how the brain processes information-memory retention and learning(tracey tokuhama-espinosa)

7/30/2019 How the Brain Processes Information-Memory Retention and Learning(Tracey Tokuhama-Espinosa)

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How the Brain Processes Information:Memory, attention and learning

Tracey Tokuhama-Espinosa, Ph.D.IDEA, Universidad San Francisco de Quito

UDLA, QuitoMayo 2010


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Mind, Brain, and Education(MBE) Science is the new andimproved brainbasedlearning . It is the scientically

substantiated art of teaching.It is the intersection ofneuroscience, education, andpsychology. And it is aparadigm shift in formaleducation (p.22)


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"Tracey TokuhamaEspinosas book is not only an excellent guide for teachers, a mostneeded review of the cutting edge research on neuroeducation, but also a model of

pedagogy. The author has done a generous effort to guide the readers step by step in thefascinating exploration of the new transdisciplinary eld called MBE, Mind, Brain andEducation. I recommend this book to every teacher. It will clarify many issues and promotemany educational initiatives."

Antonio M. Battro, MD, PhDPresident of IMBES, International Mind, Brain and Education Society

Tracey TokuhamaEspinosa has written a highly accessible, extraordinarily welldocumented compilation of essential information for all educators. She rmly establishesthe links between neuroscience and psychology provides the background knowledgeneeded to evaluate research for validity. In doing so, Tracey TokuhamaEspinosa offers theimportant principles teachers can follow to be critical consumers. The exposures of theneuromyths, that have plagued optimal progress in the incorporation ofappropriatelysupported research into our textbooks, teacher education, and classroom strategies, is

accompanied with tools for differentiating between valid research interpretations andfuture neuromyths. Readers will be vital resources for students, colleagues, and the futureof our educational system. This breakthrough book guides informed decision making usingthe best science has to offer to return joy and authentic learning to our classrooms.Judy Willis, M.D., M.Ed, neurologist, middle school teacher, author and renowned speakeron brainbased education


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Todays focus1. Assumptions2. Denitions:

Neurogenesis Neuroplasticity

3. Memory4. Attention

5.

Learning and classroomimplications: What everyteacher should know


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Background Masters from Harvard University in

International Education and Development anddoctorate (Ph.D.) from Capella University (crossdisciplinary approach comparing ndings inneuroscience, psychology, pedagogy, culturalanthropology and linguistics). Bachelors of Arts(International Relations) and Bachelors ofScience (Communications) from BostonUniversity, magna cum laude.

Director of the Institute for Research andEducational Development (IDEA), UniversidadSan Francisco de Quito, Ecuador and professor of

Education and Neuropsychology. Teacher (prekindergarten through university)

with 22 years of comparative research experienceand support to hundreds of schools in 17countries.


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There is anexplosion in researchabout the brain that

is changing how wethink about learningand education.


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"We know a little of what goes on in the

brain when we learn,

but hardly anythingabout what goes on inthe brain when weteach," (Blakemore &

Frith, 2008, p.118).


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In brief Concepts from Mind, Brain, and Education science,commonly referred in the popular press as brain-basedlearning, have been applied indiscreetly and

inconsistently to classroom teaching practices for manyyears.

While standards exist in neuroscience, psychology and pedagogy, until recently there were no agreed uponstandards in their intersection, Mind, Brain, andEducation science. Some of these standards will bediscussed today.


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Assump8ons1. The new academic discipline in discussion is the

intersection of neuroscience, education and psychology.

2. The focus is equally balanced between knowledgeof how humans learn and how best to teach.

3. Education is not a one-size-fits-all practice(recipe approach).

4. The first rule of Education is the same as that of Medicine: Do no harm.


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Good teaching

methodologies andac8vi8es can comefrom.

a single discipline

bilateral cooperation betweendisciplines

multiple disciplines

However, the more academic fieldsthat offer support for a teachingmethodology or activity, the morecredible it is.


