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Title A Dynamic Approach to the Unpassive Construction in English
Author(s) NAMIKI, Takayasu
Citation 茨城大学教育学部紀要, 人文・社会科学・芸術(35): 123-136
Issue Date 1986-03
URL http://hdl.handle.net/10109/2371
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Bull・Fac・Eduq・Ibaraki Univ・(Hum・&Soc・Sci・)ユ986(35)123-136 123
@ 1
@ ADynamic Approach
to the Unpassive Construction in English
Takayasu NAMIm* 」iReceived September 28,1985)
「 Abstract
The unpassive construction in English, which was discussed firsL in Siegel
(1973)and investigated further in Hust(1976,1978),is examined and a critique
of analyses of Siegel and Hust is made. An altemative analysis based on a
dynamic model of a grammatical theory is presented and defended. It is shown
that peculiarities of unpassives naturally follow from the derived character of
the unpassives.**
1. lntroduction
In her paper(1973)Dorothy Siegel discusses sentences such as in(1), and calls them“unpassives”:1)
(1)a.The president’s blunder was unreported(in the press).
b.The brass knuckles were unpaid for.
c.Antarctica is uninhabited(by man).
d.The garbage went uncol】gcted.
(Siegel 1973, p.301)
Unpassive sentences are characterized(1)by the presence of bθor go,(2)by the presence
of a past participle prefixed with砿π一, and(3)by the optional presence of an agent phrase
(i.e.わッNP). At first sight they are like.normal passive sentences. “The most striking
feature of unpassives, however, is the nonexistence of well-formed active sentences from
which they could have derived”(Siegel 1973, p.302), as shown in(2):
(2)a. *The press unreported the President’s blunder.
b.*Someone unpaid for the brass knuckles.
c.*Man uninhabits Antarctica.
d.*Someone(went)uncollected the garbage.
(Siegel 1973, p.302.)
Therefore, it is clearly impossible to derive unpassive sentences from their well-formed ac一
tive counterparts in terms of the application of the passive transformation. A number of
*Department of English, Faculty 6f Education, Ibaraki University T
1
124 Bull. Fac. Educ., Ibaraki Univ.(Hum.&Soc. Sci.)1986(35)
analyses bave been proposed to generate the unpassive construction. Siege1(1973)and Husti1976,1978)・xami・e ea・h・f th・m and ref・t・m・・t・f th・m. ln§21・umm・・ize th・i・
arguments against such analyses, and show the inadequacy of their proposals which they
make in order to derive unpassives adequately. A dynamic model of a grammatical theory
is introduoed and syntactic evidence is given to indicate its adequacy and revealingness in
?R.My analy、i、 b。sed。。 a dynami・m・d・l i・present・d and d・f・nd・d i・§4.§5 i・a・um一
mary.
2. Nonsources of the Unpassive Construction
Siegel(1973)examines four possible sources of the unpassive con6truction and refutes
them all, leaving open the exact source. She concludes that“an explanatory analysis of un一
passives must include the following features”(Siegel 1973, p.316):
」i3)a. σ乃一must be inserted into trees as a lexical item at the level of deep structure in
order to account for its ability to select other lexical items in the tree. For
reasons discussed ealier,μルcannot be attached to the verb until it has become
aparticipial adjective. It remains to be determined under what nodeω防is in一
troduced.
b. Unpassives must be derived from deep structures containing passivizable verbs,
and Passive must apply in the derivation of unpassives.
c. By some rule of Unattachment,μπ一must become attached to what was once the
deep verb only after this verb has become a participial adjective. This will entail
positing a Passive transformation in which V is relabeled as ADJ. This preserves
the generalization with respect to the bracketing of槻一mentioned earlier.
