indo-islamic architecture

IN the seventh and eighth centuries CE, Islam spread towardsSpain and India. Islam came to India, particularly, with Muslim

merchants, traders, holy men and conquerors over a passage ofsix hundred years. Although by the eighth century CE, Muslimshad begun to construct in Sind, Gujarat, etc., it was only in theearly thirteenth century that large-scale building activity wasbegun by the Turkish State, established after the Turkishconquest of northern India.

By the twelfth century India was already familiar withmonumental constructions in grandiose settings. Certaintechniques and embellishments were prevalent and popular, suchas trabeation, brackets, and multiple pillars to support a flatroof or a small shallow dome. While arches were shaped in woodand stone, these were unable to bear the weight of the topstructure. Now, however, the archuate form of construction wasintroduced gradually in which arches could support the weightof the domes. Such arches needed to be constructed with voussoirs(series of interlocking blocks) and fitted with keystones. The domes,resting on pendentives and squinches enabled spanning of largespaces leaving the interiors free of pillars.

A noteworthy aspect of these migrations and conquests wasthat Muslims absorbed many features of local cultures andtraditions and combined them with their own architecturalpractices. Thus, in the field of architecture, a mix of manystructural techniques, stylised shapes, and surface decorationscame about through constant interventions of acceptance,rejection or modification of architectural elements. Thesearchitectural entities or categories showcasing multiple stylesare known as Indo-Saracenic or Indo-Islamic architecture.

According to E. B. Havell, Hindus conceived manifestations ofgod everywhere in multiple forms as part of their religious faithwhereas a Muslim thought of only one with Muhammad as HisProphet. Hence, Hindus adorned all surfaces with sculptures andpaintings. Muslims forbidden to replicate living forms on anysurface, developed their religious art and architecture consistingof the arts of arabesque, geometrical patterns and calligraphy onplaster and stone.

SOME ASPECTS OFINDO-ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE

8

Qutub Minar, Delhi© NCERT

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AN INTRODUCTION TO INDIAN ART110

TYPOLOGIES OF STRUCTURES

Keeping in mind religious and secular necessities, architecturalbuilding like mosques for daily prayers, the Jama Masjids, tombs,dargahs, minars, hammams, formally laid out gardens, madrasas,sarais or caravansarais, Kos minars, etc., were constructed overa period of time. These were thus additions in the existing typesof buildings in the sub-continent.

Architectural edifices in the Indian sub-continent, as elsewherein the world, were constructed by wealthy people. They were, indescending order, rulers and nobles and their families, merchants,merchant guilds, rural elite and devotees of a cult. In spite of theobvious Saracenic, Persian and Turkish influences, Indo-Islamicstructures were heavily influenced by prevailing sensibilities ofIndian architectural and decorative forms. A lot depended on theavailability of materials, limitations of resources and skills andthe sense of aesthetics of the patrons. Although religion andreligiosity were very important to people of medieval India, aselsewhere, they borrowed architectural elements liberally.

CATEGORIES OF STYLES

The study of Indo-Islamic architecture is conventionallycategorised into the Imperial Style (Delhi Sultanate), the ProvincialStyle (Mandu, Gujarat, Bengal, and Jaunpur), the Mughal Style(Delhi, Agra, and Lahore) and the Deccani Style (Bijapur,Golconda). These categories help in understanding better thespecificities of architectural styles rather than putting them inimmutable slots.

Intricate jali work,Amer Fort, Jaipur

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SOME ASPECTS OF INDO-ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE 111

ARCHITECTURAL INFLUENCES

Amongst provincial styles, the architecture of Bengal and Jaunpuris regarded as distinct. Gujarat was said to have a markedlyregional character for patrons borrowed elements from regionaltemple traditions such as toranas, lintels in mihrabs, carvings ofbell and chain motifs, and carved panels depicting trees, for tombs,mosques and dargahs. The fifteenth century white marble dargahof Shaikh Ahmad Khattu of Sarkhej is a good example of provincialstyle and it heavily influenced the form and decoration of Mughaltombs.

