thinking, memory, & intelligence more cognitive psychology

Thinking, Memory, & Intelligence

More Cognitive Psychology

Cognition

• Cognition– The broad mental capacities associated with

thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

• Developed into the field of cognitive psychology

In order to think about things in our world we simplify them by creating

• Concepts• Prototypes

Simplifying our Thinking

• Concept– A mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas,

or people– Ex.Chair:– Ex. Flower:

The development of concepts are assisted by

the development of prototypes

• Prototype– Mental image or best example of a category; helps

to make quick and easy assessment of items– Ex: Birds….which fits better, a robin or a penguin?

Problem Solving

• Problem Solving:– Refers to the active efforts to discover what must be

done to achieve a goal that is not readily attainable

• Problem Space- refer to the set of possible pathways to a solution

considered by the problem solver- Aka. approaches to problem solving

Approaches to Problem Solving

• Trial and Error – Trying possible solutions and discarding those that

are in error until one works• Algorithm

– a logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem in a step-by-step manner; slower than what is known as heuistics

• Heuristic– A simple strategy that allows us to make judgments

and solve problems efficiently; faster than algorithm but causes more errors

Approaches to Problem Solving

• Forming Sub-goals• Working backward• Searching for Analogies• Changing the Representations of the Problem• Taking a Break

– Incubation Effect: occurs when new solutions surface for a previously unsolved problem after a period of not consciously thinking about the problem

Problems to Problem Solving

• Irrelevant Information• Confirmation Bias

– A tendency to search for information that confirms one’s preconceptions

• Fixation– the inability to see a problem from a new perspective; an

impediment to problem-solving• Ex. Mental set- people persist in using problem solving

strategies that have worked in the past

• Ex. Functional fixedness- tendency to perceive an item only in terms of its most common use


• Overconfidence– The tendency to be more confident than correct; over-

estimate the accuracy of one’s beliefs & judgments

• Framing– The way an issue is posed or presented can

significantly affect decisions & judgments– Ex. Success rate for surgery; Drop-off prices


• Unnecessary Constraints– Ex. Nine dot problem– Insight: helps overcome these constraints

when people suddenly discover the correct solution to a problem after struggling with it for a while


• Belief Bias– The tendency of ones’ pre-existing beliefs to distort

logical reasoning, sometime by making invalid conclusions seem valid and valid conclusions seems invalid

• Belief Perseverance– Clinging to one’s initial conceptions after the basis on

which they were formed has been discredited• Ex. Capital punishment research; firefighter study

Decision Making

• Decision making: involves evaluating alternatives and making choices among them

• Theory of Bounded Rationality: asserts that people tend to use simple strategies in decision making that focus on only a few facets of available options and often result in “irrational” decisions that are less than optimal

Decision Making

• Risky decision making: involves making choices under conditions of uncertainty

• Conjunction fallacy: occurs when people estimate that the odds of two uncertain events happening together are greater than the odds of either event happening alone

Decision Making

• Representative Heuristic– Judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well

they represent or match a prototype; may cause to ignore other relevant information

– Ex. The Stranger: professor or truck driver

• Availability Heuristic– Estimating likelihood of things based upon the

availability in our memory or that quickly come to mind so we deem them common

Language

The most tangible or hard evidence of our thinking power is language

• Language– Our spoken, written, or signed words and the rules we

use combine them to communicate meaning– Lot of research completed by Chomsky

Language

• Phonemes- the smallest speech units in a language that can be distinguished perceptually

• Morphemes & Semantics:– Morphemes: the smallest units of meaning in a

language– Semantics: area of language concerned with

understanding the meaning of words and word combinations

• Syntax- a system of rules that specify how words can be arranged into sentences

Language Development

• This development is gradual and moves from simple to complex; however by 4 months infants can read lips and discriminate speech sounds– they prefer to look at faces in which the sounds match

• First stage: Babbling Stage– At 3-4 mths infants spontaneously utter various

sounds that are at first unrelated to household language


• Over time infants begin to lose their ability to discriminate sound they never hear…

-which is why it is easier to learn a second language at a young age, because we lose the ability to discriminate the unique sounds not used in our native language but in the language of others’

• One-word Stage:– At 1-2 years, a child begins to speak mostly in single

words– Usually only contain one syllable like ma or da but

gradually conforms to family language


• Fast mapping: process by which children map a word onto an underlying concept after only one exposure

• Overextensions: when a child incorrectly uses a word to describe a wider set of objects or actions than it is meant

• Underextensions: when a child incorrectly uses a word to describe a narrower set of objects or actions than it is meant to


• Two-Word Stage:– Begins about 2 years and is when children speak in

mainly 2-word phrase– Stage also known for telegraphic speech: speaking like

a telegram “ go car” and using mostly nouns and verbs– Overrgeneralizations: when grammatical rules are

incorrectly generalized to irregular cases where they do not apply

– Use the chart on page 316 to help you remember the stages!


• Bilingualism– Acquisition of two languages that use different

speech sounds, vocabulary, and grammatical rules

With a Partner…

• Analyze the different theories as to how language develops….– Skinner (behaviorists)– Chomsky (Nativist)

• LAD: innate mechanism or process that facilitates the learning of language

– Cognitive neuorscientists (interactionists)

Impact of Language

• Linguistic Determinism/Relativity– Whorf’s hypothesis that language determines

the way that we think• English have a lot of vocabulary words that focus

on the self; Japanese have more about societal emotional terms in comparison to the West

• Do we refer to females as “girls” or “woman”• Yet there is plenty of thinking that happens without

language, aka….mental pictures, spatial thinking, visualization, etc…..

Chapter 8

Practice Test

1. The 2-year-old child who refers to every four-legged animal as “doggie” is making

which of the following errors?

• a)underextension• b)overextension• c)overregularization• d)underregularization

2. Research suggests that bilingualism has a negative effect on

• a) language development• b) cognitive development• c) metalinguistic awareness• d) none of the above

3. Based on the work with Kanzi, which statement best summarizes the current

status of the research on whether chimps can learn languages?

• a) Chimps can acquire the use of symbols but cannot combine them into sentences or learn rules of language.

• b) Chimps are nearly as well suited for learning and using language as humans.

• c) Chimps are incapable even of learning the symbols of a language.

• d) Chimps can learn some basic language skills, but the linguistic capacities of humans are far superior

4. Chomsky proposed that children learn language swiftly:

• a) because they possess an innate language acquisition device.

• b) through imitation, reinforcement, and shaping.• c) as the quality of their thought improves with

age.• d) because they need to in order to get their

increasingly complex needs met.

