The Birth of The Birth of Modern Industrial Modern Industrial

Society: Society: Europe 1815-1850Europe 1815-1850

IntroductionIntroduction Industrial Revolution, represents the Industrial Revolution, represents the

social, cultural and economic changes social, cultural and economic changes that mark the transition from a stable that mark the transition from a stable agricultural and commercial society to a agricultural and commercial society to a modern industrial society relying on modern industrial society relying on complex machinery rather than tools. complex machinery rather than tools.

The Industrial Revolution has changed The Industrial Revolution has changed the face of nations, giving rise to urban the face of nations, giving rise to urban centers requiring vast municipal services.centers requiring vast municipal services.

It created a specialized and It created a specialized and interdependent economic life and made interdependent economic life and made the urban worker completely dependent the urban worker completely dependent on the will of the employer. on the will of the employer.

It started when a new source power, It started when a new source power, steamsteam, was harnessed. Steam was used , was harnessed. Steam was used for pumps in mines, bellows and for pumps in mines, bellows and hammers in iron foundries, engines for hammers in iron foundries, engines for spinning and weaving machines in textile spinning and weaving machines in textile mills, and threshing machines to harvest mills, and threshing machines to harvest grain in the fields.grain in the fields.

This innovation would lead to many more This innovation would lead to many more inventions in the decades to come.inventions in the decades to come.

A steam engine

A steam locomotive

Ploughing Engine

Economic ChangesEconomic Changes

As economic activities in many As economic activities in many communities moved from agriculture to communities moved from agriculture to manufacturing, production shifted from manufacturing, production shifted from its traditional locations in the home and its traditional locations in the home and the small workshop to factories. the small workshop to factories.

Large portions of the population Large portions of the population relocated from the countryside to the relocated from the countryside to the towns and cities where manufacturing towns and cities where manufacturing centers were found. centers were found.

As the agriculture was privatized in As the agriculture was privatized in 1780s, the market system developed. 1780s, the market system developed. Canals were built to facilitate Canals were built to facilitate transportation, replaced by trains in transportation, replaced by trains in 1830s-40s. Exotic items imported from 1830s-40s. Exotic items imported from places such as China, Japan, India, places such as China, Japan, India, Canada, United States. Canada, United States.

New groups of investors, businesspeople, New groups of investors, businesspeople, and managers took financial risks and and managers took financial risks and reaped great rewards.reaped great rewards.

Paddington Station, LondonW.P. Frith

Between 1800-1850, the national Between 1800-1850, the national income rose by 125%, while the share income rose by 125%, while the share of the national income derived from of the national income derived from industrial production rose 2.3 times.industrial production rose 2.3 times.

By the end of the 18By the end of the 18thth century, Britain century, Britain had become the leading maritime had become the leading maritime nation. British ships carried slaves from nation. British ships carried slaves from Africa to the Americas, sugar from the Africa to the Americas, sugar from the West Indies to Britain & Europe and West Indies to Britain & Europe and superior quality Indian cotton.superior quality Indian cotton.

Trade with United States continued Trade with United States continued after their independence.after their independence.

Britain leads the way

Consumer DemandConsumer Demand Demand was outstripping supply, which made Demand was outstripping supply, which made

the cottage system (working out of home) the cottage system (working out of home) obsolete. Increased demand, lower price obsolete. Increased demand, lower price increased profit, also increased technology, increased profit, also increased technology, need for new technology need for new technology multiplier effectmultiplier effect..

More consumers had sufficient income to More consumers had sufficient income to afford exotic goods such as cotton cloth and afford exotic goods such as cotton cloth and china. These were the rising “middle class”china. These were the rising “middle class”

Traders realized that if they could produce Traders realized that if they could produce goods in greater quantity at a cheaper price, goods in greater quantity at a cheaper price, they could find more consumers and make a they could find more consumers and make a higher profit.higher profit.

The cotton industry become the The cotton industry become the largest single employer of industrial largest single employer of industrial labour, and cotton cloth became the labour, and cotton cloth became the most valued commodity in Britain’s most valued commodity in Britain’s export trade.export trade.

Technology & SocietyTechnology & Society In the realm of technical innovations and in In the realm of technical innovations and in

the number of people employed, the the number of people employed, the combination of coal, iron, and steam had an combination of coal, iron, and steam had an even greater effect than the cotton industry. even greater effect than the cotton industry.

Impact would become visible in the 1830s Impact would become visible in the 1830s and 1840s with the introduction of steam and 1840s with the introduction of steam locomotion and the boom in railroad locomotion and the boom in railroad construction.construction.

