metacognition and theory of mind. by tracey tokuhama-espinosa. december 2014

Metacognition and Theory of Mind

Tracey Tokuhama-Espinosa, Ph.D.

Harvard University, Psych 1609

Week 14, December 2014

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Today’s focus

¤  Feedback as a key to learning

¤  Internal feedback

¤  Metacognition (thinking about thinking) ¤  Neuroimaging

¤  Improvement?

¤  External feedback ¤  Theory of Mind (your perception of the other)

¤  Neuroimaging

¤  Improvement?

¤  Fun questions: ¤  Do animals other than humans have Theory of Mind?

¤  Relationship between Metacognition, Self-Knowledge, Theory of Mind, Social Cognition, Consciousness and Emotional Intelligence?

¤  Summary of session, summary ideas (Dr. Peabody) 2

Feedback as a key to learning

¤  According to Bollich, Johannet, and Vazire (2011), there are “two main avenues for learning about the self: looking inward (e.g., introspection) and looking outward (e.g., feedback)” (p. 312), but both avenues have to be modeled or taught explicitly to be successful.

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Metacognitive development: Giving yourself feedback

¤  The key to inculcating good metacognitive skills, according to Kuhn (2000), is to focus on the development of one’s own awareness rather than on specific steps or procedures for improving these skills.

¤  Hennessey (1999) suggests that a key element in developing good metacognitive skills is helping students to reason, understand concepts, and make their beliefs more “visible” to themselves and others.

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Tokuhama-Espinosa, 2014, p.163

Quick reply on chat: Definitions

1.  Metacognitive practice: What do I already know about metacognition?

2.  What is the difference between “metacognition” and “deep thinking” and “higher order thinking”?

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Metacognition: “Highest” on the cognitive scale?

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https://www.pinterest.com/pin/567242515538562696/

Activities that stimulate metacognition

¤  Metacognitive activities fall into six general categories: 1.  knowledge about oneself as a learner and factors affecting

cognition;

2.  awareness and management of cognition, including knowledge about strategies;

3.  knowledge about why and when to use a given strategy;

4.  identification and selection of appropriate strategies and allocation of resources;

5.  attending to and being aware of comprehension and task performance; and

6.  assessing the processes and products of one’s learning and revisiting and revising learning (Lai, 2011, p.7).

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Enhancing metacognitive development: How can we learn to improve metacognition with the help others?

¤  A great teacher is able to facilitate the retrieval of past knowledge, help identify patterns, and point out novelties to improve student learning.

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¤  “Metacognition is actually one of the easiest skills to teach, but it must usually be taught explicitly. ‘Today we’re going to think about how we think’ wouldn’t be a bad way to start a lesson emphasizing metacognition.”

¤  “Teaching metacognitive skills can often be embedded in other activities and doesn’t take up much classroom time.”

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How can we learn to improve metacognition with the help others?

Self-questioning

¤  What do I already know about this?

¤  What do I know I need to know?

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¤  Activities that stimulate metacognition do one of two things: they either enhance knowledge about cognition, or they enhance monitoring of cognition (Flavell, 1979; Schneider, 2008, 2010).

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http://www.slideshare.net/edd101/enhancing-learning-teamwork-skills-in-moodle

http://serc.carleton.edu/integrate/info_team_members/currdev/effective_materials/metacog.html


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Carlton College, 2014: http://serc.carleton.edu/integrate/info_team_members/currdev/effective_materials/metacog.html

Quick reply on chat: Visibility of metacognition?

¤  Can you “see” metacognition? What does it look like?

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Can you “see” metacognition?

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Observation of emerging metacognitive skills in children.


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Metacognitive Awareness Inventory

Quick reply on chat: How did you score on the “Metacognitive Awareness Inventory”?