5. The linguistic relativity hypothesis is the

notion that:• a) one’s language determines the nature of ones

thought.• b) one’s thought determines the nature of ones

language. • c) language and thought are separate and

independent processes.• d) language and thought interact, with each

influencing the other.

6. The nine-dot problem is:

• a) often solved suddenly with a burst of insight• b) difficult because people assume constraints

that are not part of the problem• c) solved through fast mapping• d) both a and b

7. Problems that require a common object to be used in an unusual way may be difficult to solve

because of:

• a) mental set• b) irrelevant information• c) unnecessary constraints• d) functional fixedness

8. A heuristic is:

• a) a flash of insight• b) a guiding principle or “rule of thumb” used in

problem solving or decision making• c) a methodical procedure for trying all possible

solutions to a problem • d) a way of making a compensatory decision

9. Which of the following is not a heuristic used for solving problems?

• a) working backward• b) fast mapping• c) forming subgoals• d) searching for analogies

10. According to Nisbett, Eastern cultures tend to favor a(n) _____ cognitive style, whereas Western cultures tend to display a(n) _____ cognitive style

• a) analytic; holistic• b) holistic; analytic• c) heuristic; algorithmic• d) algorithmic; heuristic

11. The theory of bounded rationality was originally developed by:

• a) Herbert Simon• b) Noam Chomsky• c) Steven Pinker• d) Gerd Gigerenzer

12. When you estimate the probability of an event by judging the ease with which relevant instances

come to mind, you are relying on :

• a) an additive decision-making model• b) the representativeness heuristic• c) the availability heuristic• D) a non-compensatory model

13. The belief that the probability of heads is higher after a long string of tails:

• a) is rational and accurate• b) is an example of the “gambler’s fallacy”• c) reflects the influence of the

representativeness heuristic• d) includes both b and c

14. The tendency to overestimate the probability of events that get heavy media coverage reflects the

operation of:

• a) framing effects• b) the representativeness heuristic• c) the availability heuristic• d) mental set

15. If someone says “Only a congenial pinhead would make that choice,”

this use of language would represent:

• a) confirmation• b) syntactic slanting• c) anticipatory name calling• d) telegraphic speech

MEMORY

WHAT’S IN THIS CHAPTER?• (Objectives for this unit)• Essential Questions to be asked:• How do we remember things?• Why do we forget things?• Where do we store memories?• Are there different types of memories?• Are there memories that last longer than others?

Why?• Can we have false memories?• Can our imagination play tricks on us?• How can we improve our memory?

Overview

Memory Memory

persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information

Flashbulb Memory a clear memory of an emotionally significant

moment or event Based in long-term memory Ex. JFK assassination; 9/11 attack

Memory Memory as Information Processing

similar to a computer

write to file: putting info in (encoding) save to computer/jump/external: save

file as: (storage) read from computer/jump/external :

retrieval: (open file)

ENCODING the processing of information into the memory

system or getting information into memory• Typing on a computer keyboard the information

you need to keep.• Memory code: created by the brain; emphasis

on looks, sounds, or meaning

Encoding

STORAGE

• Storage:– The retention of coded information over time

• Saving information: where?

• Do I need it temporarily: over a few minutes, days, months?

• Do I need it for years or the rest of my life?

• Where do I put the information when I save it?

RETRIEVAL

• Retrieval:– The process of getting information out of

memory storage

• When I save information, how do I get it back out when I need it?

• Do I remember where I put it?

• What if it is large pieces of information or just a single word?

Getting Information In

Encoding

Effortful Automatic

Automatic processing allows us to process two or more complex coding tasks simultaneously & is done without conscious awareness

Encoding Effortful Processing

requires attention conscious effort

Spacing and serial position effect Elaboration

Linking a stimulus to other information at the time of the encoding Ex. Linking classically conditioned fears to your own fear of

spiders Rehearsal

repetition of information to maintain it in consciousness to encode it for storage

Encoding

Automatic Processing unconscious encoding of incidental information

Space: aware of size of room or distance from something Time: how much time has passed; how long something

occurred Frequency: how often something happens

well-learned information word meanings

YET, we can learn automatic processing reading backwards

Storage: Memory System3 Components of Memory

Short-term memory is also known as working memory

Different Types of Memory

Sensory memory• Sensory Register• acts as a buffer for stimuli received through the

senses. I see everything in the room, but I don’t need to pay attention to everything in the room.

• exists for each sensory channel:• iconic memory for visual stimuli, • echoic memory for auditory stimuli • haptic memory for touch. • Info only passes from sensory memory to

short-term memory if it catches our attention.• the rest is filtered out which is of no interest at a

given time.

Sensory Memory Store

• Capacity - large– holds many items at

once• Duration - very brief

– .3 sec for visual info– .2 sec for auditory info

• Function - holds info long enough for basic physical characteristics

• Receiving room of the memory system

Sensory Input Sensory Sensory

MemoryMemory

Sperling’s Experiment1960

• Presented matrix of letters for 1/20 seconds

• Report as many letters as possible

• Subjects recall only half of the letters

• Was this because subjects didn’t have enough time to view entire matrix? No

• How did Sperling know this?

Sperling’s Experiment

• Sperling showed people can see and recall ALL the letters momentarily

• Sounded low, medium or high tone immediately after matrix disappeared

– tone signaled 1 row to report

– recall was almost perfect

High

Medium

Low

Sperling’s Iconic Memory Experiment

ICONIC MEMORY

• Photographic memory

• Eyes register an exact representation of a scene

• Can recall any part of it but only for a few tenths of a second

• You remember an entire dream; but it fades as you begin to tell it.

Sensory Memory Store

• forms automatically, doesn’t need your attention or interpretation

• Only need to attend to the elements we want to use and work with in short-term memory

Sensory

InputSensory Sensory MemoryMemory

Short-term MemoryWorking Memory Store

(start with S’s memory vignette)

• Function - conscious processing• Needs your attention!

– where information is actively worked on• Capacity - limited (holds 7 +/- 2 items) • Duration - brief storage (about 10-20 seconds)

Working orWorking orShort-termShort-term

MemoryMemory

Sensory

Input

Sensory Memory

Attention

Short-term memory Working Memory Capacity: refers to one’s ability

to hold and manipulate information in conscious attention

briefly stored information• scratch-pad for temporary recall

• Ex: In order to understand this sentence, you need to hold in your mind the beginning of the sentence as you read the rest.

• Short-term memory decays rapidly!!