DECORATIVE FORMS

These forms included designing on plaster through incision orstucco. The designs were either left plain or covered with colours.Motifs were also painted on or carved in stone. These motifsincluded varieties of flowers, both from the sub-continent andplaces outside, particularly Iran. The lotus bud fringe was usedto great advantage in the inner curves of the arches. Walls werealso decorated with cypress, chinar and other trees as also withflower vases. Many complex designs of flower motifs decoratingthe ceilings were also to be found on textiles and carpets. In thefourteenth, fifteenth and sixteenth centuries tiles were also usedto surface the walls and the domes. Popular colours were blue,turquoise, green and yellow. Subsequently the techniques oftessellation (mosaic designs) and pietra dura were made use offor surface decoration particularly in the dado panels of the walls.At times lapis lazuli was used in the interior walls or on canopies.Other decorations included arabesque, calligraphy and high andlow relief carving and a profuse use of jalis. The high relief carvinghas a three- dimensional look. The arches were plain and squatand sometimes high and pointed. From the sixteenth centuryonwards arches were designed with trefoil or multiple foliations.Spandrels of the arches were decorated with medallions or bosses.The roof was a mix of the central dome and other smaller domes,chatris and tiny minarets. The central dome was topped with aninverted lotus flower motif and a metal or stone pinnacle.

Pietra dura work, Agra

Dodo panel on the wall,Agra

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MATERIALS FOR CONSTRUCTION

The walls in all buildings were extremely thick and were largelyconstructed of rubble masonary, which was easily available. Thesewalls were then cased over with chunam or limestone plaster ordressed stone. An amazing range of stones were utilised forconstruction such as quartzite, sandstone, buff, marble, etc.Polychrome tiles were used to great advantage to finish the walls.From the beginning of the seventeenth century, bricks were alsoused for construction and these imparted greater flexibility tothe structures. In this phase there was more reliance on localmaterials.

FORTS

Building monumental forts with embattlements was a regularfeature in medieval times, often symbolising the seat of power ofa king. When such a fort was captured by an attacking army thevanquished ruler either lost his complete power or his sovereignty.This was because he had to accept the suzerainty of the victoriousking. Some examples of strong, complex edifices which stillexercise the imagination of the visitor are the forts of Chittor,Gwalior, Daulatabad, earlier known as Devgiri and Golconda.

Commanding heights were utilised to great advantage toconstruct forts. These heights gave a good perspective of theregion, strategic advantage for security, unfettered andunhindered space to make residential and official complexes whilesimultaneously creating a sense of awe in the people. Othercomplexities woven into such topography were concentric circlesAerial view,

Daulatabad Fort © NCERT

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of outer walls as in Golconda, so that the enemy had to breachthese at all stages before getting in.

Daulatabad had several strategic devices to confound theenemy, such as staggered entrances so that gates could not beopened even with the help of elephants. It also had twin forts,one within the other but at a higher elevation and accessed by acomplex defence design arrangement. One wrong turn in thelabyrinth or complex pathway could lead to the enemy soldiergoing in circles or falling to his death several hundred feet below.

The Gwalior Fort was invincible because its steep height madeit impossible to scale. It had had many habitations and usages.Babur, who did not find much merit in many things he saw inHindustan, was said to have been overawed at the sight of theGwalior Fort. Chittorgarh bears the distinction of being the largestfort in Asia and was occupied for the longest length of time asthe seat of power. It has many types of buildings includingstambhas or towers to signify victory and bravery. It was repletewith numerous water bodies. Innumerable acts of heroism havebeen associated with the principal people in the fort, forming thesubstance of many a legend. An interesting aspect associatedwith forts is that within the palace complexes stylistic anddecorative influences were absorbed most liberally.

MINARS

Another form of stambha or tower was the minar, a common featurein the sub-continent. Two most striking minars of medieval timesare the Qutub Minar in Delhi and the Chand Minar at Daulatabad

Gwalior Fort

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Fort. The everyday use of the minar was for theazaan or call to prayer. Its phenomenal height,however, symbolised the might and power of theruler. The Qutub Minar also came to be associatedwith the much revered saint of Delhi, KhwajaQutbuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki.