Britain was producing two-thirds of the Britain was producing two-thirds of the world’s coal, one half of its iron and one-half world’s coal, one half of its iron and one-half of its cotton cloth.of its cotton cloth.

Industrialization on the Industrialization on the ContinentContinent

It emerged later than in Britain and had It emerged later than in Britain and had political, economical & social effects lasting political, economical & social effects lasting into the 20into the 20thth century. century.

Population was rapidly increasing in the Population was rapidly increasing in the early 1800s. Europe had lagged in part due early 1800s. Europe had lagged in part due to Napoleonic wars (disrupted trade, to Napoleonic wars (disrupted trade, political, economic disruption due to war).political, economic disruption due to war).

Friedrich Engels wrote Friedrich Engels wrote The Condition of the The Condition of the Working Class in England Working Class in England (1844) which (1844) which influenced Karl Marx influenced Karl Marx fathers of fathers of communismcommunism

Political divisions, especially in Germany, hampered trade. The Zollverein, a customs union led by Prussia, facilitated the flow of goods, which opened up the Rhine River as a major transportation route.

The construction of the railway changed everything. Following Britain, French and German railway construction helped with the quick and very significant development of all industries.

Social ChangesSocial Changes The Industrial Revolution brought with it The Industrial Revolution brought with it

an increase in population and an increase in population and urbanization, as well as new social urbanization, as well as new social classes. classes.

The bad living conditions in the towns The bad living conditions in the towns can be traced to lack of good brick, the can be traced to lack of good brick, the absence of building codes, and the lack absence of building codes, and the lack of machinery for public sanitation.of machinery for public sanitation.

The factory owners' tendency to regard The factory owners' tendency to regard labourers as commodities and not as a labourers as commodities and not as a group of human beings.group of human beings.

The Industrial Revolution created a new The Industrial Revolution created a new working class. The new class of industrial working class. The new class of industrial workers included all the men, women, workers included all the men, women, and children labouring in the textile mills, and children labouring in the textile mills, pottery works, and mines.pottery works, and mines.

Wages were low, hours were long, and Wages were low, hours were long, and working conditions unpleasant and working conditions unpleasant and dangerous. dangerous.

Women and children regardless of where Women and children regardless of where they worked, had the most exploitative they worked, had the most exploitative working condition and the lowest rates of working condition and the lowest rates of pay.pay.

A girl working in the A girl working in the mines. mines.

Conditions in City LifeConditions in City Life The European population exploded from 188 The European population exploded from 188

million (1800) to 401 million (1900).million (1800) to 401 million (1900). People flooded into cities from the country side People flooded into cities from the country side

in hopes of finding jobs. in hopes of finding jobs. Exclusive neighborhoods were built for the Exclusive neighborhoods were built for the

wealthy bourgeoisie, while the working poor wealthy bourgeoisie, while the working poor was forced to live in the ghettos. was forced to live in the ghettos.

Working day ranged from 12 to 16 hours Working day ranged from 12 to 16 hours Employers imposed fines and penalties for Employers imposed fines and penalties for

lateness, for interruptions in work and for lateness, for interruptions in work and for absenteeism.absenteeism.

Manchester, England 1840

As many as 8 to 10 people would share one As many as 8 to 10 people would share one room which would be the living and room which would be the living and sleeping space of families and other people sleeping space of families and other people of both genders.of both genders.

Houses were built in rows or in squares Houses were built in rows or in squares with a common courtyard, in which there with a common courtyard, in which there might be a water tap and a common toilet.might be a water tap and a common toilet.

There was little access to fresh air and There was little access to fresh air and little provision for clean water or removal little provision for clean water or removal of refuse, including human waste. The of refuse, including human waste. The death rate exceeded birth rate as disease death rate exceeded birth rate as disease spread in these conditions.spread in these conditions.

Densely populated industrial cities

Social structure as a result Social structure as a result of Industrial Revolution of Industrial Revolution

Upper middle class: bankers, industrial Upper middle class: bankers, industrial leaders, large-scale merchants.leaders, large-scale merchants.

Diversified middle class: businessmen, Diversified middle class: businessmen, professionals, merchants, doctors and professionals, merchants, doctors and lawyers.lawyers.

Lower middle class: independent Lower middle class: independent shopkeepers and small traders.shopkeepers and small traders.

Middle Class Home Around 1850   

Working class: about 80% of Working class: about 80% of populationpopulation

Many were peasants and hired hands Many were peasants and hired hands (especially in Eastern Europe)(especially in Eastern Europe)

Highly skilled workers were at the top Highly skilled workers were at the top of working class (about 15% of pop.)of working class (about 15% of pop.)