• Small: limited capacity 7-10 items• Keeps essential info like a change purse• Different sized pieces of info.• Chunking of information increases short-term

memory capacity and is the organization of info into meaningful units

• a hyphenated phone number is easier to remember than a single long number.

• formation of a chunk: known as closure. • Diff. size chunks• Interference: can cause disturbance in S-T-M

retention. • accounts for desire to complete tasks held in short-

term memory as soon as possible.

Change purse theory (Miller 1976)

SCHOOL

Chunking

• Grouping small bits of information into larger units of information– expands working memory load

• Which is easier to remember?– 4 8 3 7 9 2 5 1 6

– 483 792 516

Working Memory Store

• What happens if you need to keep information in working memory longer than 20 seconds?

• To demonstrate, memorize the following phone number (presented one digit at a time)...

8 361975


• What is the number? 857-9163The number lasted in your working memory longer than 30 secondsSo, how were you able to remember the number?

Rehearsal

Working orWorking orShort-termShort-term

MemoryMemory

Sensory

Input

Sensory Memory

Attention

• Mental or verbal repetition of information: • aka• REPETITION• ROTE REHEARSAL

Allows information to remain in working memory longer than the usual 10-20 seconds

Maintenance rehearsal

Maintenance Rehearsal

• What happens if you can’t use maintenance rehearsal?

• Memory decays quickly

• To demonstrate, again memorize a phone number (presented one digit at a time)

– BUT, have to count backwards from 1,000 by twos (i.e., 1000, 998, 996 … etc.)

6 490582However, if you’ve already learned the information and you use rehearsal, it solidifies retention and is called OVERLEARNING


What is the number?628-5094

Without rehearsal, memory fades

Short-Term Memory Test

• http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/stm0.html

http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/stm0.html

http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/stm0.html

Peterson’s STM Task

• Test of memory for 3-letter nonsense syllables

• Participants count backwards for a few seconds, then recall

• Without rehearsal, memory fades

STORAGE SHORT TERMsummary

• Encoding from sensory starts as these 3 before going into STM?

• How do we make room for other info and still keep needed info in STM?

Long Term Memory Bank

Long-term memory

• intended for storage of information over a long time; basically unlimited capacity

• Information from the working memory is transferred to it after a few seconds. Unlike in working memory, there is little decay.

Getting Information In to long-term memory!Encoding

Externalevents

Sensorymemory

Short-termmemory

Long-termmemory

Sensory inputAttention to importantor novel information

Encoding

Encoding

Retrieving

Enriching Encoding

Visual Encoding (Structural) encoding of picture images

Acoustic Encoding (Phonemic) encoding of sound especially sound of words

Semantic Encoding encoding of meaning including meaning of words

Enriching Encoding

Enriching Encoding

• Self-referent encoding: involves deciding how or whether information is personally relevant

• Motivation to Remember: if this is high at the time of encoding it enhances later recall

Encoding Ebbinghaus used nonsense

syllables TUV ZOF GEK WAV the more times practiced on Day 1, the

fewer repetitions to relearn on Day 2

Spacing Effect distributed practice yields better long-

term retention than massed practice

SERIAL POSITION EFFECT

Tendency to recall best the first or last items in a list

• TWO TYPES• PRIMACY EFFECT: better recall of first few items (right

after learning)

• RECENCY EFFECT: better recall of last few items (later after learning)

Encoding: Serial Position Effect

12

Percentage of words

recalled

0

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

Position of word in list

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

Serial Position Effect -tendency to recall first & the last items in a list

Enriching Encoding

Imagery mental pictures a powerful aid to effortful processing,

especially when combined with semantic encoding

Mnemonics aka. Mnemonic device

memory aids especially those techniques that use vivid

imagery and organizational devices

Enriching Encoding• Acrostics: phrases (for poems) in which the first letter of

each word (or line) function as a cue to help you recall • Acronym: a word formed out of the first letters of a

series of words• Rhymes• Link Method: involves forming a mental image of items

to be remembered in a way that links them together• Method of Loci: taking an imaginary walk along a

familiar path where images of items to be remembered are associated with certain locations

Memory Aids“Peg Words”

1. Nun

2. Shoe

3. Tree

4. Door

5. Beehive

6. Sick

7. Heaven

8. Gate

9. Wine

10. Lion’s Den

Enriching Encoding

Chunking organizing items into familiar, manageable

units like horizontal organization--1776149218121941

often occurs automatically use of acronyms

HOMES--Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, Superior ARITHMETIC--A Rat In Tom’s House Might Eat

Tom’s Ice Cream

Enriching Encoding We also use Hierarchies to encode

complex information broken down into broad concepts and further subdivided into categories and subcategories

Encoding(automatic or effortful)

Imagery(visualEncoding)

Meaning(semanticEncoding)

Organization

Chunks Hierarchies

Non-declarative

Explicit Implicit

EpisodicMem ory

Sem anticMem ory

E xp lic it M em ory

P roceduralMem ory

C lassicalConditioning

Prim ing

Im p lic it M em ory

Long-term M em ory

Long-term Memory Systems

Explicit Memory

Explicit Memory: memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and “declare.” also called declarative memory

- the hippocampus plays a critical role in this type of memory

Subtypes of Explicit Memory

Episod ic M em ory Sem antic M em ory

Explic it M em ory

2 Types of Long-Term Explicit memory:

• Episodic memory of events and experiences from this memory we can reconstruct the actual events that took place at a given point in our lives.

• Semantic memory: record of facts, concepts and skills that we have acquired.

• is derived from episodic memory: we can learn new facts or concepts from our experiences.

Explicit Memory

• describe the picture below using the two describe the picture below using the two sub-types:sub-types: semantic and episodic semantic and episodic

Episodic Memory

• Memory tied to your own personal experiencespersonal experiences

• Examples:– what did you have for dinner?– do you like to eat caramel apples?

• Why are these explicit memories? • Because you can actively declare your answers to

these questions

Semantic Memory• Memory not tied to personal events• General facts and definitions about the world• Examples:

– who was George Washington?– what is a cloud?– what is the climate at the north pole?

• These are explicit memories because you can describe what you know about them.

• Unlike episodic memories, your knowledge does NOT include your personal experience– i.e., You may never have been to the north pole but do know

about it.

