teori organisasi 1

8/4/2019 Teori Organisasi 1

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TEORI

ORGANISASIM.K.: T.OM.K.: T.ODosen: Prof.Dr.Azhar Kasim,MPADosen: Prof.Dr.Azhar Kasim,MPA


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Definisi Organisasi

Sekelompok orang yang bekerja-sama

untuk mencapai tujuan bersama

Suatu sistem koordinasi kegiatan antara

dua orang atau lebih untuk mencapai

tujuan tertentu


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Definisi Organisasi

Suatu kegiatan sosial dari sekelompok

manusia, yang saling berintegrasi menurut

suatu pola tertentu sehingga setiapanggota organisasi memiliki fungsi dan

tugasnya masing-masing, yang sebagai

tujan tertentu dan mempunyai batas-batasyang jelas, sehingga bisa dipisahkan

secara jelas dari lingkungannya (Lubis dan

Huseini, 1987)


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Definisi Organisasi

A tool used by people to coordinate their

actions to obtain something they desire or

value to achieve their goals (Jones,1993)

A response to and a means of creating

value that satisfies some human needs(Jones, 1995)


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Perkembangan Teori

Organisasi 1900s (Clasical): F.W.Taylor (1911);

H.Fayol (1919); Max Weber (1924); dan

Barnard (1938) 1950s (Modern): Simon (1945,1958) 1980s (Symbolic - Interpretative)

1990s (Post Modern) 2000s (Knowledge-based)


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Perspevie onaction

Purposive,Intentional,GoalDirected,

Rational

ExternallyConstrainedand Controlled

Emergent,Almost-Random,Dependent

on Processand SocialConstruction

Level

ofanalysis

Individuals,

Coalitions,or Subunits

Expectancy

Theory

Operant

Conditioning

Cognitiive

theory oforganization

Total

Organization

Market

failures,Marxist

Resource

dependence

Institutionalis

m theory


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FLEXIBLITY

Means: Flexibility;

ReadinessEnds: Growth;

Resources

Acquisition

EXTERNAL

Ends: Productivity;

Efficiency

Means: Planning;

Goal Setting

CONTROL

Ends: Stability;

Control

Means: Information;

Management;

Communication

INTERNAL

Means: Cohesion;

Morale

Ends: HumanResources

Development

The Competing Values Diagram

RATIONAL GOAL MODEL

OPEN SYSTEM MODELHUMAN RELATIONS MODEL

INTERNAL PROCESS MODEL


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Models of Organizational

Effectiveness Open Systems Model

An effective organization is one that can acquire the

resources it needs

Rational Goal ModelAn effective organization is one that achieve its goals

Internal Process ModelAn effective organization is one that operates smoothly

and efficiently, without strain Human Relations Model

An effective organization is one that satisfies the

demands and expectations of the groups that have a

strong interest in the organization


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Model Tujuan Rasional Organisasi sebagai alat pencapai tujuan Menekankan kepada perencanaan, evaluasi dan

produktivitas

Kekuatannya: Penilaian keberhasilan didasarkan pada kriteria

menurut perspektif organisasi, bukan atas dasar

kriteria pribadi penilai

Kelemahannya: Kebanyakan organisasi mempunyai tujuan-tujuan yang

saling bertentangan

Sulit meng-operasionalisasikan tujuan-tujuan tersebut


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Model Hubungan Manusia Menekankan pada peranan kel.kerja, norma dan

perilaku informal dalam organisasi

Fungsi kepemimpinan dianggap sebagai

pengembangan organisasi agar tercapai tujuanpribadi maupun tujuan organisasi

Kekuatannya:Mementingkan pendekatan yang manusiawi

Kelemahannya: Cenderung mengabaikan perspektif makro

Tidak cukup/hanya sedikit bukti-bukti empiris


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Model Sistem Terbuka

Organisasi tergantung kepada lingkungan

Apabila < 1 organisasi hanya bisa bertahankalau ada subsidi

Kekuatannya: Pendekatan lebih komprehensif (organisasi) dianggap

sebagai suatu yang dinamis dalam kerangka lingkunganyang lebih luas

Kelemahannya: Sulit diterapkan karena kompleks

Dalam kenyataan organisasi tidak selalu reaktif

Inputs OutputsThroughput(organisasi)

Lingkungan

0I


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Model Proses Internal

Partisipasi dalam proses pembuatan keputusansangat mempengaruhi kesediaan anggota org.untuk menerima perubahan dan konsekuensinya