The Qutub Minar, built in the thirteenthcentury, is a 234-feet-high tapering tower dividedinto five storeys. The minar is a mix of polygonaland circular shapes. It is largely built of red andbuff sandstone with some use of marble in theupper storeys. It is characterised by highlydecorated balconies and bands of inscriptionsintertwined with foliated designs.

Chand Minar, built in the fifteenth century,is a 210- feet-high tapering tower divided intofour storeys. Painted peach now, its façade onceboasted of chevron patterning on the encaustictile work and bold bands of Quranic verses.Although it looked like an Iranian monument, it

was the combined handiwork of local architects with those fromDelhi and Iran.

TOMBS

Monumental structures over graves of rulers and royalty was apopular feature of medieval India. Some well known examples ofsuch tombs are those of Ghyasuddin Tughlaq, Humayun, AbdurRahim Khan-i-Khanan, Akbar and Itmaduddaula. According toAnthony Welch, the idea behind the tomb was eternal paradiseas a reward for the true believer on the Day of Judgement. Thisled to the paradisiacal imagery for tomb construction. Beginning

Tomb of Itmaduddaula,Agra

Chand Minar,Daulatabad

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with the introduction of Quranic verses on the walls, the tombwas subsequently placed within paradisiacal elements such as agarden or near a body of water or both, as is in the case of the TajMahal. Surely though, such vast expanses of structured andstylised spaces could not have been intended only to signify peaceand happiness in the next world but to also showcase the majesty,grandeur and might of the person buried there.

SARAIS

A hugely interesting feature of medieval India was the sarais whichringed cities and dotted the vast space of the Indian sub-continent. Sarais were largely built on a simple square orrectangular plan and were meant to provide temporaryaccommodation to Indian and foreign travellers, pilgrims,merchants, traders, etc. In effect, sarais were public domainswhich thronged with people of varied cultural backgrounds. Thisled to cross-cultural interaction, influences and syncretictendencies in the cultural mores of the times and at the level ofthe people.

STRUCTURES FOR COMMON PEOPLE

One of the architectural features of medieval India was also acoming together of styles, techniques and decorations in publicand private spaces of non-royal sections of the society. Theseincluded buildings for domestic usage, temples, mosques,khanqahs and dargahs, commemorative gateways, pavilions inbuildings and gardens, bazaars, etc.© N

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MAN

DU


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117SOME ASPECTS OF INDO-ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE

Th

e ci

ty o

f M

an

du

is

loca

ted s

ixty

miles

fro

m In

dor

e, a

t an

ele

vati

on o

f ov

er 2

000

feet

an

d o

verl

ooks

the

Malw

a P

late

au

to

the

nor

th a

nd t

he

Narm

ada v

alley

to

the

sou

th.

Man

du

’s n

atu

ral

def

ence

en

cou

rage

d c

onsi

sten

t h

abit

ati

ons

by

Parm

ara

Rajp

uts

, Afg

han

s an

d M

ugh

als

. As

the

capit

al c

ity

of G

hau

ri D

ynast

y (1

401–1

561)

fou

nded

by

Hos

han

g S

hah

it

acq

uir

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lot

of

fam

e. S

ubse

qu

entl

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an

du

was

ass

ocia

ted w

ith

th

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man

ce o

f S

ult

an

Baz

Bah

adu

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d R

an

i R

upm

ati

. Th

eM

ugh

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res

orte

d t

o it

for

ple

asu

re d

uri

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mon

soon

sea

son

.M

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du

is

a t

ypic

al re

spre

sen

tati

on o

f th

e m

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val pro

vin

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of a

rt a

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arc

hit

ectu

re. I

t w

as

a c

omple

x m

ix o

f off

icia

l an

d r

esid

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cum

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re p

ala

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s, m

osqu

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rtific

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mbatt

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, etc

. In

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onu

men

tality

, th

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ruct

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s w

ere

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ign

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ildin

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etain

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ocal

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arble

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. Man

du

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of a

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l adapta

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to

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envi

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men

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oyal

En

clav

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th

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ompri

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oman

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ildin

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clu

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of p

ala

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an

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tten

dan

tst

ruct

ure

s, o

ffic

ial a

nd r

esid

enti

al, b

uilt ar

oun

d tw

oart

ific

ial

lakes

. Th

e H

indol

a M

ah

al

look

s like

ara

ilw

ay

viadu

ct b

ridge

wit

h i

ts d

ispro

por

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ate

lyla

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ttre

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ppor

tin

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alls.