Implicit Memory

C lassica lC ond ition ing

Procedura lM em ory

Prim ing

Im p lic it M em ory

Implicit

• Also known as non-declarative; retention

independent of conscious recollection aka. procedural memory

• Linked to the cerebellum

• Three subtypes

• Classical/operant

• Procedural

• Priming

Implicit Memory

• Influences your thoughts or behavior, but does not enter consciousness

Classical Conditioning

• Studied earlier• Ch. 6 learning• Implicit

because it is automatically retrieved

Implicit/Procedural Memory

• Memory that enables you to perform specific learned skills or habitual responses

• Examples:– Riding a bike– How to speak grammatically– Tying your shoe laces

• Why are these procedural memories implicit?– Can’t readily describe their contents

• try describing how to tie your shoes

– They are automatically retrieved when appropriate

Priming

• Priming is influence of one memory on another

• priming is implicit because it does not depend on awareness and is automatic

• Here is a demonstration

Priming Demonstration

• Unscramble the following words:

• O R S E

• L T E P A

• K T A L S

• TSME

• L O B S O M S

• ELAF

• ROSE

• PETAL

• STALK

• STEM

• BLOSSOM

Priming Demonstration

• ELAF = ?

• Why not respond FLEA?

• Because flower parts were primed (flower power)

Priming

• Activation of one or more existing memories by a stimulus

• Activation not a conscious decision• BUT, can effect subsequent thoughts and

actions

Two Types of Priming

C onceptua l Perceptua l

Prim ing

Conceptual Priming

• The semantic meaning of priming stimulus influences your encoding or retrieval

• Thought to involve activation of concepts stored in semantic memory

• Example: Flower power priming demonstration• Does not depend on sense modality: pictures

can conceptually prime sounds AS THE NEXT SLIDE SHOWS

Priming across modalities

• Look at the picture .

• When I say a word, write it down.

When I say a word, write it down

Perceptual Priming

• Priming enhances ability to identify a test stimulus based on its physical features

• Making meaning out of a given stimulus

Perceptual Priming

• Can you identify the fragmented stimulus to the right?

Perceptual Priming

• What if you were shown the following slide earlier in the lecture?

Perceptual Priming

• Can you identify the fragmented stimulus to the right?

Perceptual Priming

Prospective Vs Retrospective Memory

• Prospective memory:– Involves remembering to perform actions in

the future

• Retroactive memory:– Involves remembering events from the past or

previously learned information

Long-term Memory Processes

• There are three main activities related to long-term memory:

• Storage: the retention of encoded information over time

• Retrieval: process of getting information out of memory

• Deletion: forgetting information

STORAGE

Keeping information in!

Long-Term Memory Store

• Once information passes from sensory to working memory, it can be encoded into long-term memory

Long-term Long-term memorymemory

Working orShort-term

Memory

Sensory

Input

Sensory Memory

Attention Encoding

Retrieval


Long-Term Memory Store

• EncodingEncoding – Elaborate constructive rehearsal: passing info from short term to long-term memory store

• RetrievalRetrieval - controls flow of information from long-term to short term memory store

Long-term Long-term memorymemory

Working orShort-term

Memory

Sensory

Input

Sensory Memory

Attention Encoding

Retrieval


Long-Term MemoryPhysical Storage

Explicit Memory hippocampus--neural center in

limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage

Explicit Memories Hippocampus

Implicit Memory retention independent of conscious

recollection also called procedural memory Brain stem and cerebellum

Amygdala: emotional memoriesDamage to amygdala would

mean you couldn’t learn and remember fear

Storage: Long-Term Memory How does storage work?

Karl Lashley (1950) rats learn maze Lesioned their cortex Cut sections of their brain out Re-test memory of maze Rats could still run portions of the maze Memory not located in just one spot or area of brain

Synaptic changes Long-term Potentiation

increase in synapse’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation; more learning, more synaptic growth

Strong emotions make for stronger memories some stress hormones boost learning and retention

Evidence for Separate Implicit/Explicit Systems

• Neurophysiological evidence• Patient H.M.

– life-threatening seizures originating in temporal lobe– surgically removed portions of temporal lobe – Temporal lobe includes:

• - hippocampus

– amygdala

Patient H.M.

• Surgery was effective in reducing seizures• BUT, had other side effects• Can remember explicit memories acquired before the surgery

– e.g., old addresses, normal vocabulary • Cannot form NEW explicit memories

– e.g., remembering the name of someone he met 30 minutes prior

– cannot name new world leaders or performers– can recognize a picture of himself from before his surgery

but not from after and doesn’t recognize himself in a mirror

Patient H.M.

• H.M. is almost normal on procedural or implicit memory tasks including priming, classical conditioning, and learning motor skills

• This shows that explicit memory depends upon the This shows that explicit memory depends upon the temporal lobes and implicit does nottemporal lobes and implicit does not

• Consolidation: hypothetical process involving the gradual conversion of information into durable memory codes stored in long-term memory– Memories are consolidated in the hippocampal region and

then stored in diverse areas of the cortex

Hippocampal Damage

• Deficits in forming new explicit memories

Storing memories in the brain

• Ralph Gerard 1953• Trained hamsters to turn right or left to get food• Lowered their body temperature until brain’s

electrical activity ceased• Hamsters revived, brains became active again• Would they remember which way to turn?• Yes.• Long term memories survived the electrical

blackout.

Storage to long-termElaboration

• Focus on the meaning of information to encode it into LTM– don’t simply repeat items over and over– tie item to other info in memorytie item to other info in memory– called elaborate constructive rehearsal

Long term storageWhich Level is More Effective?

• Elaboration leads to better recall than shallow processing

Typ

e of

P

roce

ssin

g

Intermediate-Acoustic

Deep

Shallow - Visual

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 1000Percent of words recalled

Conceptual HierarchiesRelated items form categories

Remember list better if presented in categoriespoorer recall if presented randomly

Mammals

Dogs Cats

German Shepherds

ScottishTerriers

Siamese Calico

Types of Mental Associations

• Association by contiguity

– concepts are associated because they occur together in a person’s previous experience

• Association by similarity– concepts with shared properties are

associated

Red

Fire

House

CherryAppleRose

Pear

Ambulance

Fire Engine

TruckBusCar

FlowerViolet

Hot

Pot

Stove

Pan

Pie

Semantic Network

• Attempt to depict structure of memory as concepts linked by associations

Semantic Network

• Links between concepts– common properties provide basis for mental link

• Shorter path between two concepts = stronger association in memory

• Activation of a concept starts decremental spread of activity to nearby concepts

• Also known as the spreading-activation model

Semantic Network

prom

April

Parallel Distributed Processing

• PDP system: consists of a large network of interconnected computing units, or nodes, that operate much like neurons

• PDP models assert that specific memories correspond to particular patterns of activation in these networks

• Information lies in the strengths of the connections

Are Memories Organized?Let’s put it to the test!

