hjemmeopgaver, projekter, synopser m. mundtligt...

OBLIGATORISK FORSIDE Prescribed front page

HJEMMEOPGAVER, PROJEKTER, SYNOPSER M. MUNDTLIGT FORSVAR

Home Assignments, Project Reports, Synopses with oral defence

INSTITUT FOR ERHVERVSKOMMUNIKATION

Department of Business Communication

NAVN: Name (If writing in groups, please state names of all group members)

Merete Pilegaard Rasmussen Lone Secher Wingreen Christensen

CPR-NR.: Danish ID-Number (If writing in groups*), please state ID-numbers of all group members)

EKSAMENSNR. (PÅ

STUDERENDE): Student Exam No.: (6 digits at the top left corner of you Student ID-card)

300666 300722

HOLD NR.: Class No. Ex.: U02

Oversæt 3e

FAGETS NAVN: Course/Exam Title

BA Projekt

VEJLEDER: Name of Supervisor

Anne Gram Schjoldager

ANTAL TYPEENHEDER I DIN BESVARELSE (ekskl. blanktegn): Number of Characters in your Assignment (exclusive of blanks):

99,541

*) Ved skriftlige gruppeopgaver skal den enkelte deltagers bidrag tydeligt fremgå.

*) In written group exams, your individual contribution must be clearly

identifiable.

Merete Pilegaard Rasmussen (300666) of 77 03-05-2012

Lone Secher Wingreen Christensen (300722)

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HOW TO TRAIN YOUR DRAGON - A comparative analysis of the translations into Danish and French subtitles focusing on the

preservation of humour.

Merete Pilegaard Rasmussen (300666) &


BA English/French

Supervisor: Anne Gram Schjoldager



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Contents 1 Introduction (LC & MR) ........................................................................................................... 5

1.1 Summary of How to Train Your Dragon (LC & MR) ...................................................... 7

2 Methodology and Theory (LC & MR) ....................................................................................... 8

2.1 Translation (LC) ................................................................................................................ 9

2.1.1 Subtitling (LC) ............................................................................................................ 9

2.1.2 Culture (LC) ..............................................................................................................10

2.1.3 Macrostrategies (MR) ................................................................................................11

2.1.3.1 Source-text oriented macrostrategy ....................................................................11

2.1.3.2 Target-text oriented macrostrategy .....................................................................12

2.1.4 The skopos theory (LC) .............................................................................................12

2.1.5 Microstrategies (LC) ..................................................................................................13

2.1.5.1 Direct transfer .....................................................................................................13

2.1.5.2 Calque ................................................................................................................14

2.1.5.3 Direct translation .................................................................................................14

2.1.5.4 Oblique translation ..............................................................................................14

2.1.5.5 Explicitation ........................................................................................................15

2.1.5.6 Paraphrase .........................................................................................................15

2.1.5.6.1 Modulation ...................................................................................................15

2.1.5.7 Condensation .....................................................................................................15

2.1.5.8 Adaptation ..........................................................................................................16

2.1.5.9 Addition ..............................................................................................................16

2.1.5.10 Substitution .......................................................................................................16

2.1.5.11 Deletion ............................................................................................................16

2.1.5.12 Permutation ......................................................................................................17

2.2 Humour (MR) ...................................................................................................................17

2.2.1 Translating Humour ...................................................................................................18

2.2.2 Types of humour .......................................................................................................18

2.2.2.1 Irony ...................................................................................................................18

2.2.2.2 Visual humour .....................................................................................................19

2.2.2.3 The Incongruity theory ........................................................................................20

2.2.2.4 Wordplay and puns .............................................................................................20

2.2.2.5 Surreal humour ...................................................................................................21

2.2.2.6 Parody ................................................................................................................21

2.2.2.7 Metaphors ..........................................................................................................21

2.2.2.8 Language-specific humour ..................................................................................22

2.2.2.9 Culture-specific humour ......................................................................................22

3 Analysis of the Danish and French subtitles (LC & MR) .........................................................23

3.1 Scene 2 (LC & MR) .........................................................................................................23

3.2 Analysis of the chosen examples (LC & MR) ...................................................................24

3.2.1 Segment 5 (LC) .........................................................................................................24