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as

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audie

nce

hal

l of t

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Su

ltan

an

d a

lso

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pla

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her

eh

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owed

him

self to

his

su

bje

cts.

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er w

as

use

dve

ry e

ffec

tive

ly t

o gi

ve a

n i

mpre

ssio

n o

f sw

ingi

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(Hin

dol

a) w

alls

.Jah

aaz

Mah

al

is a

n e

lega

nt

two-

stor

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ship

-pal

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bet

wee

n tw

o re

serv

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, wit

h o

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pav

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balc

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erh

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gin

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ate

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ter

race

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uilt

by

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ltan

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iyasu

ddin

Kh

ilji it

was

pos

sibly

use

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is h

are

m a

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s th

e u

ltim

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ple

asu

rea

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re

cre

ati

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al

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lex

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Sh

ah

’s tom

b

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Jama Masjid, Mandu

arrangement of watercourses and a terraceswimming pool.

Rani Rupmati’s double pavilionperched on the southern embattlementsafforded a beautiful view of the Narmadavalley. Baz Bahadur’s palace had a widecourtyard ringed with halls and terraces.

A madrasa called Asharfi Mahal nowlies in ruins. Hoshang Shah’s tomb is amajestic structure with a beautiful dome,marble jali work, porticos, courts andtowers. It is regarded as an example ofthe robustness of Afghan structures, butits lattice work, carved brackets andtoranas lend it a softer hue.

The Jama Masjid of Mandu was built on a large scale to accommodatemany worshippers for Friday prayers. It is entered through a monumentalgateway, topped with a squat dome, beyond which lies an open courtyardflanked with columned cloisters on three sides, also topped with smallerdomes. The building is faced with red sandstone. The mimbar in the QiblaLiwan is supported on carved brackets and the mihrab has a lotus budfringe.

Pathan architecture of Mandu is regarded as too close to the structuresof Imperial Delhi to make a bold statement of local traditions. Nevertheless,the so-called robust, austere Pathan architecture of Mandu with its surfaceembellishments of jalis, carved brackets, etc., and the lightness of thestructures was an important intervention in the narrative of the Indo-Islamicarchitectural experience.

Jahaaz Mahal , Mandu

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From 1632 onwards it took nearly twenty yearsand 20,000 specialised workers to complete this monument.

TAJ MAHAL

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Taj Mahal was built in Agra by Shah Jahan asa mausoleum for his deceased wife MumtazMahal. Taj Mahal was the apogee of theevolutionary architectural process in medievalIndia.

The sublimity of the building comes fromits orderly, simple plan and elevation,amazingly perfect proportions or symmetry, theethereal quality marble has lent to it, theperfect setting of bagh and river and the pureoutline of the tomb silhouetted against the sky.The patina the Taj has lends it a different hueat various times of day and night.

The Taj complex is entered through amonumental red sandstone gateway theopening arch of which beautifully frames themausoleum. The tomb is laid out in a ChaharBagh, criss-crossed with paths and watercourses, interspersed with pools and fountains.The structure is placed on the northernextremity of the bagh instead of the middle totake advantage of the river bank.

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A straight path through the baghreaches the plinth of the tomb from whereis accessed the floor terrace of the edifice.At the corners of the terrace stand four tall,tapering minarets, one hundred and thirty-two feet high. The main body of the buildingis topped with a drum and dome and fourcupolas forming a beautiful skyline. Theplinth, the walls of the structure and thedrum-dome are in perfect proportion to oneanother. Towards the west of the whitemarble-faced tomb lies a red sandstonemosque and a similar construction in theeast to maintain balance. Marble for thebuilding was quarried from the Makranamines in Rajasthan and this white edificeis contrasted with the red sandstone of thesurrounding structures.