Komunikasi internal yang terbuka meningkatkan

keikutsertaan/partisipasi anggota Menekankan pada M.I.S. dan pembuatan

keputusan dalam organisasi Komunikasi sebagai alat koordinasi dan

pengarahan Kekuatannya: mengevaluasi keberhasilan

berdasarkan proses daripada berdasarkan tujuan Kelemahannya: sulit mengidentifikasikan,

mengukur proses-proses internal organisasi


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Beberapa Construct

Efektivitas OrganisasiScott: Sistem Rasional

(prod+efisiensi)Sistem Alamiah(moril + kohesi)

Sistem Terbuka

(adaptasi)

Seashore: Model Tujuan Model Sistem Alamiah Model ProsesKeputusan

Cameron: Model Tujuan Model KepuasanPartisipan

Model SumberDaya

Model ProsesInternal

Quinn &Rohrbaugh:

Model TujuanRasional

Model HubunganManusia

Model SistemTerbuka

Model ProsesInternal


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Figure 1.1. Sources of Inspiration to

Organization TheoryCulture Studies

Literary TheoryPoststructuralist Theory

Postmodern ArchitectureLinguisticsSemiotics

FolkloreCultural Anthropology

Social AnthropologyIndustrial Sociology

Biology - EcologyPolitical Science

SociologyEngineering

Economics1900s 1950s 1980s 1990s

CLASSICAL MODERN

SYMBOLIC-

INTERPRETIVE POST MODERN

Adam smith (1776)

Karl Marx (1867)

Emile Durkheim

(1893)

F.W.Taylor (1911)

Henri Fayol (1919)

Max Weber (1924)

Chester Barnard

(1938)

Herbert Simon (1945,

1958)

Talcott parsons (1951)

Alferd Gouldner (1954)James March (1958)

Melville dalton (1959)

Ludwig von Bertalanffy

(1968)

Alferd Schutz (1932)

Phillip Selznick (1948)

Peter Berger (1966)

Thomas Luckman (1966)Clifford Geertz (1973)

Erving Goffman (1971)

William Foote Whyte (1943)

Paul Ricoeur (1981)

Vladimir Proop (1828)

Roland Barthes (1972)Ferdinand de Saussure (1959)

Kenneth Burke (1954)

Michel Foucault

(1972, 1973)

Charles Jencks (1977)

Jacques Derrida(1978,1980)

Mikhail Bakhtin (1981)

Jean-Francois

Lyotard (1984)

Richard Rorty (1989)

Jean Baudrillard

(1988)


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Knowledge-based Organization

Organisasi yang berbasis pengetahuan

adalah organisasi yang menciptakan nilai

melalui kemampuan modal intektual yangdimilikinya (knowledge management)

Modal intelektual terdiri dari modal

manusia (human capital) dan modalstruktural (structural capital)


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Modal struktural terdiri dari modal strukturinternal dan modal struktural eksternal

Modal struktur internal misalnya, paten,sistem informasi metode, manual dansebagainya

Modal struktural eksternal adalah modalyang berkaitan dengan hubungan denganpelanggan, dan stakeholders yang lain


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Human capital adalah kombinasipengetahuan, keterampilan dan

pengalaman individu dalam perusahaan(Cevendish et al. 1999) Human capital adalah kombinasi

kemampuan otak, keterampilan danwawasan individu dalam organisasi(Edvinson, 2003)


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Penulis Knowledge-based

Organization/ Management, a.l:1. Nonaka and Takeuchi (1995)

2. Choo (1998)

3. Stacey, Griffin and Shaw (2000)

4. Oliver and Koos (2000)

5. Kanichi Ohmae (2000)

6. Cartada and Woods (eds) (2000)

7. Fonseca (2002)8. Patricia Shaw (2002)

9. Dougla Griffin (2002)


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Figure 1.1. Sources of Inspiration to

Organization Theory The boxes indicate four major perspective on

organizations used as a framework for this book.

The dates above the boxes indicate the decadewhen the perspective became recognizable

within the field. Contributing discipline are

indicated above the boxes and some of their

influential thinkers are indicated below. Noticethat some contributors predate their influence on

organization theory indicating the lag in

communication between disciplines


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Table 2.3. Differences in the Multiple

Perspective of Organization TheoryPerspective Subject/Focus Method Results

Classical The effects oforganization on

societyManagement of theorganization

Observation andhistorical analysis

Personal reflectionon experience

Typologies andtheoretical

frameworksPrescriptions formanagementpractices

Modern The organization

through objectivemeasures

Descriptive

measuresCorrelation amongstandardizesmeasures

Comparative

studiesStatistical analysis


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Table 2.3. Differences in the Multiple

Perspective of Organization TheoryPerspective Subject/Focus Method Results

Symbolic-Interpretive

The organizationthrough subjective

perceptions

Participantobservation

Ethnographicinterviewing

Narrative texts suchas case studies and

organizationalethnographies

Postmodern Organization theoryand theorizing

practices

Deconstruction

Critique oftheorizing practices

Reflexivity andreflexive accounts


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Table 2.4 The Metaphors of

Organization Theoryperspective Metaphor Image of the

Organization as..Image of theManager as..

