective moralresponsibility which the dangers ofwar place upon them from thepolitical, economics and socialstandpoints, solemnly bind them-selve to work for peace and peace-ful ends, in full and friendlvtrust, complete independence, andfull equality of rights.MAINTENANCE OF PEACE AND

INTERNATIONAL SECURITY.NOTING the resolution'''Unitin

for Peace"of the Genera ! Assemblyof the United Nations, which pro-vides that the General Assemblymay make recommendations toMembers for collective measuresfor maintenance of pellce and se-curity, if the Security Council failsto act ;

NOTING the resolution of theEconomic and Social Council, which(1) Requests the Secretary-General: of the United Nations]... to consult

with the Specialized Agencies as tothe specitic arrangements theymight most appropriately make inorder to provide for the furnishingby them of such information andfor the rendering of such assistancein the maintenance or restorationot international peace and securityas may be requested by the Se-curity Council or the General As-sembly, such arrangements to coveraction on an emergency basis andwithin the constitutional and bud-getary limitations of the agenciesto meet urgent requests ; and (2)invites the Specialized Agencies toapprove arrangements to this endas soon as possible ;"

CONSIDERING that acts ofaggression and breaches of thepeace constitute direct threats tothose objectives and to the highpurposes for which Unesco wasestablished ;

MINDFUL of its responsibility foradvancing, through the educational,scientific and cultural relations ofthe peoples of the world, the object-ives of international peace and ofthe common welfare of mankind forwhich the United Nations Organiza-tion was'established ;

BEARING in mind that, if thereis to be widespread understandingof and popular support for UnitedNations action, there must beadequate education regarding spe-cific acts of aggression and breachesof the peace, as well as the actionstaken bv the United Nations tomaintain or restore the peace ;

1. DECLARES that the United Na-tions Educational, Scientific andCultural Organization, on request ofthe Security Council or the GeneralAssembly, will co-operate with theUnited Nations in the maintenanceof international peace and securityand upon the request of the Se-euritv Council of the General As-semh'tv will furnish informationand emergency assistance for thispurpose within the limits of com-petence, as de1ined by the Constitu-tion and in accordance with bud-getary provisions ;

2. AUTHORIZES the ExecutiveBoard and the Director-General,whenever the Security Councilfinds the existence of a threat tothe peace, breach of the peace, oract of. aggression, or whenever theGeneral Assembly takes action inaccordance with the General As-sembly Resolution to facilitate, inconsultation with the Secretary-General of the United Nations,through educational and otherappropriate means at its disposal,widespread understanding of thenature and background of the ac-tion taken by the United Nations tomaintain or restore the peace.

international affairs. In preparing his work forUnesco, he consulted with the Royal Instituteof International Affairs in London and theInstitute of Pacific Relations in the UnitedStates.

Dr. Dupuy was President of the InternationalUniversity Federation for the League of Na-tions and of the Executive Committee of theWorld Federation of United Nations Associa-tions ; a member of the French Delegations tothe San Francisco Conference and five Gen-eral Assemblies of the United Nations. He isthe author of many works on internationalaffairs including San Francisco et la Chartedes Nations Unites.

Professor Francovich has filled high politicaland diplomatic posts in addition to his workas an educator. He is the author of El Mundo,el Hombre y los Valores and of other booksin the fields of history and philosophy.

The three writers agreed, in consultation

there must be a rule of law among individualswithin each State. The attempts to establishsuch a rule of law among nations represent acontinuance and extension of man's efforts toachieve personal freedom."

The authors of all three of the Unescobooklets point out how, as the culmination ofa slow and difficult historical process, man'swill for peace found its instrument in theUnited Nations. Moreover, the United Nations,through its adoption of the Universal Declara-tion of Human Rights, became also thevehicle for the spread and development of theprinciples of enlightenment and progress.

Three militant writers

THE three men chosen to prepare the pam-phlets were not only educational experts,but also militants in the cause of collect-

ive security with long and brilliant records ofachievement.