• Demonstration:– recite the days of the week– recite the days of the week in alphabetical order– demonstrates that long-term memory is organized

• not just a random jumble of information

• How are memories organized?

Getting Information Out!

»Retrieval

Retrieval• Types of information retrieval:• Recall in recall, the information is reproduced

from memory & needs the fewest retrieval cues– Serial Recall: perfect sequential order– Random Recall: all info but not in order

• Recognition presentation of the information provides the knowledge that the information has been seen before.

• lesser complexity of memory, as information is provided as a cue. – M.C. test

Retrieval

Relearning (savings) memory measure that assesses the

amount of time saved when learning material a second time

Priming activation, often unconsciously, of

particular associations in memory brings info to conscious when prompted

Context-Dependent Memory

• Improved ability to remember if tested in the same environment as the initial learning environment– better recall if tested in classroom where you initially

learned info than if moved to a new classroom– if learning room smells of chocolate or mothballs,

people will recall more info if tested in room with the same smell compared to different smell or no smell at all

Context-Dependent Effects• Compare words learned underwater vs on land• Words heard underwater are best recalled underwater• Words heard on land are best recalled on land

Retrieval Cues

0

10

20

30

40

Water/land

Land/water

Water/water

Different contexts for hearing and recall

Same contexts for hearing and recall

Land/land

Percentage ofwords recalled

Encoding Specificity Principle:The value of a retrieval cue depends on how well it corresponds to the memory code

Context Dependent Effects

• Time of day is also important

9

6

12

3

Learn at 3 pm Perform better at 3 pm

9

6

12

3 9

6

12

3

Than 9 pm

Retrieval Cues

State-dependent Memory what is learned in one state (while one is

high, drunk, or depressed) can more easily be remembered when in same state

• Recall improved if internal physiological or emotional state is the same during testing and initial encoding

State-Dependent Memory

• Context vs State dependent– Context-dependent - external, environmental

factors

– State-dependent - internal, physiological factors

State-Dependent Effects

Mood-Congruent Memory-Mood or emotions also a factor

tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current mood

memory, emotions, or moods serve as retrieval cues

– Bipolar depressives • information learned in manic state, recall more

if testing done during manic state• information learned in depressed state, recall

more if testing done during depressed state

State Dependent Effects

If drink during learning

May recall better with drink

Than without

But not as well as sober all the way!

Context Dependent State

Deja Vu (French)--already seen cues from the current situation may

subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier similar experience

The eerie feeling that "I've experienced this before."

Deletionalso calledForgetting

Forgetting Theories

• Encoding failure• Role of time• Trace decay• Isolated facts• Negative information• Completed tasks• Interference theories• Retrieval failure• Motivated forgetting• False memories

Forgetting

Forgetting can occur at any memory stage

As we process information, we filter, alter, or lose much of it

Forgetting as Encoding Failure

• Information never encoded into LTM

X

Encoding Failure Demonstrations

• What letters accompany the number 5 on your telephone?

• Where is the number 0 on your calculator?

• Lincoln penny

• According to this theory, objects seen frequently, but information is never encoded into LTM

Forgetting as Retrieval Failure

• Not all forgetting is due to encoding failures• Sometimes information IS encoded into LTM, but we can’t retrieve it• Don’t know path to retrieve• Don’t access information regularly

Retrieval failure

Forgetting can result from failure to retrieve information from long-term memory

Externalevents

Attention

Encoding

Encoding

Retrieval failureleads to forgetting

Retrieval

Sensorymemory

Short-termmemory

Long-termmemory

Types of Retrieval Failures

• Encoding specificity principle: the value of the retrieval cue depends on how well it corresponds to the memory code

• Transfer-appropriate processing: occurs when the initial processing of information is similar to the type of processing required by the subsequent measure of retention

Role of Time : Decay Theory• Memories fade away or decay

gradually if unused• Ebbinghaus forgetting curve over 30

days-- initially rapid, then levels off with time

• Time plays critical role • Ability to retrieve info declines with

time after original encoding• Problem: Many things change with

time. Something else may change and actually cause forgetting: Interference

Trace Decay Theory

• “use it or lose it”

Isolated Facts

• Most common form of forgetting

• Grocery lists

• Locker combinations

• Dr. appointments

• Not tied to significant/emotional material

• Tid-bit information

• Witness stand

Negative information

• Information contrary to our internal belief structure

• Nonsense information “Jabberwocky”

• Conflicting information

BLUE

GREEN

PINK

The Stroop Effect

• http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/words.html

http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/words.html

http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/words.html

Completed Tasks

• The “Zeigarnik effect”

• Completed tasks more likely to be forgotten than incomplete tasks

• Completing task takes the information off of the front burner

• Loses meaning and attention

• Completed tasks; waiter in restaurant,

Math problems

Interference Theories

• “Memories interfering with memories”

• Forgetting NOT caused by mere passage of time

• Caused by one memory competing with or replacing another memory

• Two types of interference

Two Types of Interference

R etroac tiveIn te rfe ren ce

P roac tiveIn te rfe ren ce

Typ es o f in te rfe ren ce

Retroactive Interference

• When a NEW memory interferes with remembering OLD information

• Example: When new phone number interferes with ability to remember old phone number


• Example: Learning a new language interferes with ability to remember old language

F-

Proactive Interference

• Opposite of retroactive interference

• When an OLD memory interferes with remembering NEW information

• Example: Memories of where you parked your car on campus the past week interferes with ability find car today

Proactive Interference

• Example: Previously learned language interferes with ability to remember newly learned language

F-

Review of Interference Theory

• Retroactive Interference– Learn A Learn B Recall A, B

interferes

• Proactive Interference– Learn A Learn B Recall B, A interferes

• Interference reflects competition between responses.

