INTELLIGENCEINTELLIGENCE

This section of the work will cover:

• What intelligence is• Assessing intelligence• Use of IQ tests• The role of heredity and environment

A.A. What Intelligence IsWhat Intelligence Is

1.1. DEFINING INTELLIGENCEDEFINING INTELLIGENCE

• “adaptive thinking or action” - Piaget (1950)• “the ability to learn quickly, solve problems,

understand complex and abstract issues and generally behave in a reasonable, rational and purposeful manner” – Mwamwenda (1995)

1.1. DEFINING INTELLIGENCE (cont.)DEFINING INTELLIGENCE (cont.)

• “ the capacity to acquire knowledge, the ability to think and reason in the abstract, and the capability for solving problems” – Sternberg

• “the global capacity of the individual to act purposefully, to think rationally and to deal effectively with the environment” – Wechsler (1975)

• “the human ability to solve problems or to make something that is valued in one or more cultures” – Gardner

2.2. THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCETHEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE

2.1. Spearman’s Two-Factor Theory of Intelligence (1927)

• g-factor or general trait• s-factor or specific traits

2. THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE (cont.)2. THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE (cont.)

2.2. Thurstone’s Primary Mental Abilities (1938)Identified seven factors or types of intelligences or mental

abilities:1. spatial ability2. perceptual speed (quick processing of visual

information)3. numerical reasoning4. verbal meaning (defining words)5. word fluency (speed at recognising words)6. memory7. inductive reasoning (forming a rule that

describes a set of observations)

2. THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE (cont.)2. THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE (cont.)

2.3. Cattell and Horn’s Fluid and Crystal Intelligences

Fluid Intelligence:• reflects a person’s innate mental ability • refers to one’s ability to solve the type of novel and abstract

problems that are not taught and are relatively free of cultural influence

Crystallised Intelligence:• refers to the ability to solve problems that depend on knowledge

gained as a result of education and life experiences.

2. THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE (cont.)2. THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE (cont.)2.4. Guilford’s Structure of Intellect

Describes intelligence as the intersection of four content areas, five cognitive operations and six products.

2.4. Guilford’s Structure of Intellect (cont.)

CONTENTCONTENT figural symbolic semantic behavioural

evaluationconvergent production

OPERATIONSOPERATIONS divergent production memory

cognition units classes relations

systems transformation implications

PRODUCTSPRODUCTS

2.4. Guilford’s Structure of Intellect (cont.)

• Intelligence depends on what we are thinking (contents), how we are thinking (cognitive operations), and the product or end result of our thinking.

2. THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE (cont.)2. THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE (cont.)

2.5. Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences2.5. Gardner’s Multiple IntelligencesHe proposed 8 relatively independent types of intelligence:

1. Linguistic Intelligence is the capacity to use language, e.g. poets, lawyers

2. Logical-mathematical Intelligence is the ability to understand the principles underlying a causal system, e.g. scientists, mathematicians

3. Spatial Intelligence refers to the ability to represent the spatial world internally in your mind, e.g. pilot, architect, painter, sculptor

4. Bodily Kinesthetic Intelligence is the capacity to use your whole body or parts thereof to solve a problem, make something or put on some production, e.g. athletes, dancers, actors

5. Musical Intelligence is the capacity to think in music, e.g. musicians

6. Interpersonal Intelligence is understanding other people, e.g. salespersons, therapists, teachers, politicians

7. Intrapersonal Intelligence refers to having an understanding of yourself.

8. Naturalist Intelligence refers to the human ability to discriminate among living things (plants, animals), as well as sensitivity to other features of the natural world (clouds, rock formation), e.g. farmers, geologists, botanists

Gardner’s Definition of Intelligence:

It is the human ability to solve problems or to make something that is valued in one or more cultures

With regard to the 8 intelligences, Gardner believes:• Most people can develop each intelligence to an adequate

level thru’ environmental enrichment.• For most people, our abilities across the 8 intelligences lie

on a continuum.• There are multiple ways to demonstrate proficiency in one

intelligence., e.g. an athlete may be an excellent sprinter, but unable to dance coherently to any rhythm

• The 8 intelligences may be relatively independent on paper, but in reality they work together in complex ways, e.g. driving a car – logical-mathematical, spatial, bodily kinesthetic intelligences may come into play.