Professor Appadorai is Secretary-General ofthe Indian Council of World Affairs, jointGeneral Secretary of the Asian RelationsOrganization, and the author of The Sub-stance of Politics, Revision of Democracy, De-mocracy in India and of many pamphlets on

to seize power".But the essence of the idea of collective

security which has emerged from the tragicexperiences of recent years, he stresses, is that"freedoms must defend themselves."Such asecurity"can exist only in the collective effortof all States within an international organiza-tion. We must really want peace and aboveall be ready to accept on its behalf, eachaccording to his means, a share of the burdensimposed by its establishment and mainten-ance."

And Professor Francovich, in the Spanishlanguage pamphlet, comes to the conclusionthat"Force must be the effective and tangiblecontribution of the peoples to the defence ofcollective security ; for force will represent theirresistible power of the human will put atthe service of all peoples'aspirations to a har-monious and pacific community."

It is as a continuation of Unesco's vigorousefforts to teach and spread awareness that inthe long run Human Rights can be enjoyedonly in a world at peace and free from thethreat of aggression, that the pamphlets wereconceived, prepared and published. Someeditorial suggestions were made by the Unescoand United Nations secretariats, but theauthors were free to accept or reject them.

with officials of the United Na-tions and Unesco, on the mainoutlines of the form and contentof the pamphlets they wouldprepare. Within the generalframework thus established,each author was given freedomto develop the subject as hejudged best, in the light of hisknowledge of the needs of theeducators and students whowere to form his particularaudience.

'Germs of confHct'

PROFESSOR Appadorai divideshis 34-page pamphlet intofour sections : the Meaning

of Collective Security ; the De-velopment of the Idea ; theUnited Nations and CollectiveSecurity ; Strengthening theFoundations. After tracing thehistory of United Nations stepsto help solve problems in Iran,Indonesia, Greece, Palestine andKashmir, he analyzes the les-sons of the Korean experience."Power held in reserve,"hesays,"has always played an im-portant part in internationalpolitics ; the United Nations canbe an effective instrument ofcollective security only if thestatesmen of the powerful na-tions are prepared to use thepower of their States on its be-half.

"Without a system of collect-ive security, there can be nostable peace ; yet, unless allnations accept the system inpractice, it must be enforced orit will fail. But if we can dealwith international problems byreasonable rather than violentmethods, that will greatly helpto produce a political climate inwhich the sense of collectivesecurity can grow".

Dr. Dupuy points out in theFrench language pamphlet thatthe concept of collective secur-ity has evolved to include socialsecurity and economic organiza-tion."An international struggleshould be carried out", hewrites,"against unemployment,hunger, poverty, illness, ignor-ance, misunderstanding ; againstall these defects, all these germsof conflict which dictators anddema ! !"O ! ! : Ues can exnloit in order

NOVEMBER 1951 Page 9-UNESCO COURIER

FOR several years past, a message of international unity has beenfinding its way into the albums of many stamp collectors who haveavidly been seeking postage stamps, envelopes and cancellation

marks related to the activities of the United Nations and its SpecializedAgencies. Since the celebration of United Nations Day on October 24,this"international'''stamp collection has been enriched'by several newitems, some of which are reproduced on this page. One of these,"Peopleof the World", is a one-cent maroon-coloured stamp which symbolizesthe principal races of mankind being released from bondage and lookingwith hope towards the United N'ations. Another stamp,"World Unity",is for 20 cents, and shows the United Nations emblem between the hemi-spheres of the world, with the words"United Nations"in French andSpanish. The first group of stamps issued on October 24 consisted ofone-cent, one-and-a-half-cent, three-cent, five-cent, 25-cent and one-dollar denominations. Five denominations-two, ten, 15. 20 and 50cents-will be released on November 16, and four air mail values-six,

ten, 15 and 25 cents-on November 30. The United Nations stamps willbe used on official communications despatched by mail from UnitedNations headquarters in New York, and on private correspondence sentthrough the headquarters post office. A special philatelic sales officewill also be opened at the Palais de Chaillot in Paris, where the UnitedNations General Assembly meets this month. Postage stamps havealready shown their value as a means of spreading ideas and informa-tion, and these latest issues will undoubtedly help to make better knownthe ideals and work of the United Nations. Although Unesco has notitself issued any stamps its work has been recorded on those issued byseveral countries which include Belgium, France, Italy, the Lebanon andMexico. In Belgium, for example, a new series of three special stampswith surtax has helped the work of Unesco's Rehabilitation Service. InFrance, a cancellation mark which reads :"Through Education, Scienceand Culture, Unesco is serving the cause of Peace"is stamped onenvelopes by post offices in Paris, Bordeaux, Lyons and Lille.