Classical

period

Machine A machine designed and

constructed bymanagement to achievepredefined goals

An engineer who

designs builds andoperates theorganizationalmachine

Modern Organism A living system that

performs the functionsnecessary to survivalasp. Adaptation to ahostile world

An interdependent part

of an adaptive system


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Table 2.4 The Metaphors of

Organization Theoryperspective Metaphor Image of the

Organization as..Image of theManager as..

Symbolic-

Interpretive

Culture A pattern of meanings

created and maintainedby human associationthrough shared values,traditions, and customs

An artifact who would

like to be a symbol ofthe organization

Postmodern Collage An organization theory is

a collage made from bitsof knowledge andunderstanding broughttogether to form a newperspective that hasreference to the past

A theorist the theorist

is an artist


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Table 1.2. Approaches to Measuring

Organizational EffectivenessApproach Description Goals to Set to Measures

Effectiveness

ExternalResources

Approach

Evaluates theorganizations abilityto secure, manage,

and control scarceand valued skillsand resources

Lower costs of inputs

Obtain high-quality inputs of raw materials andemployee

Increase market share

Increase stock price

Gain support of stakeholders such asgovernment or environmentalists

InternalSystems

Approach

Evaluate theorganizations abilityto be innovative andfunction quickly andresponsively

Cut decision-making timeIncrease rate of product innovation

Increase coordination and motivation ofemployees

Reduce conflict

Reduce time to market


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Table 1.2. Approaches to Measuring

Organizational EffectivenessApproach Description Goals to Set to Measures

Effectiveness

Technical

Approach

Evaluates the

organizationsability to convertskills andresources intogoods and serviceefficiently

Increase product quality

Reduce number of defectsReduce production costs

Improve customer service

Reduce delivery time to customer


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Which increases

the value that anorganization can

create

Exert power and control

Economize on

transaction costs

Manage the externalenvironment

Use large-scale

technology

Increase specialization

and the division of labor

The Use of an

Organizationallows people

jointly to


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Table 2.4. Prinsip-prinsip

Manajemen Modern vs. PosmodernModern PostmodernShort term profit goal Long term profit goals

Mass production Flexible production

Worker is a cost Worker is an investmentVertical planning Horizontal planning

Top down focus Internal and external customer focus

Planning leads to order Planning leads to disorder andconfusion

One man, one job and de-skilledjobs

Work teams, multi-skilled workers

Labor-management confrontation Labor-management cooperation


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Table 2.4. Prinsip-prinsip

Manajemen Modern vs. PosmodernModern PosmodernDivision of departments Flexible networks with permeable

boundaries

Tall is better Flat is better

Homogeneity is strength Diversity is strength

Top has voice & diversity istolerated

Many-voices and diversity is anasset

Efficiency increase withspecialization, formalization,routinization, fragmentation, divisionof labor

Efficiency decreases withspecialization, formalization,routinization, fragmentation, divisionof labor

Sumber: Bojo, et.all (200o,p.;2-3)


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Table 3.1 Perbedaan Pendekatan Penelitian

Positivisme, Interpretivisme dan Posmodernisme

Positivism/Modernism

Interpretive SocialScience

Critical SocialScience/

Postmodernism

AlasanPenelitian

To discover naturallaws so people can

predict and controlevents

To understand anddescribe meaningful

social action

To smash myths andempower people to

change societyradically

KenyataanSosial

Stable preexistingpattern or order thatcan be discovered

Fluid definitions of asituation created byhuman interaction

Conflict filled andgoverned by hiddenunderlying structures

TabiatKemanu-siaan

Self-interested andrational individualswho are shaped byexternal forces

Social beings whocreate earning and whoconstantly make senseof their worlds

Creative, adaptivepeople withunrealized potential,trapped by illusionand exploitation