Forgetting


Without interferingevents, recall isbetter

After sleep

After remaining awake

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8Hours elapsed after learning syllables

90%

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

Percentageof syllables

recalled

Tip of the Tongue Phenomenon• Serial scanning• Wrong prompt….• Info similar found but not right info needed• Scanning information near or around needed

information• Will continue to scan for info until found

Motivated Forgetting people unknowingly revise memories

Repression defense mechanism that banishes

from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories

Unable to store memories

• Amnesia--the loss of memory• Retrograde amnesia: loss of memories for events that

occurred prior to the onset of amnesia• Anterograde amnesia: loss of memories for events that

occur after the onset of amnesia

• Physiological: brain damage; unable to form new memories

1. Oliver Sacks 1985: patient named Jimmy

page Myers 358-359 Describe Jimmy’s case

2. How does amnesia effect explicit and implicit memory?

Hippocampus Damage

• Left damage: can’t remember verbal info

• Right damage: can’t remember visual designs and locations

• Location of oldest memories

• Sights, sounds, smells, feels

MEMORYCONSTRUCTION

• Reality monitoring: process of deciding whether memories are based on external sources (one’s perceptions of actual events) or internal sources (one’s thoughts and imagination)

• Source monitoring: making attributions about the origins of memories

Source Amnesia attributing to the wrong source an event that we

experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined (misattribution)

– Source-monitoring error: occurs when a memory derived from one source is misattributed to another source

– Destination memory: involves recalling to whom one has told what

Memory Construction We filter information and fill in missing

pieces

Misinformation Effect incorporating misleading information into

one's memory of an event; sometimes happens with the questions asked by police

Memory Construction• Recall not an exact replica of original events• Recall a construction built and rebuilt from

various sources• Often fit memories into existing beliefs • Eyewitnesses usually see something complex

just once then have to remember it

Loftus Experiment

• Subjects shown video of an accident between two cars

• Some subjects asked: How fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other?

• Others asked: How fast were the cars going when they hit each other?

Loftus’s Results

• Speed estimates depended on how the question was phrased

• Subjects memory for broken glass also depended on the phrasing of the speed question.– But this was a false

memory: there was no broken glass

Memory Construction

Restating the Context of an Event

False Memory Syndrome condition in which a person’s identity and

relationships center around a false but strongly believed memory of traumatic experience

sometimes induced by well-meaning therapists

• A false memory is a memory which is a distortion of an actual experience, or a confabulation of an imagined one.

• confusing or mixing fragments of memory events, some may have happened at different times but are remembered as occurring together.

• can involve an error in source memory. • treating dreams as if they were playbacks of real

experiences. • Can be the result of the prodding, leading, and

suggestions of therapists and counselors.

• 1986 Nadean Cool, a nurse's aide in Wisconsin, sought therapy from a psychiatrist to help her cope with her reaction to a traumatic event experienced by her daughter.

• During therapy, the psychiatrist used hypnosis and other suggestive techniques to dig out buried memories of abuse that Cool had allegedly experienced.

• Cool became convinced that she had repressed memories of having been in a satanic cult, of eating babies, of being raped, of having sex with animals and of being forced to watch the murder of her eight-year-old friend. She came to believe that she had more than 120 personalities-children, adults, angels and even a duck.

• -all because Cool was told she had experienced severe childhood sexual and physical abuse.

• The psychiatrist also performed exorcisms on her, one of which lasted for five hours and included the sprinkling of holy water and screams for Satan to leave Cool's body.

• Cool finally realized that false memories had been planted, she sued the psychiatrist for malpractice. In March 1997 after five weeks of trial, her case was settled out of court for $2.4 million.

Schema Theories• Schema - mental representation of an object, scene or

event– example: schema of a countryside may include green grass,

hills, farms, a barn, cows, etc.

• Scripts - type of schema• I could say “I was in class the other day”

– You would have a mental organization of a classroom script: come into class, sit down, talk to friends, bell rings, instructor begins to speak, take notes, bell rings again, leave class, etc.

• Schemas & scripts provide framework for new information

What’s in “Store” for Memory in the Future

• More of human memory will move online. • Rely more on digital storehouses full of video

and audio files of our lives. • It'll happen because digital storage is cheap – • we also realize how unreliable human memory

can be. • storehouses will be portable, like today's music

for joggers, will provide you with help in remembering people and places.

• Memory Extraction: criminal cases, eye witness, Government use

• Memory Implants: sensual experiences, travel experiences, languages, top secret information

• Virtual memories: Rachel is given a first-person memory of a childhood she never had. Can create conflicts between real and virtual childhood if real is not deleted. Interference will occur

• Quasi-memories: one person's experiential memories are recorded and then implanted into a different person's head. Living an autobiography; Zorro, Jesus

• Body Switching: our memories in another body/ vise versa

• Virtual Identity: A facsimile of a human personality could be preserved within a computer program and purchased.

Chapter 7

Practice Test

1. Getting information into memory is called _______; getting information out of memory is called________.

A. Storage; retrieval

B. Encoding; storage

C. Encoding; retrieval

D. Storage; encoding

2. The word big is flashed on a screen. A mental picture of the word big represents a _________ code; the definition “large in size” represents a _________ code; “sounds like a pig” represents a __________ code.

A. Structural; phonemic; semantic

B. Phonemic; semantic; structural

C. Structural; semantic; phonemic

D. Phonemic; structural; semantic

3. Miles is listening as his mother rattles through a list of 15 or so things that he needs to remember to pack for an upcoming trip. According to George Miller, if Miles doesn’t write the items down as he hears them, he will probably remember:

A. Fewer than 5 items from the list

B. About 10 to 12 items from the list

C. All the items from the list

D. 5 to 9 items from the list

4. Which statement best represents current evidence on the durability of long-term storage?

A. All forgetting involves breakdowns in retrieval

B. LTM is like a barrel of marbles in which none of the marbles ever leak out

C. There is no convincing evidence that all one’s memories are stored away permanently

D. All long-term memories gradually decay at a constant rate

5. 5. An organized cluster of knowledge about a

particular object or event is called a:

A. Semantic network

B. Conceptual hierarchy

C. Schema

D. Retrieval cure

6. The tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon:

A. Is a temporary inability to remember something you know, accompanied by a feeling that it’s just out of reach

B. Is clearly due to a failure in retrieval

C. Reflects a permanent loss of information from LTM

D. Is both A and B

7. Roberto is telling Rachel about some juicy gossip when she stops him and informs him that she is the one who passed this gossip onto him about a week ago. In this example, Roberto has:

A. Been fooled by the misinformation effect

B. Made a reality-monitoring error

C. Made a source-monitoring error

D. Made a destination memory error

8. In decay theory is correct:

A. Information can never be permanently lost from long-term memory

B. Forgetting is simply a case of retrieval failure

C. The principal cause of forgetting should be the passage of time

D. All of the above

9. Bulldog McRae was recently traded to a new football team. He is struggling to remember the plays for his new team because he keeps mixing them up with the plays from his previous team. Bulldog’s problem illustrates the operation of:

A. Retroactive interference

B. Proactive interference

C. Transfer-inappropriate processing

D. Parallel distributed processing

10. Research suggests that the consolidation of memories depends of the activity in the:

A. Cerebellum

B. Prefrontal lobe

C. Medial temporal lobe

D. Corpus callosum

11. Your memory of how to ride a bicycle is contained in your______________ memory.

A. Declarative

B. Nondeclarative (procedural)

C. Structural

D. Episodic

12. Your knowledge that birds fly, that the sun rises in the east, and that 2+2=4

is contained in your _____ memory.