It is valuable for teachers to assess the ‘real’ intelligence of their learners and not just that which is perceived thru’ tests and exams and then to adjust class activities to cater for all intelligences, e.g. time for acting, drawing, sport, etc.

2. THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE (cont.)2. THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE (cont.)

2.6. Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory and Process Model This theory focuses on how people gather and use

information (information processing). Identified a three-part (triarchic) theory with three kinds

of intelligences:– Componential intelligence – refers to the processes that

form the basis for behaviour.– Experiential intelligence – shows the ability to relate to

new tasks or ideas in one’s environment.– Contextual intelligence – reflects one’s ability to adapt,

select or shape one’s environment.

2. THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE (cont.)2. THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE (cont.)2.8. Perkins’ Thinking Frames• Believed that we could improve

intelligence by teaching learners better thinking skills.

• Urged teachers to avoid a narrow view of intelligence.

Perkins believed that modern psychologists have adopted one of three concepts of intelligence:

– Power theory of intelligence or generic interpretation – believe that the neurological function of the brain is the sole contributor to intelligence.

– Tactical theory of intelligence – Those that have more tactics (skills) to use their minds effectively are the ones who are more intelligent.

– Content theory of intelligence – The mastery of factual material (content) is at the heart of thinking and problem-solving.

• Perkins believes all three are important and together they form the cornerstones of intelligence.

• Perkins pointed out that schools and educators could not do anything about the power theory of intelligence.

• He also felt that schools have already contributed too much to the content theory of intelligence.

• Thus he suggested that the focus be on the tactical theory of intelligence. He proposed the term, thinking frames to describe the “tricks” that make up tactical intelligence.

• Thinking frames are guides that organise and support thought processes.

• These thinking frames can be learnt through a three-stage process involving acquisition, internalisation and transfer:– Acquisition refers to direct instruction or invention (finding out things by

yourself) and forms the basis of the thinking frame.– For Internalisation to happen, practice and use of many examples are

important. Meaningful practice and memory leads to automatic processing.

– Transfer refers to the ability to use the frame in order to solve aide variety of similar problems. Transfer of generalisation does not happen automatically, but must be taught.

B. Assessing IntelligenceB. Assessing Intelligence

1.1. Pioneers in IntelligencePioneers in Intelligence

• Sir Francis Galton – father of intelligence testing

• Alfred Binet – developed a test which would determine who was school-ready and who needed a remedial programme. His test measured the ability to pay attention, memory, judgement, reasoning, and comprehension. He came up with the concept of mental age, i.e. our thinking age/level.

2.1. 2.1. The Stanford-Binet Intelligence ScaleThe Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale

• (Theodore) Simon-Binet designed an intelligence test order to determine “average” intelligence. The test was later revised at Stanford University (USA) and renamed the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale and the concept Intelligence Quotient (IQ) was added.

• The test is a standardised test of intelligence composed of different subtests (memory, verbal skills and mathematical skills, etc)

2.1. 2.1. The Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale The Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale (cont.)(cont.)

• The test can be used to determine the mental age of learners and then using a formula, the IQ can be determined.

• Research has shown that results of the Stanford-Binet test correlate well with school success and teachers’ evaluation of intelligence.

• The test was revised again in 1986 to incorporate stratification according to economic status, race, geographic region and community size.

Formula for IQ

Intelligence Quotient = Mental Age X 100

Chronological Age

Thus, IQ = MA/CA x 100

Calculating IQ – Example:

1. A child of 6 years has a mental age of 6 years

IQ = 6 X 100 = 100

6

Such a child is considered to have average intelligence.