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Where does this informa8on come from?

Dissertation1. Grounded Theory development based on a meta-

analysis of the literature (1977-2008), over 4,500

documents reviewed (2,266).2. New Model developed.3. Delphi expert panel (20 experts from six

countries) discussed 11 topics (25; 7) in threerounds.

4. New Model modified.5. Comparison with existing literature.


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Delphi Par8cipants Daniel Ansari Michael Atherton Jane Bernstein Sarah Jayne Blakemore Renate Nummela-

Caine Donna Coch David Daniel

Stanislas Dehaene Marian Diamond Kurt Fischer John Geake

Usha Goswami Christina Hinton Mary Helen

Immordino-Yang

Eric Jensen Jelle Jolles Michael Posner Marc Schwartz

Rita Smilkstein David Sousa Judy Willis

Virginia Berninger John T. Bruer Howard Gardner Paul Howard-Jones Hideaki Koizumi

NeuroscientistsPsychologists

Educators


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Topics Researched in Mind, Brain, and

Science Educa8on1. Neuroimaging2. Neurotransmitters and Chemicals3. Neurogenesis and Plasticity4. Theories of Consciousness5. Beliefs about Intelligence6. New Learning Theories7. Neuroethics

8.

Learning Differences9. Mind-Body Connectiona. Sleep

b. Physical Exercisec. Nutrition


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Major Brain Func8ons in the Research

1. Art2. Creativity3. Language4. Reading5. Math6. Music7. Science

1. Affect and Empathy2. Emotions3.

Motivation4. Attention5. Executive Functions and/or

Decision-Making6. Facial Recognition and

Interpretation

7. Memory8. Social Cognition9. Spatial Management10. Time Management

School Subjects Life Skills


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Eleven Areas Discussed by the Experts

1. Name of the emerging field;2. Academic roots;3. Definition of terms;4. The overarching research, practice and policy goals of the emerging field;5. History;6. Thought leaders;7. Steps to judging quality information;8. Organizations and societies qualified to judge the information;

9.

BELIEFS AND NEUROMYTHS (todays focus);10. Enhanced communication between professionals in the parent disciplines;11. Design of a new Masters program to meet the needs of new professionals in

the emerging field.

For complete dissertation, email [email protected]


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The NewModel

The categorization of neuromyths and the beliefs agreed upon bythe Delphi expert panel pointed to the main tenets and principles of Mind, Brain, and Education science.

The tenets are relative to each individual learner while theprinciples are important in the same way for all learners.

The tenets and principles define the instructional guidelines of thefield.

Beliefs and Myths

Principles Tenets

Instructional Guidelines

The Foundations of Instructional Guidelines in the New Model


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Categoriza8on criteria

In Understanding the brain:The birth of a learning

science, (OECD, 2002)* theauthors propose a continuumof four categories of information quality.

*OECD= 30 countries (Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada, Czech Republic, Denmark, Finland, France,Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Japan, Korea, Luxemburg, Mexico, the Netherlands, NewZealand, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, United Kingdom, UnitedStates.


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Criteria used to categorize conceptsCategories:A. What is well-established (i.e. plasticity , which now has

hundreds of credible human studies behind it);B. What is probably so (i.e., sensitive periods , which has

hundreds of studies behind it, though not all conducted onhumans);

C. What is intelligent speculation (i.e., gender differences ,which has thousands of studies behind it, albeit of mixedquality and sometimes with contradictory findings); and

D. What is popular misconception or a neuromyth (i.e., "right brain" and "left brain" discussion , which has been the targetof thousands of books and articles, some of which promotethe term, but most of which criticize the lack of factualaccuracy of the claim).


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76 Educa8onal Concepts

5 19 24 28

concepts concepts concepts concepts

Well-established Probably so Intelligent speculation Neuromyth


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Conceptual Assump8ons


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Ques8on:

Attention + Memory =Learning?