Semi-skilled workers: carpentry, Semi-skilled workers: carpentry, bricklaying, successful factory workersbricklaying, successful factory workers

Unskilled workers and domestic Unskilled workers and domestic servants were at the bottom.servants were at the bottom.

Rural homesRural homes The Rural myth: life in the country was more

wholesome, with lots of fresh air and people were healthier and happier than in the city.

In reality, most homes consisted of a room that served as kitchen, dining room, bedroom for the whole family, as well as stable and barnyard.

The floor could get muddy, as it was made of mud, there was no hygiene, and during a cold night, the chimney could fumigate the house.

Evolution of the familyEvolution of the family People married younger and thus started People married younger and thus started

having children earlier, including having children earlier, including illegitimate kids (~50% of Parisians were illegitimate kids (~50% of Parisians were born out of wedlock in early 19born out of wedlock in early 19thth century) century)

Romantic love most important reason for Romantic love most important reason for marriage by 1850. Many people chose not marriage by 1850. Many people chose not to marry and just lived together.to marry and just lived together.

Among working class, wife beating was a Among working class, wife beating was a male prerogative as women were prime male prerogative as women were prime victims of male violence.victims of male violence.

Code Napoleon had established the Code Napoleon had established the absolute authority of the father in absolute authority of the father in most of Continental Europe. most of Continental Europe.

The wife had to obey her husband, The wife had to obey her husband, had no legal rights, could not even had no legal rights, could not even get custody of her own children.get custody of her own children.

Men had complete control over all Men had complete control over all family property, including her wages family property, including her wages which were paid directly to him (until which were paid directly to him (until 1907).1907).

Until 1896, French children under 26 Until 1896, French children under 26 could not marry without the father’s could not marry without the father’s consent.consent.

If the child (under 16) was disobedient, If the child (under 16) was disobedient, s/he could be arrested on the request of s/he could be arrested on the request of the father and held in jail for 1 month; the father and held in jail for 1 month; (between 16-26), for 6 months. If the (between 16-26), for 6 months. If the father refused to take back the child, father refused to take back the child, s/he could be held in prison until the age s/he could be held in prison until the age of majority. of majority.

Slow changes for Slow changes for women’s rightswomen’s rights

After 1850, the work of most wives After 1850, the work of most wives increasingly distinct and separate from their increasingly distinct and separate from their husbands.husbands.

Middle-class women begin to organize and Middle-class women begin to organize and resist their second-class status to husbands.resist their second-class status to husbands.

Child rearing more child-centered with wife Child rearing more child-centered with wife dominating the home domain.dominating the home domain.

Political ChangesPolitical Changes

The introduction of The introduction of liberalism in the 18th in the 18th century meant a new age in British politics, century meant a new age in British politics, which continued through the Industrial which continued through the Industrial Revolution. Revolution.

Gladstone (Liberal) and Disraeli Gladstone (Liberal) and Disraeli (Conservative) were two of the most (Conservative) were two of the most influential political leaders of the late influential political leaders of the late Industrial Revolution Industrial Revolution

Both advocated reform of social structure; Both advocated reform of social structure; as a result, some of the more productive as a result, some of the more productive governments came to power. governments came to power.

LiberalismLiberalism Emphasized Emphasized rationalism, rationalism, importance of importance of individual individual happiness happiness (individualism) (individualism) Role of state is to Role of state is to protect the freedom protect the freedom and rights of the and rights of the individual individual Believed that Believed that human rights would human rights would be lost if be lost if government government intervened intervened Generally, Generally, reflected views of reflected views of middle class middle class

ConservatismConservatism Believed in value of Believed in value of traditional life traditional life

Government Government needed to control needed to control society and society and preserve general preserve general order order Generally had a Generally had a less optimistic view less optimistic view of human nature of human nature than liberals than liberals Reflected views of Reflected views of landed upper class landed upper class

Laissez Faire: Laissez Faire: No Government No Government

InterventionInterventionLaissez faire would optimize economic Laissez faire would optimize economic growth (also known as free market) growth (also known as free market) Held a very pessimistic view of the Held a very pessimistic view of the possibilities for improvement in the possibilities for improvement in the living standards of the poor.living standards of the poor.Thomas MalthusThomas Malthus (1766-1834) said (1766-1834) said that population was growing faster than that population was growing faster than food supply food supply increased poverty. increased poverty. Government did nothing, even though Government did nothing, even though social realities called for political social realities called for political action.action.

Social LegislationSocial Legislation

In order to receive poor relief, an individual In order to receive poor relief, an individual had to enter a workhouse and in order to had to enter a workhouse and in order to discourage people from going on relief, discourage people from going on relief, conditions in the workhouse were designed conditions in the workhouse were designed to be worse than the conditions outside.to be worse than the conditions outside.