¤  It’s not surprising that students’ scores on the Junior Metacognitive Awareness Inventory correlate with general cognitive gains; that is, the higher they score on the Inventory, the better they generally do at school. The 18 items are mentioned here for reflection:

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Tokuhama-Espinosa, 2014, pp.167-168

Metacognition is not just for grown-ups

¤  Children as young as three exhibit metacognitive abilities when thinking about problem solving (Whitebread, Bringham, Grau, Pino Pasternak, & Sangster, 2007; Whitebread et al., 2009), and children four or five years of age can theorize about their own thinking processes (Schraw & Moshman, 1995).

¤  The development of metacognitive skills benefits overall learning in all fields.

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Quick reply on chat: Development and training

¤  SELF: How can you improve your own metacognitive skills? ¤  What will you do to further enhance your own

metacognitive awareness?

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Evidence from neuroscience on metacognitive development

¤  Chiou, K. S., & Hillary, F. G. (2012). Benefits of Order: The influence of item sequencing on metacognition in moderate and severe traumatic brain injury. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 18(02), 379-383.

¤  Chiou, K. S., Carlson, R. A., Arnett, P. A., Cosentino, S. A., & Hillary, F. G. (2011). Metacognitive monitoring in moderate and severe traumatic brain injury. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 17(04), 720-731.

¤  Clark, K. B., & Hassert, D. L. (2013). Undecidability and opacity of metacognition in animals and humans. Frontiers in Psychology, 4.

¤  Couchman, J. J., Beran, M. J., Coutinho, M. V., Boomer, J., Zakrzewski, A., Church, B., & Smith, J. D. (2012). Do actions speak louder than words? A comparative perspective on implicit versus explicit meta‐cognition and theory of mind. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 30(1), 210-221.

¤  Fleming, S. M., & Dolan, R. J. (2012). The neural basis of metacognitive ability. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences,367(1594), 1338-1349.

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¤  Fleming, S. M., Dolan, R. J., & Frith, C. D. (2012). Metacognition: computation, biology and function. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 367(1594), 1280-1286.

¤  Fleming, S. M., Huijgen, J., & Dolan, R. J. (2012). Prefrontal contributions to metacognition in perceptual decision making. The Journal of Neuroscience,32(18), 6117-6125.

¤  Fleming, S. M., Weil, R. S., Nagy, Z., Dolan, R. J., & Rees, G. (2010). Relating introspective accuracy to individual differences in brain structure. Science,329(5998), 1541-1543.

¤  Fletcher, L., & Carruthers, P. (2012). Metacognition and reasoning. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences,367(1594), 1366-1378.

¤  Frith, C. D. (2011). What brain plasticity reveals about the nature of consciousness: commentary. Frontiers in Psychology, 2.

¤  Middlebrooks, P. G., & Sommer, M. A. (2012). Neuronal correlates of metacognition in primate frontal cortex. Neuron, 75(3), 517-530.

¤  Miele, D. B., Wager, T. D., Mitchell, J. P., & Metcalfe, J. (2011). Dissociating neural correlates of action monitoring and metacognition of agency. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 23(11), 3620-3636.

¤  Shea, N., Boldt, A., Bang, D., Yeung, N., Heyes, C., & Frith, C. D. (2014). Supra-personal cognitive control and metacognition. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 18(4), 186-193.

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Metacognition is measureable

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Theory of Mind

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Theory of Mind: Getting feedback from others

¤  “Theory of mind tries to elaborate and define the individual in the context of the people and society in which he lives.

¤  Humans have the capacity to attribute mental states to others by interpreting what others feel and think.

32 Tokuhama-Espinosa, 2014, p.104


¤  The theory of mind, which rests on the belief that learning is highly dependent on contact with others as well as the emotions one feels when with those “others,” is a deep-thinking model that has guide modern reflection in classroom settings and beyond.”

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¤  “Theory of mind is rooted in a great deal of neurological studies that have taken place over the past decade (Ochsner et al., 2004; Pelphrey, Morris, & McCarthy, 2004; Samson, Apperly, Chiavarino, & Humphreys, 2004; Saxe, 2004; Saxe & Powell, 2006; Scholz, Triantafyllou, Whitfield-Gabrieli, Brown, & Saxe, 2009; Schultz, 2003), and reminds us that in order to survive, we need to not only know how to manage ourselves well, but be aware of and respond to the social expectations of others (Mundy & Newell, 2007).”