Let us review her counterarguments to the’four possible sources. The first possibility .
is to posit such a structure as given in(4)for(1c). But this analysis entails postulating
the existence of many hypothetical verbs which never appear as unpassives:*砿厩肋αわ‘‘,
・α脚。.ち・卿昭知戸ヂet・.2)Thi・m・kes・・e・f the s・-call・d“P・・iti・・ab・・1・te excep一
tion”(Lakoff 1970)to the passive transformation, leading to increasing the power of a
grammar and to weakening a linguistic theory. This is a sufficient reason to reject such
an analysis, as is pointed out in Jackendoff(1972)and others. Still worse, this hypothet一
ical-verb analysis complicates a linguistically significant generalization in morphology that
(4) S
Np VP
Inan V NP PP
uninhabit Antarctica by PASS
Namiki:ADynamic Approach to the Unpassive Construction 125
3)negativeωπ一is subcategorized for adjectives and not for verbs(cf. note 2).
The second possibility is“that unpassives are、active sentences uhderlyingly and that
配π一is the surface realization of the same NEG that underliesηo‘.”(Siegel 1973, P.303)
The first set of counterexamples to this analysis concerns the fact that NEG can apPear
in environments where unpassives cannot. Consider the following:
(5)a. The gift wasn’t given to the school.
b. *The gift was ungiven to the schoo1.
(Siegel 1973, p.305)
It is clear from(5)that verbs which take an indirect object, like 8εひθ, cannot cooccur with
unpassives, although they can cooccur with NEG.
Afurther difference betweenππ一and NEG is that unpassives appear only in stative
environments, thou帥NEG is not so limited. For instance,ηo‘can cooccur with pro一
gressive一ε㎎・in passives, butα陪cannot, as shown in(6):
(6)a・Nix°n wasn’t obe宏9}「’d’cu’ed’n the p「ess・
b・N’x°nwas o*聖9}un「idicu’ed’n the p「es鼠
(Siegel 1973, p.305)
Furthermore,ηo‘+past participle may cooccur with subject-oriented adverbs likeεη一
‘んω8‘α8‘ごcαZ擾yand rθZωc‘απε砂in passives, butωπ一+past participle may not. Observe the
following:
(7)aNix°n’s gaffe wasn’t oenthus’閉t’caUy}pub1’dzed・
hN’x°n’s gaffe was o*enthus’零t’caUy}unpub”c’zed・
(Si6gel 1973, p.305)
See Siegel(1973, pp.305-7)for other distributional differences between negative passivesand unpassives.4)
The second type of difference between NEG andωπ一is a scope difference:5)ωη一, unlike
NEG, has as its scope only the word to which it is attached. Consider the fllowing:
(8)a. Harry is unwell because of the weather.
b. Harry is not well because of the weather.
(Siegel 1973, p.304)
(8a)is unambiguous and it means that Harry is sick because of the weather. By contrast,
(8b)is ambiguous. Under one readingωθZZ is negated and so (8b)is synonymous with
(8a)。 Under the second readingηoεis interpreted as negating the bθcα砿8εphrase and so
(8b)means that Harry is well but his being well is not due to the weather.
126 Bull. Fac. Educ., Ibaraki Univ.(Hum.&Soc。 Sci.)1986(35)
Th6 third possible analysis is to“claim that unparticiples are the surface realization
。fω‘‘伽‘わ・‘㎎+PARTICIPLE ph・a・e鼠”(Si・g・11973, P.304)6)U・d・・thi・p・・P・・al(9b)
would derive from(9a):
(9)a. The Sox went without being beaten for four consecutive seasons.
b. The Sox went unbeaten for four consecutive seasons.
(Siegel 1973, p.313)
This proposal has the advantage that it can account for the cooccurrence of noninchoative
80with unpassive participles(cf. note 4).
However, this analysis presents a problem. The parallelism between unpassives and
ω‘〃めωεわθε㎎・+PARTICIPLE does not necessarily hold, as shown below:
(10) a.*Our dreams were without being disturbed by the raging storm.
b. Our dreams vレere undisturbed by the raging storm.
(11) a. The children went for years without being amply cared for.
b.*The children went for years amply uncared for.