3.2.2 Segment 6 (LC) .........................................................................................................27

3.2.3. Segment 7 (LC) ........................................................................................................29



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3.2.4 Segment 10 (LC) .......................................................................................................30

3.2.5 Segment 14 (MR) ......................................................................................................31

3.2.6 Segment 19 (MR) ......................................................................................................33

3.2.7 Segment 21 (MR) ......................................................................................................34

3.2.8 Segment 23 (MR) ......................................................................................................36

3.2.9 Segment 24 (LC) .......................................................................................................38

3.2.10 Segment 30 (LC) .....................................................................................................38

3.2.11 Segment 32 (LC) .....................................................................................................39

3.2.12 Segment 33 (LC) .....................................................................................................41

3.2.13 Segment 34 (MR) ....................................................................................................43

3.2.14 Segment 37 (MR) ....................................................................................................44

3.2.15 Segment 38 (MR) ....................................................................................................46

3.2.16 Segment 39 (MR) ....................................................................................................47

3.3 The overall macrostrategy (LC & MR) ..............................................................................49

3.3.1 Estimation of the Danish macrostrategy (LC) ............................................................49

3.3.2 Estimation of the French macrostrategy (MR) ...........................................................51

4 Results and Comparison (LC & MR) .............................................................................................52

4.1 Expected results (LC & MR) ..................................................................................................52

4.2 Microstrategies (LC & MR) ...................................................................................................53

4.2.1 Danish microstrategies (LC) ...........................................................................................53

4.2.2 French microstrategies (MR) ..........................................................................................55

4.3 Macrostrategies (LC & MR) ..................................................................................................56

4.3.1 Danish macrostrategy (LC) .............................................................................................56

4.3.2 French macrostrategy (MR) ...........................................................................................57

4.4 Humour (LC & MR) ..............................................................................................................57

4.4.1 Danish humour (LC) ......................................................................................................57

4.4.2 French humour (MR) .....................................................................................................58

4.5 Comparison (LC & MR) ........................................................................................................59

5 Conclusion (LC & MR) ...........................................................................................................61

6 Discussion (LC & MR) ............................................................................................................63

References ...............................................................................................................................64

Abstract.....................................................................................................................................66

Appendix A: Manuscript ............................................................................................................67

Appendix B: Microstrategies ......................................................................................................74

Appendix C: Successful Humour ...............................................................................................75



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1 Introduction

In spite of a relatively short lifetime, Dreamworks Animation SKG has already entertained

children as well as adults with several successful movies such as Shrek, Madagascar and

Monsters vs. Aliens. The animated movie How to Train Your Dragon is based on the children’s

book of the same title by Cressida Cowell (Cressida Cowell’s webpage). It is the typical story

about a nobody becoming somebody. We have chosen to use this English-language movie and

its Danish and French subtitles as the data in our project because we fell for the charm and wit

of the characters and have wondered how these are affected by the process of translation.

While watching the movie we noticed several interesting translation choices in connection with

the subtitles which we would like to investigate. Even though this movie may appear to be a

children’s film there are several aspects of the content which are meant for adults, such as

irony and linguistic peculiarities. We know from personal experience that a poor screen

translation can make the audience lose focus and therefore it seems obvious that a good

translation is an essential criterion of success for any movie. The movie we have chosen is a

humorous one, which is why it will be natural for us to focus a great part of our attention on the

translation of humour and humour in general. When humour is involved the preservation of the

effect is crucial and the way in which this is done is very interesting. Therefore, we would like to

investigate this phenomenon. By the means of theories of humour we will seek to categorise

the way it is used in the movie and reflect upon the preservation of the original humour in the

target texts. Whether the right effect is retained in the target text is essential to the result and

for this reason we consider the aspect of humour very interesting and relevant for the subject

in question. In order to investigate this, we will select relevant examples of humorous dialogue

and analyse them.

We want to compare the Danish and French translations with the English original respectively,

after which we will compare the results. We expect the differences in translation in connection

with the translation strategies and humour to be more significant in the translation from



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English to French than in the translation from English to Danish, because we consider the

cultural distance between France and the United States of America to be greater than that

between Denmark and the USA. The different translation choices will be categorised according

to their microstrategies.