A NEW MESSAGE

OF WORLD UNITY

UNESCO COURIER-Page 10 NOVEMBER 195\

ASTRONAUTICS : THE NEW SCIENCE

OF SPACE TRAVEL

A STROXAUTICS is a new science.It is the science of spacetravel, of flight beyond the

earth's atmosphere and of voyagesto other worlds. Its rapid develop-ment during these past few decadesis bringing a note of hard realityinto the world of mythology andfantasy that for centuries has beenfed by the writing of men whodreamed of exploring the realmsof space.

It was Galileo who-as in somany other cases-laid a foundationfor this reality. Through his teles-cope he saw 400 years ago whatno other man had ever seen before."It is a most beautiful and delight-ful sight to behold the body ofthe moon, which is distant fromus nearly sixty semi-diameters ofthe earth, as near as if it was at adistance of only two of the samemeasures,"he wrote."And conse-quently any one may know withthe certainty that is due to theuse of our senses, that the mooncertainly does not possess a smoothand polished surface, but one roughand uneven, and just like the faceof the earth itself, is everywherefull of vast protuberances, deepchasms, and sinuosities."

Galileo's telescope bore out thetheory of Copernicus that the sun,and not the earth, was the centre ofour planetary system ; and thatthe earth was only one of manyplanets of its kind. Indeed, Galileowas able to discover"four planetsneither known nor observed by anyone of the astronomers before mytime."

Arthur C. Clarke, chairman ofthe British Interplanetary Society,points out in his new book TheExploration oaf Space, that only onewriter of ancient times wrote astory about travelling to the moon.He was Lucien of Samos, who, inabout the second century A. D.,told how a man was taken to themoon in a waterspout which seizedhis ship when he was sailing beyondthe Pillars of Hercules ! Anothermore recent story of a journey tothe moon was written just over400 years ago, following Galileo's

by Maurice Goldsmith, Unesco Science Editor

discoveries, by another great astro-nomer, Johannes Kepler. The heroof his storv arrived on the moon bysupernatural means, but his des-cription of what he found there wasbased upon the latest scientificknowledge of that time.

Since that day, travel in spacehas provided the theme for innumer-able stories. Now however, themoon is actually coming within ourreach. In two or three generationsthe first man may land there, andlong before then-perhaps with-in a few vears-an unmannedrocket mav have reached the moon.We have already contacted thatplanet by radar. A signal has beensent across 240, 000 miles of spaceand it has brought back an"echo"from the moon. The naked eveand the revealing telescope willno longer be our main means of"exploring"the heavens. woe shallbe able to travel through inter-planetary space and see the realitiesfor ourselves.The instrument which will makethis possible is the rocket. (It isinteresting that this seemingly mostmodern of inventions originatedabout 700 years ago in China).

To leave the earth and to travelin space we require to do two basicthings : first, to devise a means ofovercoming the earth's gravita-tional pull so that we can get intospace ; and secondly, once there,to find a means of travelling aroundin an airless vacuum, which isbasically what outer space is.

We are all familiar with the forceof gravity. If it did not exist,neither would we. It is gravitywhich makes life possible for usby keeping a thin blanket of airtightly round the earth. With in-creasing height, however, the forceof gravity slowly diminishes. At250 miles up-the greatest heightyet reached by a rocket-it losesonly 10 per cent of its value at sealevel. But at 12, 000 miles up, aone-pound weight would weigh onlyone ounce."It follows, therefore",says Clarke,"that the further away

one goes from the earth, the easier itis to go onwards. In terms ofgravity, leaving the earth is ratherlike climbing a hill which at firstis very steep but later becomesmore and more gentle until finallyit is almost perfectly flat."