Calculating IQ – Example:

2. A child of 6 years has a mental age of 8 years

IQ = 8 X 100 = 133

6

Such a child is considered to have above-average intelligence.

2. The Wechsler Scales

• Most widely used in the USA currently.• Three versions of the test:– One for children in pre- and primary school (ages

3–8)– One for those in school aged 6 –16 (WISC-III)– One for adults (over 16)

• The test has two parts: verbal and performance subtests.

2. The Wechsler Scales (cont.)

• The verbal subtest tests the child’s vocabulary, general knowledge, understanding of ideas and concepts, arithmetic reasoning, etc and questions are posed orally and the child responds verbally.

• The performance subtest tests the child’s non-verbal skills such as the ability to assemble puzzles, solve mazes. And reproduce geometric designs with coloured blocks, and rearrange pictures to tell a meaningful story.

• Results are given as a verbal IQ, a performance IQ and a full scale IQ that is based on a combination of the first two measures.

3. The Wechsler Test

• Most popular intelligence test used today.• 3 versions:

- pre-school-primary

- elementary

- adults• Test is designed in 2 parts: verbal and

performance

3. The Wechsler Test (cont.)

• Verbal Test: require a question to be posed orally and the student to respond verbally.

• Performance Test: requires the student to visually process test material (read) and to respond motorically (write, draw, etc).

• While interpretation of the specific scales of the test requires specialised training (Clinician), the information may be useful to a teacher in adapting teaching methods and materials to suit a learner’s strengths and weaknesses.

NORMAL CURVE/BELL CURVENORMAL CURVE/BELL CURVE

4.4. Interpreting IQ ScoresInterpreting IQ Scores

• On the Wechsler Intelligence test, the average score is 100

• 50% of the population will score above 100 and 50% will score below 100.

• About 68% of the population will score between 85 and 115

• Only about 16% will receive scores below 85% and only about 16% will receive scores above 115.

4.4. Interpreting IQ Scores (cont)Interpreting IQ Scores (cont)

• The correlation between scores on the Wechsler test and school achievement is fairly strong, 0,65 (the closer a correlation is to 1, the stronger it is).

• However, research has questioned the degree of correlation between a person’s IQ and his success in later life, as factors such as motivation, years of formal education, emotional stability, etc, plays a role

• Intelligence and the intelligence test, however, play an important role in defining a number of exceptionalities, including mental retardation, giftedness, and specific learning disabilities.

C. Use of IQ testsC. Use of IQ tests

• IQ scores become relatively stable at age of 10 to 12.• To be used with caution (test results may be

incorrect).• Child can perform lower than actual potential (why?)• Scores should be seen as confidential (not given to

child, parent or others since it may be wrongly interpreted), e.g. A low IQ score may lead to lowered expectations (child, teacher, parent).

AdvantagesAdvantages

• Students with special needs can be identified (gifted, slow learners).

• Identification of learners with specific learning difficulties and they can be assigned to certain specialised programmes.

• Assist educational and vocational counsellors.• Pre-school test can assist to see if children are

ready for school and can then be assisted in time.• Prediction of academic achievement.

D. The role of heredity and environment

• Is intelligence a product of heredity or environment?

• Environmentalists (eg. John Watson)• Hereditists (eg. Jensen and Eyesenk)• Interactionists (heredity sets the potential while

environment determines the extent to which it will be fulfilled)

Comment on the role of heredity or environment (or both) as related to the following research findings:

• Twins of the same sex are more alike than twins of the opposite sex.• The correlation coefficient for IQ test scores of identical twins raised

together is 0.87 while that of identical twins raised apart is 0.75.• Fraternal twins are more alike than other siblings as far as IQ-scores are

concerned.• The IQ scores of adopted children and their non-biological parents show a

correlation coefficient of 0.20• The correlation coefficient of ordinary siblings raised together is .55 while

that for ordinary siblings raised apart is .47• The correlation coefficient for IQ test scores of unrelated children raised

apart is .00 while that of unrelated children raised together is .25