The project will start off with a section containing our choice of methodology and theories to

clarify our approach to the research. We will deal with theories concerning translation and

humour to create a foundation for the analysis. From there we will move on to the analysis

where we will study chosen segments and give an account of the applied translation strategies.

Furthermore, we will analyse the different kinds of humour used and try to discover the degree

to which it has been preserved in the translations. We will compare the translation methods

used in the Danish target text and the French target text. This will be done in order to discover

possible linguistic and cultural differences. Moreover, we will present our findings in a

conclusion to sum up our results. Finally, there will be a section with a discussion of possible

opportunities for further investigation.

In short, our main aim is to study the use of macro and microstrategies and whether the

humour of the characters is preserved from the source text to the target texts. This will be done

by taking a closer look at how the humour of the English-language movie is rendered in the

Danish and French subtitles and how the translations are made. We will investigate this by the

aid of the following sub-questions:

● What kind of humour is used?

● Which macro and microstrategies are employed in the Danish and French translations?

● What are the differences between the Danish and French subtitles and why is this so?

● Is the humorous effect preserved?



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1.1 Summary of How to Train Your Dragon

The movie is set on the Isle of Berk where Vikings live in constant fear of dragons. This is where

Hiccup lives along with his father, Stoick, who is the chief. Hiccup does not behave like a Viking

and people regard him as being weak. Stoick is not proud of his son, and has already concluded

that Hiccup is never going to be a worthy successor. However, Hiccup is determined to prove

himself. He wants to kill a dragon and one day, by accident, he actually hits something - an

unknown, extremely dangerous Night Fury. He sets out to kill the dragon but cannot make

himself do it. Instead, he names the dragon Toothless and makes him his pet. This is not normal

Viking behaviour, so Toothless has to remain a secret. In the meantime, the town is in a fever of

excitement because the young Vikings have started dragon training. Hiccup is a reluctant

participant, and has to split his time between training, and taking care of his new friend.

Through Toothless, Hiccup discovers some of the secrets of dragons and is in that way able to

tame the dragons. Toothless’ rudder is damaged and he is dependent upon Hiccup to help him

fly. Hiccup is doing well in dragon training which makes one of his opponents, Astrid, a little

suspicious. The thing with Astrid is that Hiccup is completely in love with her. She discovers

their secret and wants to turn them in, but soon she is amazed by both Toothless and Hiccup.

Hiccup has won the right to kill his first dragon, everybody is watching, and he will not do it.

Instead, he tries to convince everyone that dragons are not evil, this is where everything goes

wrong. Stoick does not believe that dragons can be tamed. Toothless rescues Hiccup but is

captured himself and is forced to take part in Stoick’s plan to find the dragons’ nest. The Vikings

set out, guided by Toothless, leaving the young recruits behind. In discovering the nest, the

Vikings also discover an enormous dragon. Luckily, Hiccup and the other recruits arrive on

dragonback to save the day. Hiccup is almost killed in the fight but Toothless saves him and

Stoick finally realises how wrong he has been all along. Days later, Hiccup wakes up to a

wooden leg, a kiss from Astrid and a town where Vikings and dragons live in harmony.

Toothless and Hiccup are both missing a spare part but together they are complete.



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2 Methodology and Theory

As previously mentioned the project is based on the computer animated movie How to Train

Your Dragon and can therefore be described as being based on an empirical analysis. The study

will focus on the subtitles of the movie and the techniques for translating English speech into

written Danish and French respectively. Our data will make it possible to conduct a comparative

analysis of the source text and the two target texts.

With a starting point in the translation strategies described by Schjoldager (2008) we will try to

clarify which techniques a translator has for translating a text in general. The focus will be on

the use of macro and microstrategies. In order to expand on and clarify the theories, the

thoughts and explanations of Jeremy Munday (2008) and Nigel Armstrong (2005) on the subject

of Vinay and Darbelnet’s theories will be incorporated into the assignment. Humour is another

important aspect of this movie and an interesting discipline of translation. Therefore, it is an

obvious choice to start off with a definition of humour and follow up with different categories

of humour to investigate the types and their usage in the translations. For this purpose we will

apply Katja Pelsmaeker’s and Fred Van Besien’s theory of irony as presented by Jeroen

Vandaele (2002). Moreover, we will incorporate the theories of Alison Ross (1998) to describe

different kinds of humour which will assist us in the classification of our examples.