It was Sir Isaac Newton, theEnglish scientist, who first formu-lated the laws of gravity. It wasalso he who gave us the clue thathas enabled us to understand themechanics of travel in space, whenhe said :"For every action there isan equal and opposite reaction."To understand what this means,take an ordinary sausage-shapedrubber balloon and blow it up.Then let go of the balloon, and itwill dart rapidly around until theair has gone out of it. What hashappened is that molecules ofcompressed air in the balloon arebombarding the closed front endof the balloon-and it is this whichis pushing the balloon forward.That is, the action of the moleculesin bombarding the front end of theballoon is producing the reactionof balloon movement.

This is basically what causes arocket to move. It is essentiallva cylinder with the back end open.It carries along its own oxygen,and the chemical reaction causesthe molecules to move about swiftlvand to bombard the confined spacein the cvlinder. The moleculesfly out of the open end. In thisway, the action of the moleculesbombarding the closed front endproduces the reaction that pushes,or thrusts, the rocket forward.The great virtue of this is that therocket would actually move fasterif there were no air at all, becausethe air in front tends to slow itdown.

The rocket is, therefore, the idealform of space-ship because it cangenerate enormous power for littleweight or size of engine (for example,the V2 was four times as powerfulas the Queen Elizabeth), and thiswill enable it to overcome theearth's gravitational pull. It will

also work most efficiently in thevacuum of outer space and at highflight speeds.

To escape from the earth a rocketneeds a velocity of 25, 000 m. p. h.This may seem utterly fantastic,but we should remember that whilein 1940 the top flight for a rocketwas under 1, 000 m. p. h., in 1950 itwas nearer 5, 000 m. p. h. It iscertain that there will be greatdevelopments in the immediateyears ahead.

Rocket research is proceeding inall advanced industrialized coun-tries, for a variety of purposes :to assist the take-off of aircraft ;to propel aircraft at extreme speedsand heights (for example, the Ame-rican Bell rocket plane was the firstto fly faster than sound) ; for high-altitude research by instrument-carrying projectiles, and for guidedmissiles. So far as fuel is concern-ed, it is probable that future rocketspaceships will ultimately make useof atomic power.

On the basis of all this work,experts declare that within the nextfew decades there will be set upin space an"earth-sateIIite-vehicle,"a man-made"planet"in a close orbitaround the earth. This would circlethe earth without remaining at aconstant distance, and would staythere indefinitely without using anypower.

It could be used, for example, asa research observatory beyond theatmosphere, for physicists and astro-nomers ; as an observatory formeteorologists who would be ableto"see"the earth's weather systemdeveloping ; as a radio relay station,which would allow, for instance, ofworld-wide reception of television ;and, unfortunately, as a militarybase for reconnaissance.

Since early pioneers began some40 years ago to study the theoryof space flight (Goddard in theU. S. A., Oberth in Germany, Esnault-Pelterie in France, and Tsiolkovskyin Russia), we have made tremendousadvances. So much so, that manmay soon be setting out on the"roads"to the planets.

HAS THE UNIVERSE A FUTURE ?

PERHAPS the greatest and mostpersistent riddle in all ofscience is that of the nature

of the cosmos. Almost inevitably,a glance at the night sky with itsseemingly innumerable stars andwispy nebulae bring to the humanmind such questions as :"What isthis universe in which we find our-selves ? How did it all begin ?What is its ultimate destiny ?"

By the very nature of such ques-tions, definite, positive answers arebeyond the powers of science. Ne-vertheless, from earliest times menhave pondered the subject of cos-mology as it is called-the study ofthe universe as a whole. Such spe-culations come not only from theo-logians and philosophers but fromscientists as well ; for it was inevi-table that the increasing success ofphysics in explaining our imme-diate surroundings should have en-couraged attempts to supply a ra-tional basis for the more distantreaches of our environment.