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Probably so:

A en8on + Memory = Learning To learn something new meansyou have to pay attention to it,and to remember it.

Declarative memory depends onbeing able to pay attention.

It is impossible for a student not to pay attention if (s)he is the protagonist of the activity.However, it is very easy to getdistracted when the attention isfocused on others.


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Deni8ons


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Neurogenesis(new birth) Neurogenesis is the production of cells in the nervous

system in the brain (neurons) and glial cells. Mostnotable in neonatal stages, but occurs throughoutthe lifespan.

In humans, neurogenesis has been documented mostnotably in the olfactory bulb and hippocampus.


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Neurogenesis

Neuogenesis inmammals wasestablished in 1992,and documented inhumans in 1998.

Eriksson P.S., Perfilieva, E., Bjrk-Eriksson, T., et al . (November 1998) . Neurogenesis in theadult human hippocampus . Nature Medicine, 4 (11). 13131317.


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Myth: Neurons are never replaced

This myth is defied bythe existence of neurogenesis.


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Myth: Learning can be op8mized if 8medwith neurogenesis.

This is a myth because learningtakes place with or withoutneurogenesis.

You cannot anticipate moments of neurogenesis.

There is no evidence that better learning occurs with new versusold neurons.


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Synaptogenesisnew synapses

The formation ofsynapsis betweenneurons.


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1. Human brain (model)2. Cut of a human brain (real)

3. Neurons in a human brain (real)4. Synapses between neurons (model)1.

3.

http://www.willamette.edu/~gorr/classes/cs449/figs/brain2.jpg; http://www.alzheimers-brace.org/images/brain_images.jpg

2.

4.


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Hebbian synapse

Use it or lose it.


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Myth: You lean more if you 8melessons with periods ofsynaptogenesis.

This is a myth becauselearning causessynaptogenesis (not

the other way around).


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(Neuro) plas8city The ability of the brainto rewire itself using

nontraditionalpathways if a normalroute is damaged orblocked.


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(Neuro) plas8city


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Plas8city: A paradigm shi in how welook at the brain

BEFORE we believed in localizationism which wenow know is an oversimplied vision of the brain.


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Plas8city We now know that.

we see with our brains, not with our eyes.*Example: Seeing with tongue (BachyRita).

Children are not always stuck with themental abilities they are born with; that thedamaged brain can often reorganize itself sothat when one part fails, another can oftensubstitute; that is brain cells die, they can attimes be replaced; that many circuits andeven basic reexes that we think arehardwired are not.**

Michel Merzenich; Norman Doidge; PaulBachyRita

*Doidge (2007, p.14).;** Doidge (2007, p.xv).


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Myth: Plas8city is due to good pedagogy

This is a myth because plasticity is a natural

neural process and occurswith or without good

pedagogy. Examples: addiction,racism.


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Memory


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Ques8on:True or false?

The brainchanges dailywith experience.


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Well established: The brain changes

constantly with experience

The brain is a complex, dynamic, and integrated system that is constantlychanged by experience, though most of this change is only evident at amicroscopic level.

You will go to bed tonight with a different brain with which you awoke. Each

smell, sight, taste and touch you experience and each feeling you have canalter the physical form of your brain. The complexity and dynamic nature of the brain remind teachers that even when they feel they are not reachingstudents, they may very well be changing them, bit by bit.


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Ques8on:True or False?

Past informationinEluences how welearn something new.


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Wellestablished:

Inuence of past knowledge Connecting new

information to prior

knowledge facilitateslearning.

We learn better and faster when we relate newinformation to things thatwe already know.


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Intelligent specula8on: Memory Different memory systems (i.e., short term-, long

term-, working-, spatial-, motor-, modality-specific-,rote-, etc.) receive and process information in differentways and are retrieved through distinct, thoughsometimes overlapping, neural pathways.

Human memory is a complex system and it is vital for learning. Information is stored and retrieved in variousforms, implying that teachers should vary their methodsof instruction in order to create a variety of pathwaysthrough which it can be retrieved, thus facilitating therecall process.