34 Tokuhama-Espinosa, 2014, p.104

Self-Knowledge and Metacognition

¤  “Self-knowledge plays chicken-or-egg with theory of mind, which suggests that in order to understand oneself, one has to understand the “Other” (but to understand the Other, one needs to know oneself).

¤  It is interesting to note that brain studies have shown that self-assessment and self-understanding use similar neural networks as assessment of others (Legrand & Ruby, 2009), which lends support to the theory of mind concept that we know ourselves by knowing others.”

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Tokuhama-Espinosa, 2014, p.164.

Tokuhama-Espinosa, 2014, p.103.

¤  Johnson, S. C., Baxter, L. C., Wilder, L. S., Pipe, J. G., Heiserman, J. E., & Prigatano, G. P. (2002). Neural correlates of self‐reflection. Brain, 125(8), 1808-1814.

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Theory of Mind: Research in the field

¤  Premack and Woodruff (1978) introduced the concept of theory of mind in the 1970s. It was defined clearly in humans by Baron-Cohen (1991), Dennett (1992), Meltzoff (1995), and Gagliardi in the 1990s (Gagliardi et al., 1995), and has recently been made popular by Daniel Siegel (2001, 2012), Steven Pinker (1997, 2002), Jaime Pineda (2008), and Uta Frith and Cris Frith (2003).

¤  Work by Iacoboni, Molnar-Szakacs, Gallese, Buccino, and Mazziotta (2005) and Rizzolatti and Craighero (2004) helped bring the mirror neuron system into the theory of mind discussion by suggesting that an individual “mirrors” the behavior of others.

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Theory of Mind: Definitions

¤  Premack and Woodruff (1978): “An individual has a theory of mind if he imputes mental states to himself and others.”

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Theory of Mind: Definitions

Humans tend to presume that others have minds similar to their own. This can be confirmed by three conditions:

¤  (1) joint attention

¤  (2) the functional use of language

¤  (3) understand others emotions

¤  (4) understanding others actions (motivations)

¤  (1) Baron-Cohen (1991) Precursors to a theory of mind.

¤  (2) Bruner (1981) Intention in the structure and action and interaction.

¤  (3) Gordon (1996) Theories of theories of mind.

¤  (4) Gordon (1996) Theories of theories of mind.

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Theory of Mind: Knowing the other to know oneself

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Neuroimaging of Theory of Mind

¤  Amodio, D. M., & Frith, C. D. (2006). Meeting of minds: the medial frontal cortex and social cognition. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 7(4), 268-277.

¤  Corbetta, M., Patel, G., & Shulman, G. L. (2008). The reorienting system of the human brain: from environment to theory of mind. Neuron, 58(3), 306-324.

¤  Fletcher, P. C., Happe, F., Frith, U., Baker, S. C., Dolan, R. J., Frackowiak, R. S., & Frith, C. D. (1995). Other minds in the brain: a functional imaging study of “theory of mind” in story comprehension. Cognition, 57(2), 109-128.

¤  Gallagher, H. L., & Frith, C. D. (2003). Functional imaging of ‘theory of mind’. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 7(2), 77-83.

¤  Gallagher, H. L., Happé, F., Brunswick, N., Fletcher, P. C., Frith, U., & Frith, C. D. (2000). Reading the mind in cartoons and stories: an fMRI study of ‘theory of mind’ in verbal and nonverbal tasks. Neuropsychologia, 38(1), 11-21.

¤  Johnson, S. C., Baxter, L. C., Wilder, L. S., Pipe, J. G., Heiserman, J. E., & Prigatano, G. P. (2002). Neural correlates of self‐reflection. Brain, 125(8), 1808-1814.

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¤  Rilling, J. K., Sanfey, A. G., Aronson, J. A., Nystrom, L. E., & Cohen, J. D. (2004). The neural correlates of theory of mind within interpersonal interactions. Neuroimage, 22(4), 1694-1703.