Protesters saw workhouses as prisons and Protesters saw workhouses as prisons and named them “Bastilles”. About 5 percent of named them “Bastilles”. About 5 percent of the population was dependent on the Poor the population was dependent on the Poor Law Act of 1834. This law remained until Law Act of 1834. This law remained until 1909.1909.

The Factory Act of 1833 – The Factory Act of 1833 – prohibited the employment of prohibited the employment of children under nine and placed children under nine and placed limits on working hours of those limits on working hours of those between the ages of 9 and 18.between the ages of 9 and 18. Factory Act of 1847 – limited Factory Act of 1847 – limited children to 10 hour day. This limit children to 10 hour day. This limit became the standard working day became the standard working day for adults in textile mills.for adults in textile mills.The Mines Act of 1842 – prohibited The Mines Act of 1842 – prohibited the employment of women and of the employment of women and of children under 10 years of age, in children under 10 years of age, in underground mines.underground mines.

With the conditions workers had to With the conditions workers had to endure and the outbreak of killer endure and the outbreak of killer diseases (cholera), Edwin Chadwick, a diseases (cholera), Edwin Chadwick, a physician, helped draft the Public physician, helped draft the Public Health Act of 1848, which included a Health Act of 1848, which included a General Board of Health to overseas General Board of Health to overseas conditions.conditions.The social legislation redefined the The social legislation redefined the government’s role in social policy.government’s role in social policy.It established new ways of It established new ways of investigating social problems and investigating social problems and created a body of professional civil created a body of professional civil servants.servants.

Maintaining Political Order 1815- Napoleon was finally defeated at

Waterloo Europe was reorganized + restored to pre-revolutionary ways.

Soon, everyone realized that the French Revolution’s effects were widespread and permanent.

They reverberated throughout Europe, as the authority of the nobility, and kings weakened. No dominant power: liberalism, reaction, democracy + socialism.

No country could be allowed to dominate the continent. no major war until WWI.

Europe in 1815

Metternich & Metternich & the Congress of Viennathe Congress of Vienna

The First Treaty of Paris (May 1814) was generous towards France, with few demands towards it and continued to recognize it as a great power under Louis XVIII.

Prince Klemens von Metternich, the Austrian foreign secretary, sought to redraft European order & secure Austria’s position. He knew that Austria’s interests were best served by the preservation of conservative principles and institutions: absolute monarchy and reaction.

Maintaining Political Maintaining Political StabilityStability

The Congress initiated the practice of statesmen consulting before going to war. A “concert” of Europe was acceptable to Russia, Prussia, Austria & Great Britain, because they had been concerned by previous French expansionism.

A Holy Alliance of the above 4 countries was proposed, but long term problems in restoration of governments (legitimizing overthrown monarchs), not rights of citizens increased revolutionary forces in Europe. more Revolutions in 1848.

Britain was the first to leave this Alliance as it did not share the same views as the other 3 (absolutism vs. constitutionalism; no or weak Parliament vs. a strong Parliament; hatred towards the French Revolution vs. commercial profit)

Reaction and Reform, Reaction and Reform, 1815-18301815-1830

People outside France (Italy, Spain, Germany, etc) may have come to eventually hate the French but with the Revolution and Napoleon came constitutions and enlightened laws.

The middle classes in the Low Countries, Spain, Naples and the Rhineland did not necessarily welcome the restoration of absolutism in 1815.

For others in Central and Eastern Europe (with the very notable exception of Poland), absolutism had never left so it did not matter to them.

Liberalism, Democracy & Liberalism, Democracy & NationalismNationalism

Liberalism was geared to the interests of the middle class, liberty of the individual and was against absolute monarchy. Often teamed with radical democrats.

Out of French Revolution & reforms & sovereignty came a new nationalism (pride and love for one’s country, nation) based on the idea that the state belonged to the people, and the government derived its authority from the people.

The The DefenceDefence of of AbsolutismAbsolutism

1819: Metternich, fearful of reforming liberalism, persuaded the leading German states (Prussia, Bavaria, etc) to issue the Carlsbad Decrees, which curtailed political meetings, censored press & universities, limited power of legislative assemblies.

1820-21: He intervened in the non-Austrian Italian lands (Naples, Piedmont) to quell revolts.

1820: Ferdinand VII of Spain had to become a constitutional king due to a revolt. 3 years later, France intervened and restored Ferdinand to absolutism.

Greek Independence, Greek Independence, 1821-18301821-1830

For 9 years, the Greeks struggled for independence from the Ottoman Empire.