A. Structural

B. Procedural

C. Episodic

D. semantic

13. Dorothy memorized her shopping list. When she got to the store, however, she found she had forgotten many of the items from the middle of the

list. This is an example of:

A. Inappropriate encoding

B. Retrograde amnesia

C. Proactive interference

D. the serial-position effect

14. Overlearning:

A. Refers to continued rehearsal of material after the point of apparent mastery

B. Promotes improved recall

C. Should not be done, since it leads to increased interference

D. Does both a and b

15. The tendency to mold one’s interpretation of the past to fit how events actually turned out is

called:

A. The overconfidence effect

B. Selective amnesia

C. Retroactive interference

D. The hindsight bias

1. The tendency for prior learning to inhibit recall of later learning is called

a. encoding failure.

b. repression.

c. retroactive interference.

d. proactive interference.

2. Things that are heard are held as a brief __________ in the sensory register.

a. echo.

b. icon.

c. image.

d. tactile.

Homework Questions

3. Twenty years after graduating, a subject is able to correctly identify photographs of students she attended high school with from a larger group of strangers. To do so she has useda. recall.b. recognition.c. eidetic imagery.d. reminiscence. 4. Memories outside of conscious awareness are calleda. proactive memories.b. reactive memories.c. explicit memories.d. implicit memories.

5. The image that persists for about one-half second after being seen is a(n)a. sensation.b. echo.c. icon.d. illusion. 6. Cue-dependent (or context dependent) theories of memory suggest that you would do best on your chemistry test if you could be testeda. in the room where you studied.b. in a chemistry laboratory.c. with a large group of chemistry majors.d. with students who share your interests.

7. Memories of historical facts are to __________ memory, as memories of your breakfast this morning are to __________ memory.a. episodic; proceduralb. procedural; semanticc. semantic; episodicd. long-term; short-term

8. The fact that a bodily state that exists during learning can be a strong cue for later memory is known asa. eidetic imagery.b. integration.c. state-dependent learning.d. the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon.

9. Helen has a six-month "gap" in her memories of grade school. Her "gap" corresponds to the period immediately after her father's death. Helen's memory loss is most likely accounted for by

a. cue-dependent forgetting.

b. repression.

c. retroactive inhibition.

d. decay of memory traces

10. Memories of historical facts are to __________ memory, as memories of your breakfast this morning are to __________ memory.

a. episodic; procedural

b. procedural; semantic

c. semantic; episodic

d. long-term; short-term

15. If someone says “Only a congenial pinhead would make that choice,”

this use of language would represent:

• a) confirmation• b) syntactic slanting• c) anticipatory name calling• d) telegraphic speech

Intelligence

• What is it?

• How do we measure it?

• How did intelligence testing begin?

• How does it impact how we view those around us?

Intelligence Tests

• Intelligence tests– A method for assessing an individual’s mental aptitudes

and comparing them with those of others, using numerical scores

- Binet & Simon wanted to test mental age, which is the chronological age that most typically corresponds to a given level of performance; average 8 year-old has a mental age of 8.

- Only intended to identify school children who needed help NOT to measure intelligence and label children

- Tracking or grouping children according to their intellectual aptitude leads to decreased self-esteem & academic achievement

Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test

• Re-normed the test and derived what we know as the term IQ

• Intelligence Quotient (IQ)– Mental age/ chronological age x 100 = IQ• Intelligence tests no longer derive an IQ but a mental

ability score that compares someone’s performance on the test to the average performance of other the same age

• Ultimately test scores do not just test innate ability, but their education and the culture influences within the test

What is Intelligence?

• Intelligence: the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations

• General intelligence (g): a general intelligence factor that Spearman and others believed underlies special mental abilities and is measured by every task on an intelligence test

• Factor Analysis: a statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items (factors) on a test; used to identify different dimensions of performance that underlie one’s total score– Ex. Verbal and Nonverbal factors

What is Intelligence?

• Highly debated topic!!!• Several theories of intelligence have developed

over time

• Basically, intelligence is an man-made construct and thus intelligence is defined by how it is measured via the components on the test that is used

• EX. The importance of thinking and language fits in here!!

Theories of Intelligence

• Multiple Intelligences– Howard Gardner– Each intelligence is relatively independent of

the other– 7 types of intelligence

• Linguistic intelligence involves sensitivity to spoken and written language, the ability to learn languages, and the capacity to use language to accomplish certain goals. This intelligence includes the ability to effectively use language to express oneself rhetorically or poetically; and language as a means to remember information. Writers, poets, lawyers and speakers are among those that Howard Gardner sees as having high linguistic intelligence.

Multiple Intelligences

• Logical-mathematical intelligence consists of the capacity to analyze problems logically, carry out mathematical operations, and investigate issues scientifically. In Howard Gardner's words, it entails the ability to detect patterns, reason deductively and think logically. This intelligence is most often associated with scientific and mathematical thinking.

• Musical intelligence involves skill in the performance, composition, and appreciation of musical patterns. It encompasses the capacity to recognize and compose musical pitches, tones, and rhythms. According to Howard Gardner musical intelligence runs in an almost structural parallel to linguistic intelligence.

• Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence entails the potential of using one's whole body or parts of the body to solve problems. It is the ability to use mental abilities to coordinate bodily movements. Howard Gardner sees mental and physical activity as related.


• Spatial intelligence involves the potential to recognize and use the patterns of wide space and more confined areas.

• Interpersonal intelligence is concerned with the capacity to understand the intentions, motivations and desires of other people. It allows people to work effectively with others. Educators, salespeople, religious and political leaders and counsellors all need a well-developed interpersonal intelligence.

• Intrapersonal intelligence entails the capacity to understand oneself, to appreciate one's feelings, fears and motivations. In Howard Gardner's view it involves having an effective working model of ourselves, and to be able to use such information to regulate our lives.