(Siegel 1973, p.314)
In addi七ion,ω琵んo碗わθ画g phrases can cooccur with participles with a negative prefix,
whereasμルcannot.7)
(12) a. The racers went without being disqualified for the entire meet.
b.*The racers went undisqualified for the entire meet. 圏i13)a.The funds went without being mismanaged until Max took over.
b.*The funds went unmismanaged until Max took over.
For these reasons it is reasonable to reject the proposal that unpassive participles be de一
rived fromωεεんoω‘わθ‘㎎・phrases.8)
The fourth possibility is that unpassives are not transformationally derived at all but
directly generated as such ill the base. Against this assumption Siegel presents several
arguments. The first pieoe of counterevidenoe concerns verbs which take prepositional com一
plements. With many verbs such asεαηLpθrω励,ん‘η‘α‘, and pのヴbr it is possible to
passivize their prepositional obj㏄ts, as shown below:
(14) a. Our wiretaps have been tampered with.
b. Foul play was hinted at by the police.
Similarly, there are unpassives with the same verbs:
(15) a. Our wiretaps have been untampered with.
b. Foul play was unhinted at by the police.
c. The convention was unpaid for by big corporations.
On the other hand, there are prepositions whose objects cannot be passivized. Consider the
following:
Namiki:ADynamic Approach to the Unpassiサe Construction 127
(16) a. These duties devolve on the Vioe President.
b.*The Vice President is devolved on by these duties.
c. This result follows from your hypothesis.
d.*Your hypothesis is followed from by this result.
(Siege1 1973, p.308)
In just those cases we cannot get the corresponding unpassives, either.
(17) a.*The Vice President is undevolved on(by these duties).
b.*Youf hypothesis is unfollowed from(by this result).(Siegel 1973, P.308)
If“one claimed that unpassive participles were simply deep structure adjectives which
were unrelated to their homophonous passive participles,”(Siegel 1973, p.308)he would be
forced to claim that the facts in・(16 b, d)and(17)are unrelated. However, it is clear
that the ungrammaticality of*dθoo♂ひθd oπand*/bZZoωθd介om is related to that of㌦η一
dθひoZひεd oηand *ωπ赤)ZZoω¢dlノン・om.
Asecond argument concerns the agent phrase bッNP that c母n appear in unpassives.
Siegel says,“Most unpassives sound best without agent phrases, but there is a class of un一
passive participles which require the presenoe of an agent phrase” @(Siegel 1973, p.309),
adducing the following examples:
(18) a. The tests went uncomplicated by mishaps.
b.*The tests went uncomplicated。
(19)a. Fortunately, his problems were uncompounded by th6 meddling・of incompe一
tents.
b.*Fortunately, his problems were uncompounded.
(20) a. Sam’s expectations were unfanned by any enthusiasm.b.*Sam’s expectations were unfanned. .
Adj㏄tives are not subcategorized for an agentiveδッ+NP, so it would be very hard if not
impossible to account for the above facts under the underived adjective hypothesis.
Athird argument is concerned with the set of verbs which appear in unpassives.(Siegel
1973,p.310).lf unpassives were not derived from passives, then it would be reasonable to
exp6ct that there are many examples of X of the typeわεωπXθd(わッY)where Y is a verb
which cannot passivize. But there seem to be no instances of this sort.9)Rather, the verbs
which appear in unpassives constitute a proper subset of those which appear in passives.
Thi6 fact would be regarded as an accident, unless we assume that unpassives are based on
and derived from passives.10)
Ihave reviewed Siegers main arguments against four possible analyses for the sourcesof unpassives. As was noted at the begillning of§2above, she herself did not present an
exact source but merely concludes that an explanatory analysis of the unpassive construc一
tion must involve the features given in(3).
1.et us turn to Hust’s claims. His main claim is that partiOiples with m-are generated
directly as adjectives in the base(Hust 1976, p.4), and that the relation between passives
and unpassives should be expressed by means of lexical redundancy rules in the lexicon
(Hust 1976, Ch. H). That is, hβvindicates theμnderived adjective hypothesis, which Siegel
refutes, with recourse to the use of lexical redundancy rules.