Many Europeans interested in the area. The great powers had different interests in the area: Austria feared Russian influence in the area, Britain did not wish for an unstable Ottoman Empire (weak yes + route to India).

Greece Expiring on the Ruins of Missolonghi by Eugene Delacroix (1826)

The Ottoman Empire

Restoration and Reform: Restoration and Reform: France & England, 1815-France & England, 1815-

18481848 After Napoleon’s defeat, Louis XVIII took

power as constitutional monarch. He was a pragmatic politician and decided to keep as many of the past reforms as possible.

Important state offices were no longer reserved for the nobility, but were for talented people.

The French enjoyed freedom of conscience, religion and expression. Private property obtained after the Revolution was guaranteed.

A bicameral legislature (after the British model): a hereditary upper house (Chamber of Peers) and an elected Chamber of Deputies. Very few eligible to vote: 100,000 in 28 million (0.35%)

Yet, his supporters (ultraroyalists) (“Ultras”) wanted to return to absolutism. Louis died in 1824, Charles X took over & became very reactionary. After the election of 1830, he refused to call the legislature and imposed restrictions on the press. He called for a new election with an even more limited electorate. backlash by people which caused him to flee in 1830. The people only wanted him to be constitutional.

Liberty Leading the People by Eugene Delacroix (July Revolution, Paris, 1830).

The July Monarchy: The July Monarchy: 1830-18481830-1848

Louis Philippe – “King of the French” (son of the Duke of Orléans from Marie Antoinette). Revolutionary tricolour flag returned as flag.

Initially the new régime was liberal. The electorate was doubled, press censorship was abolished and the church and state were separated.

After a failed assassination attempt on the king in 1835, the government grew more repressive. Bad harvests and high food prices (1845-’47) caused revolts which eventually led to the Revolution of 1848.

1848: Economic crisis1848: Economic crisis

Economic Crisis: 1845-47- poor harvests led to increased price in food peasants struggling to avoid starvation.

1846- Irish potato famine killed ~ 1 million. Economic distress revolt and massive immigration (to the U.S.).

Irish peasants during the Great Famine, 1845-1852

England: England: Protest & Reaction, Protest & Reaction,

1815-18211815-1821 After the war with France ended in

1815, the English Depression lasted until 1821 more social conflict & protest.

Luddites (those who resist technological innovation) tried to protect jobs being undercut or replaced by machines & technology. They went on a machine wrecking campaign. They were suppressed.

SocialismSocialism Origins of Socialism- Liberalism, democracy

& socialism were part of legacy of French Revolution. In first half of 18th century, due to increased population, industrial change, increased disparity, rich vs. poor, many saw the need for a new kind of society.

Karl Marx & Friedrich EngelsCommunist Manifesto- communism embraced power of new working class. They advocated common ownership of the means of production. Only revolution would bring about the new socialist order.

1848: 1848: the Year of Revolutions the Year of Revolutions

in Europein Europe Marx wrote Communist Manifesto in

1848 Germany and he concluded with: “workers of the world unite”.

In February 1848, the July Monarchy fell. Afterwards, revolutions broke out in many areas of Europe (Sicily, German states, the Habsburg Empire, Switzerland, Poland, the Romanian states, Brazil) but generally very unsuccessful.

In Berlin

1848: Counteroffensive1848: Counteroffensive

FranceFrance February 1848- establishment the February 1848- establishment the

Republic and universal male suffrage;Republic and universal male suffrage; Radical and social reforms were Radical and social reforms were

blocked. Most voters were moderate, blocked. Most voters were moderate, which displeased the radicals. which displeased the radicals.

The situation calmed with the election The situation calmed with the election of Louis Napoleon Bonaparte- nephew of Louis Napoleon Bonaparte- nephew of the Emperor as President .of the Emperor as President .

1848: Counteroffensive1848: Counteroffensive

The Austrian EmpireThe Austrian Empire After the Revolution caused a lot of After the Revolution caused a lot of

damage and fear, the repression led by a damage and fear, the repression led by a new, young and able emperor (Franz new, young and able emperor (Franz Joseph) was very effective: first, Bohemia, Joseph) was very effective: first, Bohemia, then northern Italy, then Vienna then northern Italy, then Vienna Afterwards, Austria intervened to restore Afterwards, Austria intervened to restore the Pope then subdued Hungary (with the Pope then subdued Hungary (with Russia’s help).Russia’s help).

Consequences of the 1848 Revolutions

Modern states would never be so fragile again when faced with revolts and revolutions.

The days of absolutism would be numbered.

The constitutional and absolute rulers would now base their support on the middle class, rather than the nobility (including President Bonaparte when he proclaimed himself Emperor).