¤  Saxe, R., & Powell, L. J. (2006). It's the Thought That Counts Specific Brain Regions for One Component of Theory of Mind. Psychological science, 17(8), 692-699.

¤  Schulte-Rüther, M., Markowitsch, H., Fink, G., & Piefke, M. (2007). Mirror neuron and theory of mind mechanisms involved in face-to-face interactions: a functional magnetic resonance imaging approach to empathy. Cognitive Neuroscience, Journal of, 19(8), 1354-1372.

¤  Siegal, M., & Varley, R. (2002). Neural systems involved in 'theory of mind'. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 3(6), 463-471.

¤  Spreng, R. N., Mar, R. A., & Kim, A. S. (2009). The common neural basis of autobiographical memory, prospection, navigation, theory of mind, and the default mode: a quantitative meta-analysis. Journal of cognitive neuroscience, 21(3), 489-510.

¤  Stone, V. E., Baron-Cohen, S., & Knight, R. T. (1998). Frontal lobe contributions to theory of mind. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 10(5), 640-656.

¤  Vogeley, K., Bussfeld, P., Newen, A., Herrmann, S., Happé, F., Falkai, P., ... & Zilles, K. (2001). Mind reading: neural mechanisms of theory of mind and self-perspective. Neuroimage, 14(1), 170-181.

¤  Völlm, B. A., Taylor, A. N., Richardson, P., Corcoran, R., Stirling, J., McKie, S., ... & Elliott, R. (2006). Neuronal correlates of theory of mind and empathy: a functional magnetic resonance imaging study in a nonverbal task. Neuroimage, 29(1), 90-98.

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Attention circuits in the brain related to Theory of Mind

¤  “In functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) studies, a cortical region in the right temporo-parietal junction (RTPJ) is recruited when participants read stories about people's thoughts (‘Theory of Mind’). Both fMRI and lesion studies suggest that a region near the RTPJ is associated with attentional reorienting in response to an unexpected stimulus. Do Theory of Mind and attentional reorienting recruit a single population of neurons, or are there two neighboring but distinct neural populations in the RTPJ? … In all, these results suggest that there are neighboring but distinct regions within the RTPJ implicated in Theory of Mind and orienting attention.”

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Scholz, J., Triantafyllou, C., Whitfield-Gabrieli, S., Brown, E.N., & Saxe, R. (2009). Distinct regions of right temporo-parietal junction are selective for theory of mind and exogenous attention. PLoS One 4(3), e4869. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0004869. PMID 1929004


¤  “Survival can depend on the ability to change a current course of action to respond to potentially advantageous or threatening stimuli. This “reorienting” response involves the coordinated action of a right hemisphere dominant ventral frontoparietal network that interrupts and resets ongoing activity and a dorsal frontoparietal network specialized for selecting and linking stimuli and responses... While originally conceptualized as a system for redirecting attention from one object to another, recent evidence suggests a more general role in switching between networks, which may explain recent evidence of its involvement in functions such as social cognition.”

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Corbetta, M., Patel, G., & Shulman, G. L. (2008). The reorienting system of the human brain: from environment to theory of mind. Neuron, 58(3), 306-324.


¤  “Metacognition refers to any knowledge or cognitive process that monitors or controls cognition. We highlight similarities between metacognitive and executive control functions, and ask how these processes might be implemented in the human brain. A review of brain imaging studies reveals a circuitry of attentional networks involved in these control processes, with its source located in midfrontal areas. These areas are active during conflict resolution, error correction, and emotional regulation. A developmental approach to the organization of the anatomy involved in executive control provides an added perspective on how these mechanisms are influenced by maturation and learning, and how they relate to metacognitive activity.”

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Fernandez-Duque, D., Baird, J. A., & Posner, M. I. (2000). Executive attention and metacognitive regulation. Consciousness and cognition, 9(2), 288-307.