128 BuU. Fac・Educ・, Ibaraki Univ・(Hum・&Soc. Sci.)1986(35)
Hust tries to refute Siegel’s arguments against the direct generation of unparticiples
as adjectives. First, he argues that Siegers evidence b虚aring on the inexpressibility of the
relations between passives and unpassives(cf.(14)一(17))cannot be supported, since the
relations in question can be expressed by means of a lexical redun4ancy rule. With respect
to this agument he is correct.
Second, Hust deals with the occurrence of agentiveわツーphrases in the unpassive con一
struction. As shown in(18)一(20), Siegel adduces examples whereわツーphrases are required.
Hust, on the other hand, tries to undermine Siegel’s argument by pointing out that the
root verb in (18)一(20) does not necessarily require aわツーphrases, and that the presence of
some adverbials is enough.11)He attributes the obligatoriness ofわツーphrases in(18)一(20)to
an idiosyncracy of these participles.
An important though neglected point about the occurrence of agentive わッーphrases in
unpassives is that there are many grammatical unpassive sentences withわッーphrases’2)There
are eleven examples of such sentences adduced in Siegers paper, including(18a)一(20a). Her
instances other than(18a)一(20a)are presented below:13)
(21) a. Antarctica is uninhabited(by man).(=(1c))
b. Sam was unstayed by minor obstacles.
c. Sam’s views were unchallenged by his peers.
d. Sam’s haircut was unridiculed by his wife.
e. Our dreams were undisturbed by the raging storm.
f. The plans are as yet uncompleted by the engineers.
g. The substance is as yet unemulsified by chemists.
h. Antarctica is as yet uninhabited by Eskimos.
Other examples which I have found are as follows:
(22) a. Peck glances up at the neon sign above the door, a smug and vindictive smirkon his thin lips, which doesn’t go unnoticed by the captain and two officers ・
of the New York City Police Department.(1.arry Milne,1984, Gん08‘δ臨εr8,
Coronet Books, P.123.)
b.Basically, today’s Real Man is unaffected by fads or fashion.(Bruce Fein一
stein,1982, RθαZ 1レfθπ1)oパ‘1弛‘(~ω‘cんe∫Pocket Books, P.15.)
c. So he trotted off, alone, to the woods, unseen by the other dogs or by the men.
(Albert P. Terhune,1980, Lαdl o∫S召π砂わαηん, Signet Book, p.1.)
d. This fact is unexplained by Siegel’s generalization(42), but follows automatic一
ally if the participles are analyzed as adjectives.(Joel Hust,1976, A L厩‘cαZ
〆やproαcん‘o‘んθひηραssεoε()onstruction in English, p.25.)
Passive participles are typically accompanied by agentiveわツーphrases, and there are no
adjectives, to my knowledge, which are typically accompanied by agentiveわツーphrases(or,
for that matter, by anyわツーphrases). It should be stressed that unpassives have character一
istics of both passives and adjectives, and so they have more marked status than normal
passives and adjectives. It is necessary to construct an analysis which can account for the
dual propertie60f unpassives adequately.
Hust presents the following two classes of lexical redundancy rules to cover unpassives:
Namiki:ADynamic ApProach to the Unpassive Construction 129
(23)a・[+逸b’e]一[α[∫]]/+NP 1の@ [+un- -ed] α ノ
,aE[+un--ed1-±巽盛i器tive
(Hust 1976, p.69)
But these rules cann6t explain why agentiveわッーphrases can appear in many unpassives.
Nor can they express the marked status of unpassives. Therefore, Hust’s direct genera一
tion of unpassives in conjunctidn with lexical redundancy rules has inadequacies to it, and
we should seek a more explanatory analysis for the unpassive construction.