In a subject so devoid of land-marks as cosmology, one is forcedto assume the existence of some-thing to begin with. In theeighteenth century the Germanphilosopher Kant and the Frenchmathematician Laplace imagineda primordial cloud of gas whicheventually contracted, sheddingmaterial to form the planets as itdid so. The remaining central bodywas assumed to be the sun, ourown star. This process was presum-ably taking place all throughspace to give birth to the cosmicpopulation of sun-and-planet sys-tems. Early in the present centurythe American astronomer F. R.Moulton subjected the contractionhypothesis to mathematical scru-

by Ira M. Freeman

tiny and found it dubious. He, to-gether with geologist T. C. Cham-berlin, advanced an alternativeidea : a universe consisting initiallyof already formed stars movinghaphazardly through the void.When, on the average once in amillion million years, two of thesestars happen to pass close to eachother, great filaments of matter aretorn from their sides by gravit-ational attraction. This material,drifting along with each parentstar, would ultimately condense toform planets coursing about it. Thisso-called"PIanetesimal Theory"wasrefined and improved by Englishastronomers such as Jeans and Jef-freys, and became the accepted doc-trine in its field.

While these close-to-home pro-blems concerning mere planetarysystems were thus claiming atten-tion, the relativity theorists hadbeen busy with attempts to under-stand the structure and pattern ofthe universe as an entity-ques-tions having to do with the natureof space and time and with suchideas as whether or not the uni-verse is limited in extent. Fromtheir intricate, mathematical equa-tions they distilled suggestive ideasbearing on the inherent curvatureof space ; of a cosmos that is finitein extent, yet unbounded ; of a uni-verse whose members may all befleeing from each other at tremen-dous rates.

In the meantime, observation hadbeen advancing, too-not only as-tronomical observation, but obser-vation of laboratory phenomena

which might some day contributesturdy props to the structure of atruly comprehensive theory of theuniverse. The spectroscope had re-vealed the composition, tempera-tures and speeds of motion of thestars and nebulae within reach ofour telescopes. Nuclear physics haddisclosed the source of the lavishoutpouring of stellar energy to benuclear condensation of the hydro-gen of which stars are, for the mostpart, composed.

It was shortly before the begin-ning of World War II that twoyoung Cambridge University ma-thematicians, Fred Hoyle and Ray-mond Lyttleton, began a collabora-tion that was to give science itsboldest and most comprehensivecosmology up to the present time.They subjected to mathematicalanalysis the often-proposed ideathat the stars are formed as-con-densations from a thin cloud of gasstretching through all of space.The results showed that the fate ofa star is governed by the extent towhich it sweeps up and draws toitself this wispy matter. As an in-cipient star gathers together suffi-cient material it becomes hotterand hotter and finally (after thou-sands of millions of years) its tem-perature is high enough to kindlethe nuclear reaction on which allstars must rely for producing theirenergy. What occurs subsequentlydepends on how abundant are thecosmic clouds of gas through whichthe star moves. Our sun, as ithappens, has in the past browsedthrough relatively barren pastures,picking up only a few shreds of

matter and-fortunately for us-remaining an average, middle-classstar. If a star greedily gathers toomuch matter, it heats up at a pro-digious rate and soon, after mere-ly a few hundred million years, itblows up. The Hoyle-Lyttletontheory gives a plausible account ofthe manner in which the planetsmight be formed from the debris ofsuch an explosion.

Having put the explanation ofthe origin of stars and their pla-nets on a reasonable basis, Hoyleand Lyttleton turned to a consi-deration of the mechanism of theuniverse in its entirety. Here theyjoined forces'width two colleagues,Bondi and Gold, to develop whatis certainly one of the most revo-lutionary of contemporary scienti-fic theories. Briefly, they adoptthe now familiar idea that the uni-verse is expanding, and that thisswelling of space itself finally car-ries the distant galaxies of starsout of existence entirely. To com-pensate for the loss it is assumed-and this is the boldest of theirpostulates-that new matter is con-tinually being created, atom foratom, through all of space. Theentire picture is one of serene,comfortable continuity. But plea-sant as it is to contemplate, theHoyle-Lyttleton-Bondi-Gold versionof our cosmos is assuredly not thelast word on the subject ; for it isprobable that theorizing about theumverse, like the universe itself, issomething without end.