Other theories will be used to provide important background information about translation in

general, and screen translation. The theories mentioned above will be applied to carefully

selected examples from scene 2 in the movie, along with others. The scene has been chosen

since the use of humour occurs very often and it is apparent that a lot of different

microstrategies have been employed. The examples have been chosen to include interesting

and varying translation strategies as well as different kinds of humour. Furthermore, the

examples should as far as possible be intriguing in both the Danish and French target texts. The

trilingual manuscript of scene 2 can be found in Appendix A.



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2.1 Translation

The Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English defines to translate as “to change written or

spoken words into another language”. This makes the discipline of translation sound rather

simple, but this is not always the case. There are different kinds of translations methods and

therefore also more than one way to get to a final result. In for example screen translation it is

very important that the translation is carefully conducted if the movie is to be a success in other

countries. Translation involves more than a change of language. The translator must always be

aware of the target group because the cultural settings might be more or less different from

one culture to another. Furthermore, the style of writing must be taken into account as well as

the enabling of understanding (Bedeker & Feinauer 2006: 135).

2.1.1 Subtitling

Subtitling is a special kind of translation which is found on screen in for example films,

documentaries and TV-series. A number of countries prefer subtitles, whereas others might

favour other kinds of screen translations such as dubbing or voice over. However, subtitling is

the less expensive type of screen translation (Gottlieb 2008: 208). The subject of screen

translation has occupied many theorists over time such as Jorge Diaz-Cintas and Aline Remael,

Jane Elisabeth Thomsen, Jan Pedersen and Henrik Gottlieb. Diaz-Cintas and Remael (2007) deal

with the discipline of subtitling and could have been a relevant source of knowledge if we had

wanted to make a translation ourselves, instead of analysing somebody else’s translation. The

work of Thomsen (2011) focuses on the macro and microstrategies used in the animated movie

Shrek and her work has been used as a source of inspiration in our research since it addresses

some of the same issues. The interesting work of Gottlieb (2008) deals with subtitles in a more

descriptive way which fits with our point of departure and will be used in this section on

subtitling.

Theorists sometimes refer to subtitling as a form of diamesic translation; this term tells us that

the translation changes not only language but also medium during translation. One example of



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this phenomenon is the change from speech to writing which occurs in motion pictures, it can,

however, also be the other way around; from writing to speech (Gottlieb 2008: 210). This form

of translation comes with some limitations as people can only understand a rather small

quantity of information or text in a limited amount of time (Gottlieb 2008: 209-210).

Furthermore, when a translator converts spoken words into text there must be some

alterations. Certain expressions belong to the spoken language and do not fit the written

language. The real challenge lies in the process of translating not only into another culture and

language but into another medium: From speech to written text (Gottlieb 2008: 208).

When translating speech into subtitles, the translator must realise that the future viewers will

always be aware of the translation taking place, since both the source text and the target text

will be present at the same time. On a side note, allowing the spectators to read a translation

while they are hearing the original words simultaneously will, in certain countries such as

Denmark, where a large percentage of the population can be thought of as bilingual (Gottlieb

2008: 234), very possibly expose the translator to some complaints, because a lot of people will

have their own opinion about how the translation should have been made. Under these

conditions “the good subtitles are the ones you never notice” (Pedersen 2007: 40), meaning

that the translation should feel as natural as possible for the audience in order to make the

subtitles as little disturbing as possible.

2.1.2 Culture

Edward Tylor defined culture as “that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art,

morals, law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of

society.” (Longhurst et al. 2008: 2). This tells us that there are several aspects to consider

before translating a text from one language/culture to another language/culture. Some cultures

are relatively similar, whereas others may be miles apart and the further apart they are the

more adjustments are needed in the translation. The differences between cultures might be so

great that what is considered common knowledge or a part of everyday life in one culture may



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be completely unknown in another (Bedeker & Feinauer 2006: 136). An example of this could

be that even though Great Britain, France and Denmark are geographically close there are still

some expressions which are almost impossible to translate. However, they do have

translations. The problem is that people in other cultures would not understand them, as with

the English desserts spotted dick and treacle tart which are virtually unknown to Danes and

Frenchmen. (Bedeker & Feinauer 2006: 135). Therefore, they must be translated into a well-

known equivalent which would create the same feeling in the target culture.