3.ADynamic Model of a Grammar
Anumber of studies、have been pursued in a“dynamic model”of a grammar since
Kajita(1977)・mainly in syntax(e.9. Kajita 1983,1984,1985, Asakawa 1984, Inoue 1984,
Koma 1984, Kono 1984,0kada 1984, Yagi 1984a, b,1985, Ishii 1985, Suzuki 1985)and in
morphology(Morita 1985a, b)and phonology(Suiko 1985). The most important feature
of a dynamic model as proposed in Kajita(1977,1983,1984,1985), Yagi(1984a), and
others is that the usual instantaneous model of language acquisition is not adopted and
th・t i・term・di・te st・g・・b・tween an i・iti・1 and・fina1・t・g・i・languag・a・q・i・ti・n pl。y
acrucial role. According to Kajita(1983, p.4), Chomsky and others assume that the rules
permitted in a grammar G are of the only type given in(24), whereas it is assumed that
there are three types of rules in a dynamic mode1, as shown in(25):
(24) R・1…ftyp・W・・e p・・sib1・i・G.(W m・k・・n・・eference t・pre-ad・lt g・am一
mars.)
(25)a.Rules of type X are possib恥e in G.(X:far more restrictive than W)
b. If rules of type Y are in Gl,then rules of type Z are possible in G{+1.(Super一 ・ ,唐モ窒撃垂狽刀Fpartlcular languages;subscripts:stages of acquisition) ■
・・If・ul…ftyp・Y’are i・G{,th・n・ul…ftyp・Z’are imp・ssibl・i・G{.、(ev・n
if they are permitted by(24)).
(Kajita 1983, P.4)
The distinction between a basic rule and a derived rule is made in a principled way and the
notion of“extension”plays a major role in Kajita’s dynamic view. Kajita and others haveconvincingly shown that a dynamic model has basic advantages over an instantaneous ◎
mode1:(1)the set of possible rules of G{+1 is much smaller than the set of type-W rules;
(2)success of language acquisition is easier to account for;(3)course of development is
accounted for more directly in terms of the general theory of grammar.(Kajita 1983, p.4)乳5)
The distinction is also made between mode1-free extension and model-dependent exten-唐奄盾氏C as shown below:16)
(26)a.Model-free extension:basic rule>derived rule ’
e.9. Simple S>Parataxis>Coordination>Hypotaxis
Constant NP>Quantified NP
130 BulL Fac. Educ., Ibaraki Univ.(Hum.&Soc. Sci.)1986(35)
NP object>Sentential object
b.Model-dependent extension:basic rule(R1) >derived rule(R’)model(R2)
e.9. “Pseudo-partitive”construction
・ basic rule:a[Nbunch][ppof flowers]
model:[Qp many][N’flowers]
derived rule:[Qpa bunch of][N’flowers]
(Kajita 1983, p.4, p.6)
Furthermore, Kajita also discusses properties of basic rules that motivate model-dependent
extension, some defining characteristics of models, and modes of extension(Kajita 1977,
1983).Kajita’s dynamic model has significant explanatory power and is very promising.
Therefore,』I will present an analysis of the unpassive construction based on a dynamic model
o奄氏@the next sectlon. ・
4.My Analysis
一@ Iwould like to propose that unpassives in English be generated by a derived rule(R7)
翌?堰Ch i, b。、ed。n a b。、i,,ul。(R1)and。m・d・1(R、):’As st・t・d i・§2,・npassives hav・
characteristics of both passives and adjectives. I maintain that that passive rule and the
ωπ一prefixation rule are involved in the derivation of unpassives。
1、et us considerωルprefixation first. The prefixωルis the most productive prefix
among negative prefixes in English. σ陪can be attached to most adjectives, whereas海,
сテs-andα一are attached to much more restricted sets of adjectives三7) σ陸is attached to
native. adjectives such asんεη4,ん岡曜y, and‘rαθ, which are very basic and are likely to be .