(e.g., Multiple Intelligences Theory instructional practices) Not yet well-established because documentation inclassroom contexts using neuroscientific criteria is

sparse.


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Intelligent specula8on:

Exis8ng knowledge Human learning is a constructive process

in that humans construct meaning fromexisting knowledge structures. Such

existing knowledge structures areindividually defined. People take past experiences and make

conceptual building blocks from them, uponwhich new knowledge is developed. The

building metaphor is the basis for the

constructivist philosophy of education.While proven in education and psychology,not yet well-established becausedocumentation in neuroscience is sparse .


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Neuromyth: Memory is like an objec8ve

recording of a situa8on, and reality existsin an abstract form for all to perceive.

This is a neuromyth becauseindividual human memories are notrecorded as if stored on a harddrive, but are rather influenced bythe experiences of the learner.

The filters through which events arerecalled are subject to falserecollection and/or misinterpretation.


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Neuromyth: The brain rememberseverything it has ever experienced; forge ng

is simply an absence of recall ability. While forgetting is an absenceof recall, the brain does notnecessarily remember everything that it has ever experienced. Only informationthat has moved from workingto long-term memory (in itsmany forms) is retrievable isremembered.


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Memory

There are various typesof memory:

Long term Declarative Procedural

Working Short term Emotional Episodic


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Requirements for longterm memory

For information to get intolongterm memory it has to

have at least one of threetraits:1. Survival2. Association3. Emotional or personal value


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Three things that are easy to remember.

Three things that are hard to remember.

Think about


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Probably so: Sleep Sleep is important for declarative memoryconsolidation, (though other types of memories, such as emotional memories, can

be achieved without sleep). Sleep deprivation

also has a negative impact on memory. Lack of sleep compromises ones abilities to be attentive and to organize mental activityefficiently and effectively.

Memory consolidation is dependent on REM(rapid eye movement) sleep.

Without a good nights sleep, memory iscompromised.

Not yet well-established because there are only a few studies available on school-age populations.


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Strategies to remember .?

Repetition Elaboration Association Timelines

Sensory variation Other?


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Probably so: Novelty Human brains seek and often

quickly detect novelty, (which isindividually defined).

We are quick to notice things thatare out of place or different, andwe actually unconsciously look for things that dont belong.(e.g., 2+3=5 and 5-3=2)

Not yet well-established becausethe individual nature of noveltymakes it hard to study.


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Probably so: Pa erning Human brains seek patterns upon which they predict outcomes, and neural systems formresponses to repeated patterns of activation(patterns being individually defined).

We categorize our world in ways that help usunderstand information. Part of how we do thisrelates to designing patterns for the things wefind. These patterns are like a road map that tellsus where to go next. This road map is the neuralsystem for that group of like experiences.

(e.g., math, writing genres, social interactions,etc.)While proven in neuroscience and psychology,not yet well-established because of the limited number of classroom studies.


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Probably so: Rehearsal The rehearsal of retrieval cues aids in

declarative memory processes. While memory can be created by

emotionally shocking experiences,declarative memory (associated withschool learning) is improved throughrehearsal. This is why the use of mnemoniccues (including repetition and rehearsal)improves the ability to retrieveinformation.

(e.g., good homework; explicitlyteaching mnemonic devices, etc.) Not yet well-established because of lack of consensus on what type of rehearsal aidsmemory best.


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Probably so: Elabora8on The elaboration (overt teaching)of key concepts facilitates newlearning.

Teachers achieve better results if

they give explicit explanations of the core concepts.(e.g., priming, use of concepts,assessment of conceptknowledge, and re-teaching of concepts)

While proven in psychology, not yet well-established because not enough studies available inclassroom contexts.


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A en8on


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A en8on

How long is the average attention span?


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A en8on Attention spans

Recognize that students havean average 1020 minutemaximum attention span.