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Positivism/

Modernism



Postmodernism

Peran Akal

Sehat

Clearly distinct from

and less valid thanscience

Powerful everyday

theories used byordinary people

False beliefs that hide

power and objectiveconditions

KemiripanTeori

A logical, deductivesystem, ofinterconnecteddefinitions, axioms,

and laws

As description of how agroups meaningsystem is generatedand sustained

A critique that revealstrue conditions andhelps people see theway to a better world

Penjelasanyang Benar

Is logicallyconnected to lawsand based on facts

Resonates or feels rightto those who are beingstudied

Supplies people withtools needed tochange the world


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Positivism/

Modernism



Postmodernism

Bukti yang

Baik

Is based on precise

observations thatothers can repeat

Is embedded in the

context of fluid socialinteractions

Is informed by a

theory that unveilsillusions

Nilai-nilai Science is valuefree, and values

have no placeexcept whenchoosing a topic

Values are an integralpart of social life: no

groups values wrong,only different

All science mustbegin with a value

position; somepositions are right,some are wrong

Sumber: Neuman (1997,p.:83)


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Figure 7.3 . Scheins

Three Levels of CultureArtifacts

Values

Assumptions

Visible but often

undecipherable

Greater level of

awareness

Taken for grantedinvisible

Adapted from Organizational Culture and Leadership (p.14) by E.H.Schein.

Copyright @ 1985 Jossey Bass Inc., Publisher, San Francisco. All right reserved


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Table 7.2 Our Understanding of

Organizational Man Expands with Each

New Perspective in Organization TheoryPerspective Assumption Focus/Values

Classical Economic man Wealth

Power

Early Modern Scientific man Rationality

Management Control

Modern Ecological man Environment

External Control

Symbolic-Interpretive

Symbolic man Interpretation

Meaning

postmodern Aesthetic man Creativity

Freedom

Responsibility


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Struktur OrganisasiMEKANISTIK ORGANIK

1. Pekerjaan terbagi menjadi tugas-

tugas khusus (specialized) dan

terpisah satu sama lain

1. Tiap bagian seakan-akan

mempunyai tugas tertentu yang

utuh yang dikerjakan bersama

tanpa pembagian tugas yangrinci antara anggota tim

2. tugas tiap anggota organisasi

terdefinisi secara rinci

2. Tugas tiap anggota organisasi bisa

berubah sesuai interaksi antar

karyawan

3. Hirarki otoritas dan kontrol sangat

tegas, dilakukan dengan banyak

peraturan

3. Hiriarki otoritas dan kontrol tidak

tegas, hanya ada sedikit

peraturan


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Struktur OrganisasiMEKANISTIK ORGANIK

4. Pengetahuan tentang tugas hanya

dimiliki pemimpin, dengan

sentralisasi yang tinggi dalam

pengontrolan tugas

4. Pengetahuan tentang tugas tidak

hanya ada pada pimpinan.

Pengontrolan bisa terjadi pada

setiap tingkatan dalam organisasi

5. Komunikasi dalam organisasi

umumnya vertikal

5. Komunikasi dalam organisasi

umumnya horizontal/lateral


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Organizational Iceberg

Aspek-aspek yang Resmi

(Formal or Overt Aspects)

Tujuan-tujuan organisasi

Tehnologi

Struktur

Kebijakan dan prosedurProduk

Sumber-sumber Keuangan

Aspek-aspek yang tidak Resmi

(Informal or Covert Aspects)

Kepercayaan dan asumsi-asumsiPersepsi

Sikap

Perasaan (marah, takut, suka, sedih, dll)

Nilai-nilai

Interaksi informil

Norma-norma Kelompok

Tentang sistem yang resmiMaupun yang tidak resmi


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The sources of the problems areourselves

Our organizations work the way they work

because of how we think and how weinteract

If we seek to bring about fundamentalchange we wont change anything until weget down to how we think and how weinteract


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Figure 6.1. Greiners Model of

Organizational Lifecycles

Adapted and reprinted by permission ofHarvard Business Review. From Evaluation

and Revolution as Organizations, grow by Larry Greiner, 50 (July- August) 1972.

Copyright 1972 by the President and Fellows of Harvard College, all rights reserved.

Leadership

Crisis

Anatomy

Crisis

Control

Crisis

Red-Tape

Crisis

Renewal

Crisis

Entrepreneurial

Phase

Collectivity

Phase

Delegation

Phase

Formalization

Phase

Collaboration

Phase


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S Mill Ti ll T tt 1996

Greater Dispersion of Both

Economic and Political Power

Greater

dispersionof control

over

knowledge

Time

The Future

Knowledge

Industrial

Feudal

Slavery

teori organisasi 1

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