If YUI/arr illlerrsll'd iI/rrallillg furll/p,allOl//Cosmolog ; cal 1'hl'ol' ;/'s, lL','ile 10the Vi,. ; s ; !)//. for the l'u} lIi/al'izatioll ulScience, Fuesco.. 19, Al' {>nue Kleber,/' (1/'i8, fol'a free bibliogralllty UI//I/isS/ffJjl'd.

Page II-UNESCO COURIER

ENTERTAINMENT FILMS FOR CHILDREN

by Lady Allen of Hurtwood

In our september issue, devoted to the cinema as a means of international understanding,we published an article entitled "Children's Films-For Adults Only ?" by a Frenchwriter, writer, Jean Bloch-Michel. As the title suggested, this article maillly dealt with the

effects of adult films on children. M. Bloch-Michel did not attempt a study of the specialproduction of films for children. The publication of this article has aroused considerableinterest and comment from our readers in different countries. Lady Allen of Hurtwood,Chairman of the Advisory Council on Children's Films in Great Britain from 1945 to 1950.has sent us an article dealing with some of the efforts made in recent years to providebetter entertainment films specially made for children in Britain and other countries ofEurope. We are pleased to publish this artilce below.

In the September issue of the Courier, Mr. RossMcLean (Head of Films and Visual InformationDivision, Unesco) wrote that makers of films

"all have a common duty to the world's child-ren, and an opportunity greater than ever before10 dischar'ge it, because of the vast challenge it.presents." The impact of films on children forgood or for-evil Is becoming widely recognized, hutthe challenge has only been accepted in a fewcountries. Jean Bloch-Michel writes on children'sfilms in the same Issue as though no attempt hadbeen made to produce entertainment films forchildren. He Ignores the pioneer work done by theU. S. S. R., Czechoslovakia. Denmark and the CnitedKingdom. He even makes the error of deseribingthe Disney fiims as"fiims meant especially forchildren."These films are made for the ordinarycinema audiencps and their unsuitability forchildren is clearly shown in the article. Further-more, these films are not available for children'smatinées until they have exhausted their commer-cial run. lie asks "What producer will undertaketo make a picture which he knows will not beaeeepted by the usual circuits ?"

Early in the near, the J. Arthur Rank Organza-tion, aware of the harm ilone 10 the sensibility ofchild'yen hy seeing old adult films, subsidized adepartment charged with the quite new problemof making children's entertainment films. Duringfive years, this group, led by Miss Mary Field, wasresponsible for producing over 220 films-shorts,features. a monthly world magazine, fantasy.adventure, musical. historical and what Sir MichaelBalcon describes as"feature documentary" or Johnnrier"on as"making drama frum our da'il'events.and poetry of our problems."

II was not long hefore the, advisory Council onChildren's Entertainment Films (a group appointed10 watch and guide this important adventure, andrepresenting all the principal organizations andgovernment departments interested in children)realized that, apart from entertaining children, themhad a unique opportunity of showing how childrenlived in other lands. Some of the most popularBritish films were stories made in. Australia.Germany. Norway, Basutoland and Austria. Child-ren of these countries were the actors and In manycases spoke their native languages. These and theEnglish-speaking films have been shown in coun-tries where the language was unfamillar. and thechildren had no difficulty in following the stories

because the spoken word is only incidental to theaction. Here then Is a tremendous opportunity toshow children that "foreigners" are in essencelike themselves, adventurous, clever, warmheartedand normal human heings with whom they wouldrejoice to be friends.

Unesco Is the body to which we all hopefullyturn for assistance to develop this fundamentallyimportant work. It Is not enough to devote onearticle in one issue of the Courier. Why, for in-stance, should not children's entertainment filmsbe included with the newsreels, scientific andcultural films In the Unesco-sponsored interna-tional conventions soon to be ratitled and so assislthe free flow of films already made and stimulatefurther production ? Is there any reason whv aviewing library should not be established at UnescoHouse, as has already been done for educationaland welfare films" ? Would Unesco convene asmall conference of expert and experienced per-sons to discus the whole problem and to rccom-mand the best ways Cor Unesco to Cosier andguide the making and distribution of children'sentertainment films In relation to the needs andpossibilities in each continent? The implicationsare immense and the interest vivid-so muchthat there is a danger that other bodies outside theUnited Nations may assume international leader-ship.