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In prac(ce :

This means that teachers need to change the person,place or activity every 1020 minutes to maintain a highlevel of attention.


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PrimacyRecencyThe PrimacyReceny Effect

People rememberbest what happensrst, second best what happens last,and least what

happens in themiddle.


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In prac(ce :

This means thatmoments in themiddle should bededicated to studentcentered practice.


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In prac(ce : The last part of the classshould be dedicated to

summarizing importantconcepts and bridging tonext class.


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Classroom implica8ons:

What every teacher needs to know


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The reten8on of new informa8on Depending on the chosen methodology, students have varying

attention levels.

The best way to learn anything is.


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Reten8on varies with method:

National Training Laboratories, Maine, as cited in Sousa (2000).


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Reten8on varies with method:

REMEMBER: Just because you taught something does

NOT mean they learned it! Students need exposure to

new concepts between 1059times to get it!


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In prac(ce :The Law of 10:1. Present the new concept2. Give an example3. Ask students to explain the concept4. Clarify doubts5. Design an activity in which the concept is used by the

student6. Review results of the activity and clarify concept7. Send homework that applies the concept

8. Review homework in class9. Clarify doubts about the concept10. Design an activity that applies the concept or direct use

of the concept by student.


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In prac(ce :

If you use lecture,use it wisely(clarication of coreconcepts).


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In prac(ce :

Homework should beused to reinforce thenew ideas andconcepts.


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Best prac8ce Best practice activities have certain traits: Studentcentered Experiential Holistic Authentic Expressive Reexive Social

Collaborative Democratic Cognitive Developmental Constructivist

Challenging (Fun)


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In prac(ce :

Activities that have one or moreof the aforementionedcharacteristics are more likelyto have an impact and createsignicant learning experiences.


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Examples of best prac8ceac8vi8es.?


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10 Guides for Be erTeaching


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Guide 1:

Learning environmentsThe best learning environments

provide: Emotional and physical

security Respect Intellectual liberty Selfdirected experiences Paced challenges Feedback Active learning

(Billington, 1997)


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Guide 2:Sense, Meaning and Transfer

Students tend to learn

better when course content makessense

has a clear logic has signicance intheir lives.


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Guide 3:

Different memory pathways Long term memorydepends on linking

information to survival needs past knowledge(association)

values, emotions orinterests


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Guide 4:

Attention limits

Remember that studentsattention spans are only1020 minutes long.

Remember to change theactivity, place, or mainperson of focus frequently.


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Guide 5:Social learning The brain is a social organ and people learn better when they can bounce ideas off of one another.


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Guide 6:MindBody Concepts

Students learn better whenthe needs of the body andmind are both satised. Thisincludes sleep, diet andphysical exercise needs.


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Guide 7:Teacher metaphor: Orquestra director

The teacher can be seen as an orchestra director whoknows how to integrate the different voices, soundsand talents of each member.


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Guide :Ac8ve proceses

Students learn best when theycan participate actively in theirown learning.

I hear, I forget; I see, Iunderstand; I do , Iremember .


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Guide 9:Metacogni8on ySelfreec8on

To remember best, it is necessary to reect upon ourexperiences.

Given the vast amount of information that students arebombarded with daily, it is important to give them downtime to process.


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Guide 10:

Learning across the lifespan The brain has the ability to learnacross the lifespan.

For this reason, while it isimportant to take advantage ofsensitive periods in childhood,

we should also recognize that wecan learn into old age.


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Ques8ons?


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For more informa8on:Tracey Tokuhama-Espinosa, Ph.D.Universidad San Francisco de QuitoCasa CoronaTelf: 297-1700 [email protected]


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Bibliography For a list of more than 2000 book related to this study see:http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/

pqdt.shtml y el nombre Tokuhama-Espinosa (gratis).

You can find this presentation on:www.educacionparatodos.com

how the brain processes information-memory retention and learning(tracey tokuhama-espinosa)

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