• Sternberg agreed with Gardner..but stated only 3 intelligences: Analytical, Creative, & Practical


• Savant Syndrome– a condition in which a person otherwise

limited in mental ability has an exceptional specific skill, such as computation or drawing

– Ex. Rain Man

This whole concept suggests that intelligence is a diverse set of distinct abilities

Emotional Intelligence

• This was first called social intelligence or the know-how to comprehend and manage social situations well

• Emotional Intelligence– The ability to perceive, express, understand, and

regulate emotions– People are self-aware and not overwhelmed by

depression, anxiety, or anger– Delay gratification for long-term goals and are not

impulsive

Assessing Intelligence

• Aptitude Tests– A test designed to predict a person’s future performance;

aptitude

*ex. career assessment, SAT, ACT, GRE

• Achievement Tests– A test designed to assess what a person had learned;

current competence

* ex. school tests

• Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale– The WAIS is the most widely used intelligence test;

contains verbal and performance (nonverbal) subtest

Test Construction

• Standardization:

– Defining meaningful scores by comparison with the performance of a pretested “standardization group”

– These scores typically create a normal distribution that form a normal curve which is the symmetrical bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many physical and psychological attributes. Most scores fall near the average and fewer and fewer lie near the extremes; bell-shaped pattern

– Ex. Bell-shaped pattern is generally seen for intelligence

Normal Distribution

IQ Deviation Scores

• Deviation IQ scores:– Locate subjects precisely within the normal

distribution, using the standard deviation as the unit of measurement

– Devised by David Wechsler and used by most all subsequent tests

Test Construction• Reliability

– The extent to which a test yields consistent results, as assessed by the consistency of score on two halves of the test, on alternate forms of the test, or on retesting

• Test-retest: determining reliability by retesting people with the same test or merely a different form of the test

• Split-half test: split the test in half and determine if the scores agree

Most IQ test have exceptional reliability in the .90

Test Construction

• Validity– The extent to which a test measures or predicts what

it is supposed to.• Content validity- the extent to which a test samples the

behavior that is of interest (ex. Driver’s test- specific tasks)• Predictive validity- test predicts behavior; correlation btwn.

test scores the criterion• Criterion: behavior that a test is designed to predict

– Validity of IQ scores are good with academic work but debatable with intelligence in the broader sense

Mental Retardation

• Mental Retardation (intellectual disability ID)– A condition of limited mental ability, indicated by an

intelligence score below 70 and difficulty in adapting to the demands of life (conceptual, social, & practical)

– Varies from mild to profound– About 1% of people meet the criteria– More males than females– Chart Pg. 363

MILD

MODERATE

SEVERE

PROFOUND

Genetic & Environmental Influences on Intelligence

• p. 366-370– Flynn Effect

– Reaction Range

• P. 374-376

Cultural Differences in Intelligence

• P. 371-374

Chapter 9

Practice Test

1. Which of the following does not belong with the others?

A. Aptitude tests

B. Personality tests

C. Intelligence tests

D. Achievement tests

2. If you score at the 75th percentile on a standardized test, it means that:

A. 75% of those who took the test scored better than you did

B. 25% of those who took the test scored less than you

C. 75% of those who took the test scored the same or less than you did

D. You answered 75% of the questions correctly

3. If a test has good test-retest reliability:

A. There is a strong correlation between items on the test

B. It accurately measures what it says it measures

C. It can be used to predict future performance

D. The test yields similar scores if taken at two different times

4. Which of the following is a true statement regarding Francis Galton?

A. He took the position that intelligence is largely determined by heredity

B. He advocated the development of special programs to tap the intellectual potential of the culturally disadvantaged

C. He developed tests that identified those children who were unable to profit from a normal education

D. He took the position that intelligence is more a matter of environment than heredity

5. On most modern IQ tests, a score of 115 would be:

A. About average

B. About 15% higher than the average of one’s agemates

C. An indication of genius

D. One standard deviation above the mean

6. IQ tests have proven to be good predictors of:

A. Social intelligence

B. Practical problem-solving intelligence

C. School performance

D. All of the above

7. Mr. and Mrs. Proudparents are beaming because their son, little Newton, has been selected for a gifted children program at school. They think Newton is a genius. What sort of advice do they need to hear?

A. Youngsters with a 130-140 IQ tend to be very maladjusted

B. Most gifted children do not do not go on to make genuis-level, major contributions to society that earn them eminence

C. They should prepare to be famous, based on their parentage of Newton

D. They should be warned that gifted children often have deficits in practical intelligence

8. Which of the following is a true statement about mental retardation/intellectual disability?

A. Most people with retardation are unable to live normal lives because of their mental deficiencies

B. With special tutoring, a mentally retarded person can attain average intelligence

C. The majority of people who exhibit intellectual disability fall in the mild category

D. Diagnoses of mental retardation should be based exclusively on IQ scores

9. Most school districts consider children who_______ to be gifted.

A. Have IQ scores above 115

B. Score in the upper 2%-3% of the IQ distribution

C. Have parents in professional careers

D. Demonstrate high levels of leadership and creativity

10. In which of the following cases would you expect to find the greatest similarity in IQ?

A. Between fraternal twins

B. Between identical twins

C. Between nontwin siblings

D. Between parent and child

11. Evidence indicating that upbringing affects one’s mental ability is provided by which of the following findings?

A. Identical twins are more similar in IQ than fraternal twins

B. There is more than a chance similarity between adopted children and their biological parents

C. Siblings reared together are more similar in IQ than siblings reared apart

D. Identical twins reared apart are more similar in IQ than siblings reared together

12. Which of the following is a likely consequence of stereotype threat for members of minority groups?

A. Academic motivation declines

B. Academic performance often suffers

C. Standardized tests may underestimate their ability

D. All of the above are likely consequences

13. ______ proposed that there are three facets of intelligence; analytical, practical, and creative intelligence

A. Howard Gardner

B. Arthur Jensen

C. Claude Steele

D. Robert Sternberg

14. When you try to narrow down a list of alternatives to arrive at a single correct answer, you engage in:

A. Convergent thinking

B. Divergent thinking

C. Creativity

D. Insight

15. Nora has a blind date with Nick, who, she’s been told, is considered a true genius by the faculty art department. Now she’s having second thoughts, because she’s always heard that geniuses are a little off their rocker. Does she have reason to be concerned?

A. Yes. It’s been well documented that the stress of creative achievement often leads to schizophrenic systems

B. No. Extensive research on creativity and psychological disorders shows no evidence for any connection

C. Perhaps. There is evidence of a correlation between major creative achievement and vulnerability to mood disorders.

D. Of course not. The stereotype of the genius who’s mentally ill is purely a product of the jealousy of untalented people.

thinking, memory, & intelligence more cognitive psychology

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