The tomb structure is a square withchamfers forming eight sides, recessed withdeep arches. This structural stylisationproduces in the elevation of the building avariety of contrasting planes and shade andsolids and voids effects. All sides of thebuilding, the twin elevations of floor to roofand roof to pinnacle, atop the foliated crestof the dome, measure 186 feet each.

The interior arrangements of themausoleum consist of a crypt below and avaulted, octagonal tomb chamber above, witha room at each angle, all connected withcorridors. Light to every part of the buildingis obtained by means of carved andperforated jalis, set in the arched recessesof the interior. The ceiling is as high as thefaçade creating a void with the help of adouble dome.

Four types of embellishments have beenused with great effect for the interior andexterior surfaces of the Taj Mahal. Theseare stone carvings in high and low reliefon the walls, the delicate carving of marbleinto jalis and graceful volutes (spiralornament on the pillar), and the creationof arabesques with pietra dura (yellowmarble, jade and jasper) on walls andtombstones and geometric designs withtessellation. Lastly, the art of calligraphyis used with the inlay of jasper in whitemarble to write Quranic verses. Calligraphyprovided a decorative element on the wallsand a continuous connection withthe Almighty.

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AN INTRODUCTION TO INDIAN ART122G

OL G

UM

BA

D

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Gu

mbad i

s si

tuate

d i

n B

ijapu

r in

th

e B

ijapu

r D

istr

ict

of K

arn

ata

ka.

It

is

the

mau

sole

um

of M

uh

am

mad A

dil S

hah

(1626–1

656) t

he

seve

nth

Su

ltan

of th

e A

dil

Sh

ah

i D

ynast

y of

Bijapu

r (1

489–1

686). B

uilt

by

the

rule

r h

imse

lf it

is a

str

ikin

ged

ific

e in

spit

e of

bei

ng

un

fin

ish

ed. Th

e to

mb is

a c

omple

x of

bu

ildin

gs s

uch

as

aga

tew

ay,

a N

aqq

ar

Kh

an

a,

a m

osqu

e an

d a

sa

rai

loca

ted w

ith

in a

larg

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alled

gard

en.

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um

bad is

a m

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men

tal sq

uare

bu

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pped

wit

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cula

r dru

mov

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hic

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ests

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stic

dom

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ivin

g th

e bu

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g it

s n

omen

clatu

re. It

is b

uilt

of d

ark g

ray

bas

alt an

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ecor

ated

pla

ster

wor

k. E

ach

wal

l of t

he

tom

b is

on

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un

dre

dan

d t

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ty-f

ive

feet

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h t

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dru

m a

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dom

e th

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ildin

g ri

ses

to a

hei

ght

of o

ver

two

hu

ndre

dfe

et.

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e to

mb h

as

onl,y

one

squ

are

ch

am

ber

an

d t

he

dom

e, w

ith

a d

iam

eter

of

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d a

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wen

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ive

feet

, co

vers

an

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inte

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pte

d flo

or s

pace

of 18,3

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squ

are

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t, t

he

larg

est

in t

he

wor

ld.

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e to

mb c

ham

ber

con

tain

s th

e bu

rial

pla

ce o

f th

e S

ult

an

, h

is w

ives

an

dot

her

rel

ativ

es, w

hile

thei

r re

al g

rave

s lie

per

pen

dic

ula

rly

bel

ow in

a v

ault

, acc

esse

dby

stair

s. T

he

hem

isph

eric

al m

aso

nry

dom

e ov

er a

squ

are

base

was

con

stru

cted

wit

h t

he

hel

p o

f pen

den

tive

s. T

hes

e pen

den

tive

sn

ot o

nly

len

t sh

ape

to th

e dom

e bu

t als

o tr

an

sfer

red it

s w

eigh

t to

th

e w

alls

bel

ow. N

ew v

au

ltin

g sy

stem

s co

nsi

stin

g of

arc

h-n

ets

orst

ella

te f

orm

s in

squ

inch

es w

ere

crea

ted t

o co

ver

an

gles

for

med

by

inte

rsec

tin

g arc

hes

.Th

e bu

ildin

g h

as

an

am

azi

ng

aco

ust

ical s

yste

m. A

lon

g th

e dru

m o

f th

edom

e th

ere

is a

wh

isper

ing

galler

y w

her

e so

un

ds

get m

agn

ifie

d a

nd e

choe

dm

an

y ti

mes

ove

r.A

t th

e fo

ur

corn

ers

of t

he

bu

ildin

g are

sev

en-s

tore

yed o

ctago

nal sp

ires

or m

inare

t-like

tow

ers.