acquired very early by children, to formωηん‘η4,αηゐ{賜ρ蚊y, andμ磁r脳θ, The remarkable
property ofω陸is that it can be added to participles as well as pure adjectives:μηαcc脳s一
ω“Lθdガω伽・ん飢画肋αbε‘θd,麗ππ・‘‘Cεd,ω鷹θπノω麗・m吻翻㎎㌧襯顧㎎,凋拐θSε‘b吻8・
(cf.・Namiki 1985, p.31>It is reasonable to think that these unparticiples are more de一
rivative than unadjectives. Therefore, we may well assume that the lexicalω陸prefixation
rule, which is a basic rule, is extended from pure adjectives like規ηd andんqρpッto past
P。,ti,ipl・・lik・わ・σん・・and・・伽d, as sh・w・i・(27)・18)
(27) ωπ+pure adjectives> 配π+participles
Thi、 i、 an exampl。。f th。 m・d・1.free ext・nti・n a・di・cussed i・§3. Once this ex七・n・i・n i・
done, the extendedωη一prefixation, which is a derived rule, can be a m6del of another ex一
tension in the grammar which has included the derived rule ofωπ一prefixation.
Next, let us turn to another ba3ic rule in another extension. I propose that a rule
whi,h i、 apPli,d t・9・n・・at・passive se・t・nce・i・ab・・ic rul・.19)F・r exampl・, this rul・i・
applied to generate sentences like the following:
噂i28) a. John was examined(by a doctor).
b. Charlie Brown was kicked(by Lucy).
1 Namiki:ADynamic Approach to the Unpassive・Construction 131
From the passive as a basic rule and the extendedωルprefixation as a model is extended(or
derived)arule that generates unpassives, as shown in(29):
(29) a. basic rule=passive ・ 1>P bθ ▽冶d‘わツ1>P♪
b. model=extended伽一prefixation rule ωηV2(∫
c. derived rule・=unpassive rule 1>Pわθz5πVセd rbこソ1>P♪
It naturally follov》s fro血this hypothesis that the unpassive construction is more deriv一
ative than the usual passive construction, since the former is derived from the latter on
the model of the extendedωπ一やrefixation rule. This analysis correctly reflects the funda一
mental distinction between the two types of passives.
It is easy to account for many peculiarities of the unpassive construction in this anal.
ysis. First, the presence of わe in unpassives is very easy to explain, since わθis also
required in passives which are their basic structures. Second, the presence唖of a past par一
ticiple prefixed withωπ一naturally follows, because a past participle is required in passive
sentences andωπ一prefixation is a model of unpassives. Third, the optional existence of
agentive bツーphrases can be attributed to the fact that passive sentences also have agentive
bツーphrases optionally.
Fourth, the fact that verbs taking indirect gbjects cannot cooccur with unpassives(cf.
(5b))can be partly ascribed to、the general fact that the more derivative a rule is, the more
restrictive the distributional freedom of its outputs is. In addition, it seems that passive
sentences with verbs taking both direct and indirect objects are more derivative than those
with verbs taking only direct objects. Not only are the unpassive rule and the extended
ω砕prefixation rule derivative, but their inputs also are derivative. So the cumulative ef。
fects of the derivativeness of the rules and that of their inputs produce ungrammaticality
in such sentences as in (5b).
Fifth, the stativity of unparticiples which are outputs of the extended ωπ一prefixation
accounts for why unpassives cannot cooccur with progressive一ε㎎・(cf.(6b))or subject-ori一
ented adverbs likeθπεんωsεαs‘εcαZ砂(cf.(7b)). This is because neither progressive-‘㎎・nor
subject-oriented adverbs can generally cooccur with stative predicates, as shown in(30).(cf.
Hust(1976, p.70))
,
i30) a. *John is being tall.
b. *John is enthusiastically tall.
Sixth, the parallelism between passives and unpassives(cf.(14-17))is a direct conse一
quence of the analysis presented in (29).
Seventh, we can easily account for the proper subset relation between the verbs ap一
pearing in unpassives and those appearing in passives. Various factors make outputs from
the unpassive rule ungrammatical even if inputs to the rule are grammatical.