EDITOR'S NOTEChildren's films, if certified by the Government ofthe producing country to be of an educational,scientific or cultural character, come under theduty free provisions of the Unesco Agreement forFacilitating the International Circulation of Visualand Auditory Material of an Educational, Scientificand Cultural Character. In addition, the secondUnesco Free Flow Agreement would alloweducational, scientific or cultural institutionsapproved by the Government of the importingcountry to import such films duty free. Thesubject of children's films wos the theme of aseries of film group meetings held in Venice from. August 16 to 19 at which Unesco was represented,and at which Unesco's publication RecreationalFilm for Juvenile Audiences serred as a basis ofdiscussion. Unesco is at prensent collaboratin withan international committee formed in Veniceduring these meetings to prepare the first worldcongress on children's films, scheduled to be heldnext year in Europe.

INTER-AMERICA

CULTURAL COUNCIL PLANS

EDUCATIONAL CAMPAIGN

FOR A CONTINGENT

by Michel Dard

ALEXANDER VON HUMBOLDT, the famous19t century German naturalist and traveller,who once called Mexico,"the treasure house ofthe world," was probably thinking of its precious

metals, its opals, jades and turquoises.Today, not only Mexico, but the whole Latin American

continent is regarded as a treasure house, but of adifferent sort, for its modern riches are the infinitepossibilities for development which have earned for itthe name of"the continent of the future."

Recently, however, when the Inter-American CulturalCouncil held its first meeting in Mexico, observers werestruck by evidence of still another form of wealthenjoyed by Latin America-its tremendous store ofspiritual energy.

This showed itself in determination expressed byConference delegates to develop and share the rich,varied and ancient cultural traditions of the continent ;in the recognition of responsibility for bringing the fullbenefits of human progress to those communities whichdo not yet enjoy them ; and also in the stressing of inter-American solidarity in face of the world situation.

The Inter-American Cultural Council is the third ofthe specialized bodies set up by the Organization of Ame-rican States (O. A. S.) which groups all States in theWestern Hemisphere with the exception of Canada, andwhich works in close collaboration with Unesco.

Some weeks before the Cultural Council's conferencein Mexico, Dr. Lleras Camargo, Secretary-General of theO. A. S., declared :"Unless the various cultures drawcloser together and get to know, understand and respectone another, all the other acts of Inter-American co-operation will not avail to increase the friendship of thepeoples, or strengthen the solidarity of the continent."

The justification for this"priority of the mind,"asit has been called, was clearly expressed by M. JaimeTorres Bodet, Unesco's Director-General, who addressedthe Council's opening session."No man,"he said,"will defend with all his heart a fictitious liberty or asocial order which does not command his sincereallegiance, nor a truth which demands of intellect,and sometimes of his instincts, the denial of his spon-taneous and incommunicable sense of culture."

"In the name of an Organization dedicated to theconciliation of the peoples of the world through theminds of men, I should like to express the hope thatthe Council's activities may strengthen not merely thecultural solidarity of the world, but also the confidence ofthe world in the cultural solidarity of the Americas."

The programme drawn up by the Cultural Councilprovides justification for this hope. Made up of somefifty resolutions which include projects covering educa-tion, literature, art and science, it is broad yet precise ;ambitious, yet based on a realistic view of the continent'sneeds.

One of the main problems before the delegates wasilliteracy. In the Americas, there are some 70, 000, 000people who cannot read or write, and 19, 000, 000 childrenfor whom there are no schools. The adverse effectsof this situation on the well-being, cultural progress.civic life, and agricultural, industrial, and technicaldevelopment of the continent are enormous.

