Data Collection Method

Sources of Data

• Primary sources– Primary data refer to information obtained

firsthand by the researcher on the variables of interest for the specific purposes of the study

• Secondary sources– Secondary data refer to information gathered

from sources already existing

Primary Sources of Data

• Individuals• Focus groups

– Aimed at obtaining respondents’ impressions, interpretations, and opinions.

– Provides only qualitative and not quantitative information

– Can not be considered to be truly representative– Focus groups are used for (1) exploratory studies, (2)

making generalizations based on the information gathered by them, and (3) conducting sample surveys

– Videoconferencing

Primary Sources of Data Cont’d)

• Panels– Whereas focus groups meet for a one-time

group session, panels meet more than once.– Static or dynamic– Typically used when several aspects of a

product are to be studied from time to time• Unobtrusive Measures

– Originate from a primary source that does not involve people

Secondary Sources

• Advantage of seeking secondary data sources is savings in time and costs of acquiring information.

• Drawbacks: obsolete, not meeting the specific needs of a particular situation or setting

Data Collection Methods

• Observation • Survey:

– Questionnaires – Interviews

• Unobtrusive Methods

Observation

• Nonparticipant and participant observer• Structured and unstructured

Observation

Watching

Listening

Touching

Smelling

Reading

Evaluation of Behavioral Observation

Strengths• Securing information that

is otherwise unavailable• Avoiding participant

filtering/ forgetting• Securing environmental

context• Optimizing naturalness

Weaknesses• Enduring long periods • Incurring higher expenses• Having lower reliability of

inferences• Quantifying data• Keeping large records

Interviewing

• Unstructured interviews– Interviewer does not enter the interview setting

with a planned sequences of questions to be asked of the respondent

– The objective: to bring some preliminary issues to the surface so that the researcher can determine what variables need further in-depth investigation

Interviewing (Cont’d)

• Structured interviews– Those conducted when it is known at the

outset what information is needed.– The interviewer has a list of predetermined

questions to be asked of the respondents

Advantages of the Telephone Survey

• Lower costs than personal interview

• Expanded geographic coverage

• Use of few interviewers

• Reduced interviewer bias

• Fast completion time• Better access to some

participants• Random dialing

possible• CATI possible

Disadvantages of the Telephone Survey

• Lower response rate than personal interview

• Higher costs if interviewing geographically dispersed sample

• Interview length limited

• Unlisted phone numbers/ Call screening

• Some unavailable by phone

• Unit-nonresponse• Lack of visuals

Personal Survey

Advantages• Good cooperation rates• Interviewer can probe and

explain• Visual aids possible• Illiterate participants can

be reached• Interviewer can prescreen• CAPI possible

Disadvantages• High costs• Need for highly trained

interviewers• Time consuming• Labor-intensive• Some unwilling to invite

strangers into homes• Interviewer bias possible

Sources of Error

ErrorSources

Measurement Questions

Interviewer

Participant

Interviewing (Cont’d)

• Can be minimized:– Establishing credibility and rapport, and

motivating individuals to respond– Questioning techniques: funneling, unbiased

questions, clarifying issues, helping the respondents to think through issues, taking notes

Face-to-face Interviews

• Advantages:– Adapt the questions as necessary, clarify doubts, and

ensure that the responses are properly understood– Pick up nonverbal cues from the respondent– Any discomfort, stress, or problems that the respondent

experiences can be detected

• Disadvantages:– Geographical limitations– Vast resources needed– High costs– Respondents might feel uneasy about the anonymity of their

responses

Telephone Interviews

• Advantages:– A number of differently different people can be

reached in a relatively short period of time– It would eliminate any discomfort on

respondents• Disadvantages:

– Respondents could unilaterally terminate the interview without warning or explanation, by hanging up the phone.

– Researcher will not be able to read the nonverbal communication

Advantages of Self-Administered Questionnaires

• Allows contact with inaccessible participants

• Incentives increase response rates

• Lowest-cost option• Geographic coverage• Minimal staff required• Perceived as

anonymous

• Allows participants time for reflection

• Allows for complex questions

• Rapid data collection possible

• Visuals possible• Multiple sampling

frames possible

Disadvantages of Self-Administered Questionnaires

• Low response rates in some modes

• No interviewer intervention

• Cannot be too long• Cannot be too

complex• Requires accurate list

• Skewed responses by extremists

• Participant anxiety possible

• Directions necessary• Need for low-

distraction environment

• Computer security

Questionnaires (Cont’d)

• Guidelines for questionnaires design– Principles of wording

• Content and the purpose of the questions• Language and wording of the questionnaires• Type and form of questions• Sequencing of questions

– Classification data or personal information

Questionnaires (Cont’d)

• Pretesting of Structured Questions– To ensure that the questions are understood

by the respondents– There are no problems with the wording or

measurement

Improving Response Rates

• Advance notification• Reminders• Return directions and devices• Monetary incentives• Deadlines• Promise of anonymity• Appeal for participation