Th

ese

tow

ers

hou

se s

tair

case

s le

adin

g to

th

e to

pdom

e. T

he

dru

m o

f th

e dom

e is

dec

orat

ed w

ith

foliat

ion

. A h

eavi

ly b

rack

eted

corn

ice

rest

ing

on c

orbel

s is

a d

isti

nct

ive

featu

re o

f th

e fa

cade.

Gol

Gu

mbad i

s a f

ine

con

verg

ence

of

man

y st

yles

loc

ate

d i

n m

edie

val

Ind

ia.

Mon

um

enta

lity

, m

aje

sty

an

d g

ran

deu

r, i

nte

gral

asp

ects

of

the

arc

hit

ectu

ral e

xper

ien

ce in

In

dia

, are

ass

ocia

ted w

ith

bu

ildin

gs o

f B

ijapu

r.W

hile

its

stru

ctu

ral part

icu

lari

ties

of dom

e, a

rch

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JAMA MASJID

Large mosques spanning hugespaces also dotted the landscape ofthe Indian sub-continent in medievaltimes. Congregational prayers wereheld here every Friday afternoonwhich required the presence of aminimum of forty Muslim maleadults. At the time of prayers aKhutba was read out in the name ofthe ruler and his laws for the realmwere also read out. In medieval timesa city had one Jama Masjid which,along with its immediatesurroundings became the focus of

the lives of the people, both Muslim and non-Muslim. Thishappened because a lot of commercial and cultural exchangeswere concentrated here besides religious and indirect politicalactivity. Generally such a mosque was large with an opencourtyard, surrounded on three sides by cloisters and the QiblaLiwan in the west. It was here that the mihrab and the mimbar forthe Imam were located. People faced the mihrab while offeringprayers as it indicated the direction of the Kaaba in Mecca.

Jama Masjid, Delhi

Minaret

Mihrab

Qibla

Aisles Tank

MaqsurScreen

Courtyard(Sahn)

Colisters(Liwan)

MainEntrance

Plan of Jama Masjid

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ART OF THE INDUS VALLEY 125

EXERCISE

1. What do you understand by the term ‘Indo-Islamic’ or ‘Indo-Saracenic’ architecture? Can you think of another nomenclature?How did this architecture evolve in India?

2. What types of buildings were added in India in the thirteenthcentury?

3. Name four styles of Indo-Islamic architecture.4. What was the significance of a fort in medieval India? What were

the strategic devices adopted in the construction of forts to confuseor defeat the enemy?

5. Which forms of secular architecture evolved during medievaltimes? What significance did these buildings have in the socio-cultural lives of contemporary people?

6. How does Mandu showcase the fact that humans adapt to theirenvironment?

7. In spite of being unfinished how does Gol Gumbad symbolise thegrandeur and majesty of Indo-Islamic architecture?

8. Which are the places where the dead are buried? How do thesediffer from each other?

9. What according to Havell are the fundamental concepts of faith ofa Hindu and a Muslim?

10. Why is the word ‘perfection’ associated with the Taj Mahal?

PROJECT

A. Period-Region-Political Association

E. Decorative formson the structure

Have youvisited any

medieval structurein your locality/region/country?Document the

following aspectsof the structure:

F. Materials usedfor constructionof the structure

D. Architecturalforms locatedin the structure

C. Purpose ofthe structure

B. Typology of thestructure–Secular/Religious

H. The presentlocation andstatus of thestructure.

G. Is it conserved?Should it beconserved?

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GLOSSARY

Agate A fine-grained variegated chalcedony, itscolours arranged in stripes, blended in clouds,or showing moss like forms