Quick reply on chat: (1)Possible Roadblocks? (2) Animals

1.  What are some possible roadblocks to the development of Theory of Mind? ¤  Neurotoxins?

¤  Families or other social interaction?

2.  Do animals other than humans have theory of mind? ¤  Theory of Mind requires understanding the other.

¤  Can other animals be conscious of another’s mindframe?

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Historical development of the argument

¤  Premack, D., & Woodruff, G. (1978). Does the chimpanzee have a theory of mind?. Behavioral and brain sciences, 1(04), 515-526.

¤  Heyes, C. M. (1998). Theory of mind in nonhuman primates. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 21(01), 101-114.

¤  Penn, D. C., & Povinelli, D. J. (2007). On the lack of evidence that non-human animals possess anything remotely resembling a ‘theory of mind’. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 362(1480), 731-744.

“Since the BBS article in which Premack and Woodruff (1978) asked “Does the chimpanzee have a theory of mind?,” it has been repeatedly claimed that there is observational and experimental evidence that apes have mental state concepts, such as “want” and “know.” Unlike research on the development of theory of mind in childhood, however, no substantial progress has been made through this work with nonhuman primates” (Heyes, 1998, p.101).

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Historical development of the argument

¤  Call, J., & Tomasello, M. (2008). Does the chimpanzee have a theory of mind? 30 years later. Trends in cognitive sciences, 12(5), 187-192.

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Conditions for Theory of Mind

Deleau, M. (2012). Language and theory of mind: Why pragmatics matter. European Journal of Developmental Psychology, 9(3), 295-312.

¤  (1) joint attention

¤  (2) the functional use of language

¤  (3) understand others emotions

¤  (4) understanding others actions (motivations)

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Quick reply on chat: Related terms

¤  Relationship between Metacognition, Self-Knowledge, Theory of Mind, Social Cognition, Consciousness, Executive Functions and Emotional Intelligence?

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Lots left to research! Good luck!

¤  Studies exist crossing two dimensional visions, however there is a lack of evidence linking all areas.

¤  Ready for the challenge?!

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3-2-1

1.  Three things you learned.

2.  Two things you will share.

3.  One thing you will change.

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Psych 1609: Neuroscience of Learning and Change

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Suggested readings on Metacognition

¤  Bollich, K. L., Johannet, P. M., & Vazire, S. (2011). In search of our true selves: Feedback as a path to self-knowledge. Frontiers in Psychology, 2, 312. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2011.00312

¤  Borkowski, J. G., Carr, M., Rellinger, E., & Pressley, M. (2013). Self-regulated cognition: Interdependence of metacognition. Dimensions of Thinking and Cognitive Instruction, 53.

¤  Brown, A. L. (1975). The development of memory: Knowing, knowing about knowing, and knowing how to know. In H. W. Reese (Ed.), Advances in child development and behavior (Vol. 10). New York, NY: Academic Press.

¤  Brown, A. L. (1978). Knowing when, where, and how to remember: A problem of metacognition. In R. Glaser (Ed.), Advances in instructional psychology 7 (pp.55–111). New York, NY: Academic Press.

¤  Brown, A. L. (1980). Metacognitive development and reading. In R. S. Spiro, B. B. Bruce, & W. L. Brewer (Eds.), Theoretical issues in reading comprehension. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

¤  Brown, A. L. (1987). Metacognition, executive control, self-regulation and other more mysterious mechanism. In F.E. Weinert, & R.H. Kluwe (Eds.), Metacognition, motivation, and understanding (pp. 65–116). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

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¤  Browne, M. N., & Keeley, S. M. (2006). Asking the right questions: A guide to critical thinking (8th ed.). New York, NY: Prentice Hall.

¤  Carruthers, P. (2009). How we know our own minds: The relationship between mindreading and metacognition. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 32, 121–138 doi:10.1017/S0140525X09000545

¤  Desautel, D. (2009). Becoming a thinking thinker: Metacognition, self-reflection, and classroom practice. Teachers College Records, 111(8), http://www.tcrecord.org ID Number: 15504

¤  Dunlosky, J., & Metcalfe, J. (2009). Metacognition. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

¤  Flavell, J. H. (1979). Metacognition and cognitive monitoring: A new area of cognitive-developmental inquiry. American Psychologist, 34(10), 906–911.