Finally, it is easy to explain why the noninchoative 80 cannot cooccur with simple past
participles:
(31) a. The garbage went uncollected.
b.*The garbage went collected.
The verb 80 means“be habitually in specified state”, so it requires stative predicates. The
132 Bull. Fac. Educ,, Ibaraki Univ.(Hum.&Soc. Sci.)1986(35)
word配麗oπθcεεdl is stativeチsinoe unparticiples are generally stative. On the other hand,
coZJθc‘θd is non-stative. Therefore, inconsistency arises with respect to stativity in(31b),
yielding ill-formedness.
To summarize, I have shown that many peculiarities of the unpassive construction
naturally follow from the analysis in(29).
、 Lβtus consider properties of basic rules that motivate mode1-dependent extension. Un一participles with the stucture槻一+Vθd are in most respects the same as pure adjectives 圏
翌奄狽?禛ナ一. So it is natural that unparticiples show up everywhere ordinary adjectives can.
The ordinary passive rule generates two types of structures, that is,1VP b2γα∬andハZPδ2
γθdわッ1VP. With the simple extension of槻.prefixation, only one type of unpassives(i.e.
1VPわθ衡ηy2のwould be generated, and not the other type(i.e.1>P be unVed bツ1VP). For
adlectiVes do not take agentiveわッーphrases, as shown below:21)
(32) *John fs angry by Mary’s blunder.
So a paradigmatic gap would occur, if the unpassive rule was not derived from a basic
rule of the passive. Consider the following:
(33) a. NP be Ved NP be unVed
b. NP be Ved byNP
It is not unreasonable to assume that the unpassive rule is derived from the basic passive
rule on the model of』η一prefixation in order to fill the paradigmatic gap.(cf. Kajita 1983,
P.5)
Anote on the extension ofωπ一prefixation is in order. The prefix槻一is the most pro一
ductive one among negative prefixes. It is generally assumed that general unmarked status
is a necessary condition on models in a dynamic view.ωη一prefixation meets this condi一tion, so it is plausible to regard槻一prefixation as a model. ,
5. Summary
Ihave examined many possible sources of the unpassive construction which are pro一
posed mainly in Siegel(1973)and Hust(1976,1978)and have refuted all of them. I have
presented an alternative analysis in(29)based.on a dynamic model of a grammar and
have supported it by showing that many characteristics of unpassives naturally follow
from my alternative.
NOTES
**jIwould like to express my gratitude to Dana Aumend for acting as an informant. This
research was supported in part by a Grant-in-aid for Scientific Research, Encouragement of
Young Scientists(Grant No.60710266)from the Ministry of Education, Science and Cul一
ture, Japan.
1) Unpassives are also called“the unpassive construction”and are discussed in detail in
Hust(1976,1978).
7
Namiki:ADynamic Approach to the Unpassivb Construction 133
2) Note that the醜一in question is the negative槻一and not the privative or reversative
ωη一which are found in words like槻わω屍oπ,ωπdrθ8s,ωπ廊sεθη. 1
3) See Siegel(1973, p.303)and Hust(1976, p.303)for details. Selkirk(1982, p.130)
notes a few nouns apparently composed of槻一plus a noun, such as槻‘πひoZひθmεη亡,μπθηレ
μoッmθπ‘,ωηαcc¢ρ‘αηcθ, but she presumes that they are probably back-formations of some
sort;compare槻‘πひoZoαノ,μηεmμoツθd,μηαccερ‘θd.
4) In most casesωルcannot show up in the contexts where NEG can appear. In one case,
however, the opposite is true, as shown in(i), whereαη一, but notηo‘, may cooccur with
the noninchoative go (=be habitually in specifiedβtate).
(i) a. The garbage went uncollected.
b.*The garbage didn’t go collected.
(Siegel 1973, p.307)
5) See also Klima(1964, pp.292ff.)for a scope difference between preverbal NEG and
negative affixes. 一
6) This analysis was, according to Siegel, suggested by J. R. Ross.