Amalaka Ribbed, lenticular or globoid part resembling theamalaka (Indian gooseberry fruit) crowning thetop of the North Indian style shikhara

Anda Semi-circular dome

Arabesque An ornamental design consisting of intertwinedflowing lines, leaves and flowers

Ardhmandap Semi-hall in front of the temple

Ashtadikpalas Guardians of the eight directions

Ayudhas Weapons

Batter Slope in the wall

Bosses Circular embossed decorations, usually in stoneof contrasting colours located on either side ofan arch and within the spandrels

Burin A pointed tool of flint or stone with a transverseedge made by the removal of one or more flakes.Used for working bone, antler, and ivory, and,perhaps, for engraving

CE Common Era, replacing AD or Anno Domini(after the birth of Christ)

Calligraphy The art of producing decorative handwriting

Caturasra Square

Chhatra Umbrella like structure on top of the stupa

Chhatri Cupola resting on four pillars with a dome orpyramid-shaped roof

Chahar Bagh A square, walled garden divided into four byintersecting water channels

Chaitya Arch Semi-circular arch with pointed tip in the centretowards the top

Chaitya Place of congregation and worship

Chakra Wheel

Chamfer To cut off the edge or corner, thereby increasingthe number of sides

Chert A flint like material, usually black or darkbrown in colour. Although it has a conchoidalfracture like flint it is not so fine-textured

Chevron Patterning V- shaped patterns

Corbel The stone or wooden bracket laid horizontallyto support a cornice or an arch

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GLOSSARY 127

Cornice A moulded roof-line

Crystal A high quality, clear, colourless glass or anobject, especially a vessel or ornament, madeof such glass

Dado panel Lower part of the interior wall when it is finisheddifferently from the rest of the wall. Someexcellent examples are Jamali Kamali tomb inMehrauli and Turkish Sultan’s palace inFatehpur Sikri, Agra

Dargah Shrine of a Sufi saint, where the saint’s gravecalled mazar is located

Dhammachakrapravartan First sermon by Buddha at Sarnath nearVaranasi

Dravid People, culture, language and architecturalstyle of South India

Dressed stone Stone which is cut to size and polished

Encaustic tile work Inlay in ceramics

Faience Blue-coloured artificial glass-like material.Faience was used in a variety of ornaments andpieces of jewellery

Gahapati Big land-owner or big farmer involved in farmingand trade

Garbhgriha Sanctum sanctorum

Gopuram Main gateway; the storeyed structure over theentrance or entrances through the enclosingwalls to the premises of a temple, palace, or city

Hamam Turkish public bath for massage and sauna

Harmika Small square fencing about the anda or semi-circular dome of stupa

Imam The person who leads a Muslim congregationin prayers. Over a passage of time this positionbecame hereditary

Intaglio The process of cutting a design into the surfaceof a small hard stone or gem

Jagmohan Rectangular or square hall in front of sanctuaryor main temple

Jali Ornamental, perforated lattice screens witharabesques, star motifs and other geometricdesigns such as pentagons, hexagons, octagonsand circles

Jasper A variety of quartz that may be red, yellow orbrown; long used for jewellery andornamentation

Jataka Stories of the previous births of Buddha

Jati Caste

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Kalash Wide-mouthed pot; ornamental pot-designdecorating the shikhara

Keystone A central stone at the summit of an arch

Kos minar Distance marker or milestone in the shape andsize of a tower

Kuta A shrine of square plan

Lapis lazuli A rich blue semi-precious stone sometimesflecked with gold. The main source in theancient world was the mountains ofBadakshan, northern Afghanistan, from whereit was traded widely. Lapis lazuli was used asinlay in ornaments, jewellery, seals, etc.