¤  Flavell, J. H. (1982). On cognitive development. Child Development, 53, 1–10.

¤  Flavell, J. H. (1987). Speculations about the nature and development of metacognition. In Weinert, F. E., & Kluwe, R. H. (Eds.), Metacognition, motivation, and understanding. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

¤  Fleming, S. M., & Dolan, R. J. (2012). The neural basis of metacognitive ability. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society Biological Sciences, 367(1594), 1338–1349.

¤  Fleming, S. M., Dolan, R. J., & Frith, C. D. (2012). Metacognition: Computation, biology and function. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, Biological Science, 367(1594), 1280–1286.

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¤  Fleming, S. M., Huijgen, J., & Dolan, R. J. (2012). Prefrontal contributions to metacognition in perceptual decision making. Journal of Neuroscience, 32(18), 6117–6125.

¤  Fleming, S. M., Weil, R. S., Nagy, Z., Dolan, R. J., & Rees, G. (2010). Relating introspective accuracy to individual differences in brain structure. Science, 329(5998), 1541–1543. doi:10.1126/science.1191883

¤  Frith, C. D. (2012). The role of metacognition in human social interactions. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society Biological Sciences, 367(1599), 2213–2223.

¤  Hacker, D. J., Dunlosky, & Graesser, A. C. (Eds.) (2009). Handbook of metacognition in education. New York, NY: Routledge.

¤  Hofer, B. K., & Sinatra, G. M. (2010). Epistemology, metacognition, and self-regulation: Musings on an emerging field. Metacognition and Learning, 5(1), 113–120.

¤  Kacker, D. J., Dunlosky, J., & Graesser, A. C. (2009). Handbook of metacognition in education. New York, NY: Routledge.

¤  Lai, E. R. (2011). Metacognition: A literature review (Research report prepared for Pearson). New York, NY: Pearson.

¤  Larkin, S. (2010). Metacognition in young children. New York, NY: Routledge.

¤  Leat, D., & Lin, M. (2003). Developing a pedagogy of metacognition and transfer: Some signposts for the generation and use of knowledge and the creation of research partnerships. British Educational Research Journal, 29(3), 383–414. doi: 10.1080/01411920301853

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¤  Livingston, J. A. (1997). Metacognition: An overview. Retrieved from http://www.josemnazevedo.uac.pt/pessoal/textos/Metacognition.pdf

¤  Logam, J. M., Castel, A. D., Haber, S., & Biehman, E. J. (2012). Metacognition and the spacing effect: The role of repetition, feedback, and instruction on judgment of learning for massed and spaced rehearsal. Metacognition and Learning, 7(3), 175–195.

¤  Middlebrooks, P. G., & Sommer, M. A. (2012). Neuronal correlates of metacognition in primate frontal cortex. Neuron, 75(3), 517–530.

¤  Miller, T., & Geraci, L. (2011). Training metacognition in the classroom: the influence of incentives and feedback on exam predictions. Metacognition and Learning, 6(3), 303–314

¤  Pennequin, V., Sorel, O., & Moainguy, M. (2010). Metacognition, executive functions and aging: The effect of training in the use of metacognitive skills to solve mathematical word problems. Journal of Adult Development, 17(3), 168–178.

¤  Salatas Waters, H., & Schneider, W. (Eds.). (2009). Metacognition, strategy use and instruction. New York, NY: Guilford Press.

¤  Schellenberg, S., Negishi, M., & Eggen, P. (2011). The effects of metacognition and concrete encoding strategies on depth of understanding in educational psychology. Teaching Educational Psychology, 7(2), 17–24.