Delegates also stressed the fact that as long asmillions of Americans remain ignorant of their culturalheritage, the continent will be unable to claim to havereached the goals of liberty, hope and peace.

To meet this challenge, the Cultural Council decidedto launch a large-scale educational campaign. Thiswill go much further than mere literacy teaching, for,as M. Torres Bodet pointed out, fundamental educationembracing basic instruction in civics, home economics,agriculture and hygiene must more and more replaceliteracy teaching as such. In this continental effort,the aid of governments, employers, trade unions, families,churches, teachers and pupils, army instructors andcinema and radio organizations will be mobilized.

The Council also urged member states to allocatesufficient funda to ensure free and compulsory primaryschoo1ing for all, for unless these facilities are madeavailable, the ranks of the illiterates will continue togrow and fundamental education projects will neverachieve lasting results.

The Council's programme not only harmonize8 withthat of Unesco, but in many ways represents it on a re-gional basis. To combine all efforts and to avoid over-lapping of activities, and consequent wastage of resources,the Council asked the Organization of American States tosuggest to Unesco the setting up of a commissioncharged with co-ordinating the work of both Organiza-tions on projects of common interest. Throughagreements and administrative arrangements this couldlead to the pooling of resources and experiences.

D. H. Lawrence, who wrote one his finest novels againsta Mexican background, once compared humanity to agiant tree which, having been felled, was lying with itsroots in the air. "We must replant ourselves in theworld,"he wrote.

In such a task there is a vital need for the close colla-boration of two organizations which represent two reali-ties of our time ; the effort to achieve a universality ofthe human mind and the need for authentic nationalcultures which are, in the words of Unamuno, the greatSpanish thinker,"an immanent covenant, a real butunrecorded social contract, which is the true inner conati-tution of every people."

---.NOVEMBER 1951

Three stills from the film-

"Bush Christmas"...

and how the children

react to them

Infra-red photographs taken by Miss Mary Field and other film makers during showingscan help them to produce films that are really suitable for children. At the moment whenthe stills shown on the left appeared on the screen, photographs were taken of the unsus-pecting audience. Here are shown the children's reactions to (1) a boy who eats a grubbecause there is no more food ; (2) a tracker who dashes into the river to chase a thief ;and (3) children out In the open all night, sheltering from the rain. (Copyright, G. B.

Instructional, Ltd.)

A LOST BELIEF

STILL SURVIVE

IN THIS STONE

This is one of the mostfamous knights in Yugo-slavic-but nobodycan tell who he was.There are thousands oftombs and slabs like thisthrouhout the country,

especially in Serbia, Macedonia and Bosnia-Hercegovina. They werebuilt during the 13the and 14the centuries by a sect which has bornevarious names : BogomiJs, Gnostics, Cathars, Albigenses. Theirmonoliths, often grouped together in enormous cemeteries in remoteforest or mountain areas, may be decorated with scenes from thehunt or the dance, with foliage or with geometrical figures ; but forthe most part they contain a symbolism which archæologists havebeen unable to"translate"with any certainty. Why, for instance,does the bare-headed knight above have a disproportionately largehand extending towards a star ? Artists cannot agree whether the

sculptural style represents an artistic revolution or a synthesis ofsurvivals from the ancient days of slavery. Attempts have been madeto link it with Nordic motifs, ancient Scythian and Sarmatian orna-mentation, Mycenaean spirals, Roman influences, Venetian decora-tion, even with long-lost aboriginal lore. Some declare that thisform of art stems from a conception of the world and of life of whichwe only know from documents left by the Inquisition which tried toeliminate it. Its origin certainly lies partly in the conflict betweenthe Eastern and Roman churches. Yugoslavia was torn by these dis-sensions, and bui) dings in the architectural styles which each religionfavoured are to be found in different parts of the country. Later therewas a tendency to introduce some of the characteristics of the one into

buildings used by the other. Add tothismanyotherforeigninftuences,and the result has been a school of architecture with monuments thathave no parallel in either east or west. Yugos ! avia's monuments, aswell as her fine traditions of craftsmanship, music and dancing, are anirresistible attraction to all students of her rich and ancient culture.