Linga Phallus, the form in which Lord Shiva is beingworshipped

Mahamandapa Big hall in front of the temple

Mahaparinibban Death of Lord Buddha

Mandap Hall

Maqbara Mausoleum or tomb

Mastak Head

Medallion Circular discs in the spandrels of archesdecorated with motifs or calligraphy

Medhi Cylindrical drum

Mihrab Prayer niche indicating the direction of Mecca

Mimbar Stepped pulpit in the Jama Masjid or Fridaymosque from where the Khutba was read

Mukhlinga Phallus with face

Multiple foliations Many curves in an arch

Nagara North Indian style temple architecture

Naqqar khana Drum house from where ceremonial music wasplayed which was usually situated over the gate.It was a popular feature in Mughal palace-complexes

Natyamandapa Dancing hall in front part of the temple

or Rangmandapa

Panchayatana Main temple surrounded by four sub-shrinesin each corner

Pathan architecture Austere style of architecture favoured by theKhalji rulers in Delhi who were consideredAfghans

Pendentive A triangular bracket in the angle of two walls,connecting the base of the dome to itssupporting arches

Pietra-dura Pictorial mosaic work using semi-preciousstones. Found on walls, cenotaphs and marblejalis in the Taj Mahal

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GLOSSARY 129

Polychrome An object or a work composed of or decorated inmany colours

Pradakshina Circumambulation

Qibla Liwan The wall of the mosque in the direction of Mecca

Qila-i Kuhna Masjid Built by Humayun or Sher Shah between 1530and 1545, it is located inside Purana Qila inDelhi

Quartz A variety of stone found in many parts of theworld and variously used for toolmaking and inceremonial contexts. Varieties of quartz includeagate, chalcedony, chert, flint, opal and rockcrystal

Rekhaprasad or This type of temple has square shikhar at theLatina base and its walls curve slowly inward towards

the top

Rupkar Artisan

Sabha Mandapa Assembly hall

Saracenic A style of architecture popular with Muslims inWest Asia particularly from the eleventh to thefourteenth century

Sarai Dharamshala or a traveller’s lodge

Shala ayatasara Elliptical

Shikhar Superstructure above the garbhagriha in thenorth Indian style of temple

Shilpa texts Ancient Indian texts/manuals describing theelements and principles of art and architectureto be practised by artists

Shilpi Artisan

Shraman A Buddhist sect, followers of which use towander from place to place

Sovereignty The authority of a ruler/state to govern himself/itself absolutely independently

Spandrels The almost triangular space between two sidesof the outer curves of an arch and a rectangularenclosure

Squinch An arch spanning the corners of a squarechamber and acting as support for a dome

Steatite A greyish or greenish stone which is generallysoft and can easily be worked to make figurines,vessels, seals and other objects

Stellate Arch nets arranged in a radiating pattern likethat of a star

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Sthapati Architect

Stupa A mound like structure containing relics of amonk worshipped by the Buddhists

Sutradhara Chief artisan

Suzerainty A sovereign/state having some control overanother ruler/state who/that is internallyautonomous

Tablet A regularly shaped, separate panel, or arepresentation thereof, often bearing aninscription or image

Terracotta Literally, ‘baked earth’ mainly used to refer tofairly coarse, porous clay that, when fired,assumes a colour ranging from dull ochre tored

Tessellation Decoration on walls and floors with mosaic

Torans Carved, serpentine-shaped ceremonialgateways

Trefoil Three curves in an arch

Turquoise A semi-precious stone, sky blue to pale greenin colour, highly prized for its use in jewelleryby many ancient cultures

Valabhi Sub-type of nagara temple

Vang Ancient name of the Bengal region

Varna Four-fold division of the society based onprofession i.e. Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaishya,Shudra during ancient India

Vesara Term used for the independent style of thetemple during the time of the Chalukyas ofKarnataka. It consists of a combination of thenorthern and southern styles

Vihara Place of residence of Buddhist monk

Vijanain Temples having a rectangular building with aroof that rises into a vaulted chamber

Viman Superstructure over the shrine in the southIndian temples

Volute A scroll or spiral ornament on a pillar

Voussoir A wedge-shaped or tapered stone used toconstruct an arch

Vritta Circular

Yakshas/Yakshanis Demi-gods and demi-goddesses

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indo-islamic architecture

Documents

century india

multiple forms

multiple pillars

century ce

indian subcontinent

mind religious

religious art

religious faithwhereas