¤  Shimamura, A. P. (2000). Towards a cognitive neuroscience of metacognition. Consciousness and Cognition, 9(2), 313–323. http://dx.doi.org/10.1006/ccog.2000.0450

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¤  Son, L. K., & Simon, D. A. (2012). Distributed learning: Data, metacognition, and educational implications. Educational Psychology Review, 24(3), 379–399.

¤  Stillman, G., & Mevarech, Z. (2010). Metacognition research in mathematics education: From hot topic to mature field. ZDM, 42(2), 145–148.

¤  Voss, J. F., Perkins, D. N., & Segal, J. W. (Eds.) (2012). Informal reasoning and education. New York, NY: Routledge.

¤  Wahlheim, C. N., Dunlosky, J., & Jacoby, L. L. (2011). Spacing enhances the learning of natural concepts: An investigation of mechanisms, metacognition, and aging. Memory & Cognition, 39(5), 750–763. doi:10.3758/s13421-010-0063-y

¤  Whitebread, D., Bringham, S., Grau, V., Pino Pasternak, D., & Sangster, C. (2007). Development of metacognition and self-regulated learning in young children: Role of collaborative and peer-assisted learning. Journal of Cognitive Education and Psychology, 6(3), 433–455(23). doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1891/194589507787382043

¤  Whitebread, D., Coltman, P., Pasternak, D. P., Sangster, C., Grau, V., Bingham, S…. & Demetriou, D. (2009). The development of two observational tools for assessing metacognition and self-regulated learning in young children. Metacognition and Learning, 4(1), 63–85.

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Suggested readings on Theory of Mind

¤  Baron-Cohen, S. (1991). Precursors to a theory of mind: Understanding attention in others. In A. Whiten (Ed.), Natural theories of mind: Evolution, development, and simulation of everyday mindreading (pp. 233–251). Cambridge, MA: Basil Blackwell.

¤  Blakemore, S. J., & Decety, J. (2001). From the perception of action to the understanding of intention. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 2, 561–567.

¤  Buckner, R. L., & Carroll, D. C. (2007). Self-projection and the brain. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 11(2), 49–57.

¤  Cacioppo, J. T., Berntson, G. G., & Decety, D. (2010). Social neuroscience and its relationship to social psychology. Social Cognition, 28(Special Issue), 675–685.

¤  Carlson, S. M., Moses, L. J., & Breton, C. (2002). How specific is the relation between executive function and theory of mind? Contributions of inhibitory control and working memory. Infant and Child Development, 11(2), 73–92.

¤  Decety, J., & Baston, D. (2007). Social neuroscience approached to interpersonal sensitivity. Social Neuroscience, 2(3–4), 151–157.

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¤  Decety, J., & Lamm, C. (2007). The role of the right temporoparietal junction in social interaction: How low-level computational processes contribute to meta-cognition. Neuroscientist, 13(6), 580–593.

¤  Decety, J., & Sommerville, J.A. (2003). Shared representations between self and other: A social cognitive neuroscience view. Trend in Cognitive Sciences, 7(12), 527–533. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2003.10.004

¤  Dennett, D. (1992). Consciousness explained. Boston, MA: Back Bay Books.

¤  Frith, C. D., & Frith, U. (2012). Mechanisms of social cognition. Annual Review of Psychology 63, 287–313. doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-120710-100449

¤  Frith, U., & Frith, C. D. (2003). Development and neurophysiology of mentalizing. Philosophical Transactions R Social Lond B Biological Science 358(1431), 459–73. doi:10.1098/rstb.2002.1218. PMC 1693139. PMID 12689373

¤  Gagliardi, J. L., Kirkpatrick-Steger, K. K., Thomas, J., Allen, G. J., & Blumberg, M. S. (1995). Seeing and knowing: Knowledge attribution versus stimulus control in adult humans (Homo sapiens). Journal of Comparative Psychology, 109(2), 107.

¤  Meltzoff, A. (1995). Understanding the intentions of others: Re-enactment of intended acts by 18-month-old children. Developmental Psychology, 31, 838–850.

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Contact:

Tracey Tokuhama-Espinosa, Ph.D. Universidad de las Américas [email protected]

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