7) The ungrammaticality qf(12b)and(13b)follows from a morphological condition in
English that negative prefixes like配ル, m!εs-,‘防, and d‘8-cannot串tack up.(cf. Siege11973,
p.311) See also Allen(1978, pp.47-50)and Siege1(1978, pp.190-193) for related
matters.
8) This proposal also violates the general constraint on transformational rules that
七ransformations cannot change node labels(Jackendoff 1972, p.13), See also Wasow(1977,
p.331)for the criteria distinguishing between lexical rules and transformatignal rules.
9) Siegel claims that apparent counterexamples such as槻ραrαZZθZα1 rわッノ,醜αccαsωmθd
αω are not real unpassives, for they cannot coocur with noninehoative verb 80, as all
o狽窒浮?@unpasslves can:
(i) The garbage went uncollected.
(ii) *The discovery went unparalleled.
10)See Siege1(1973, pp.309-310)for other arguments against the underived adjective
hypothesis.
11)Hust adduces sentences like the follbwing:
(i) The tests were further complicated due to heavy fog.
(ii) His problems were compounded because of the bad weather.
(Hust’1973, p.103)
matical or not.1・do not findl Hust’s counterargument convincing.
12)In this respect Siegel says,“Most unpassives sound best without agent phrases”・But
it is also true that there are Inany』№窒≠高高≠狽奄モ≠戟@unpassives with agent phrases.
13) Bresnan(1982, p.21)adduces the following example as unpassives,
(i) The jacket was untouched by human hands.
and so do Quirk et al.(1985, P.701):
(ii) The child was unwanted by its parents.
(iii) His services to the community have not gone unnoticed by those who have bene一
fited.
14)By∫is meant a noun featur6 such as(±animate).(Hust 1976, p.67)
15)Cf. the references given above for many case studies.
16) See Kajita(1977)for details.
17)See Namiki(1985, pp.30-35)for details. Cf. note 2.
134 Bu1L Fac. Educ., Ibaraki Univ.(Hum.&Soc. Sci.)1986(35)
18) The positions where unparticiples can appear are not limited to predicate position.
Unparticiples appear in positions where pure adjectives can, as shown below:
(i) uncollected garbage
(ii)J・h・::瓢,d un・・nvince&
19)Ithink that unpassives with the verb 80 are more marked and derivative than those
withわθ. This is clear from what my informant(32-year-old American)said to me. He
said,“This construction(i. e. unpassives with 80)is unfa血iliar to me and so I don’t use
it.”Markedness of the 80 version of unpassives is seen clearly when agentiveわツーphrases
are present. The verb 8・o needs stative predicates, butわッーphrases imply the existence of
nonstative predicates, producing a sort of mixed construction. Thus it is reasonable to
assume that unpassives with go are derived from unpassives withわθ.
20) The mode of extension here is amalgamation of two rules.’(cf. Kajita 1983, p.5) In
(29)the typical structure derived by the rule at issue is indicated on the righthand side・
21)There is one apparent exception to his statement. This is the construction IVPわθ
Vd配θわッ1VP, which is exemplified by sentences such as:
(i) Finally, let us assume that a categorization that is induced distributionally,unlike
one that is induced semantically, is not expungeable by evidence for an alternative
categorization.(Steven Pinker,1984, Lα㎎ωα8θLθαrηαわε砒ッαηd Lα㎎μα8θDωeZop.
mεηε,Harvard University Press, p.114.)
(ii) In order to give sOme formal shape to the problem, I will assume that the possil〕le
conceptual structures attainable by a human being are characterized by a finite set
of coηo¢ρεπα」ωθZZ一ノbrmθdπθ8s rαZθ8.(Ray Jackendoff,1983, Sθmαπ翻csα雇(】08厩一
‘εoη,MIT Press, pL 17.)
However, this construction can be construed as derived from passives. The fact that
V召わZθmainly has passive meaning“be able to be Ved”(cf. Namiki 1985, p.46)seems to
9?≠モ奄撃奄狽≠狽?@the association of these two constuctlons.
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