2.1.3 Macrostrategies

The term macrostrategies refers to the overall translation method, which a translator may

employ during the translation process. When addressing a translation task there are different

ways of handling the translation problems which will occur during any translation job.

According to Anne Schjoldager, there are two possible ways of approaching the data in

question. These are the source-text oriented strategy and the target-text oriented strategy

(Schjoldager 2008: 67). The choice of strategy depends on a number of factors such as the

purpose and the audience of the text. Another thing to consider could be which effect the

translator wants to create. Before translating, one should reflect on where the focus should be,

how the translation should appear and whether the audience is aware of the fact that a

translation is taking place.

2.1.3.1 Source-text oriented macrostrategy

This strategy centres the attention on the original text and emphasises the importance of both

the style and content (Schjoldager 2008: 72). This means that an aspect such as cultural

differences is likely to be pushed aside and that the focus of the translation is turned towards a

more direct translation method. The aim is to stay loyal to the original text. Furthermore, the

source-text oriented approach is often used when the translator is translating data which can

be characterised as somebody else’s communication and doing so without changing the

meaning. Another important aspect of the source-text oriented macrostrategy is the fact that



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the translation will come across as overt to the audience. This means that the receivers are

perfectly aware of the text being a translation (Schjoldager 2008: 72). Certain types of data are

more likely to be translated by the use of the source-text oriented approach, and this

macrostrategy is often found in documents like manuals and informative labellings.

2.1.3.2 Target-text oriented macrostrategy

When using this overall translation strategy the translator will focus on the meaning of the

source text. This implies that the process of translating a text will not be as direct as it is when

using the source-text oriented macrostrategy. The most important objective in connection with

the target-text oriented macrostrategy is to recreate the effect of the source text (Schjoldager

2008: 72). The translator’s role is to adjust the target text to possible differences from one

culture to another in order to generate the right reaction from the audience. Often the material

which is translated is supposed to function as a remediation from one part to another. Hence, it

becomes more likely that the audience would not notice that the data is translated, this makes

the translation covert (Schjoldager 2008: 72). The target-text macrostrategy is often found in

documents such as poems, songs and in the translation of humour.

2.1.4 The skopos theory

In the 1970s the skopos theory was coined by Hans J. Vermeer and has been an important

translation tool ever since (Schjoldager 2008: 151). Jeremy Munday describes the skopos theory

as follows: “Skopos theory focuses above all on the purpose of the translation, which

determines the translation methods and strategies that are to be employed in order to produce

a functionally adequate result” (2008: 79). This theory has the ability to assist a translator in

determining whether a source-text oriented strategy or a target-text oriented strategy should

be used. In the determination of an overall translation strategy a translator should consider the

purpose and thereby the skopos of the target text. Furthermore, according to Anne

Schjoldager, the translator should take ”the functional and communicative nature” into account

(2008: 155). This can be done by means of the theory of translational action (Schjoldager 2008:



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155). Another important part of this theory is the brief which supplies the translator with

information about the wishes of the client, the target group etc. (Schjoldager 2008: 157). The

source text in itself greatly affects the choice of strategy as different elements of a text carry

different degrees of importance and help determine the optimal method of translation

(Schjoldager 2008: 158-159). Finally, a translator should try to remain loyal to both the source

text and the target text and in order to do that the skopos and the translation strategy are

important factors (Schjoldager 2008: 159).

2.1.5 Microstrategies

Microstrategies can be referred to as the different translation methods which can be used in

specific translation situations. This means that instead of dealing with the overall translation

(the macrostrategy), the translator takes a closer look at phrases, sentences and words on a

micro level (Schjoldager 2008: 89). Microstrategies are extremely important to consider in the

translation of texts as there are many different ways of translating. For most people, it will

probably seem obvious that a direct translation is the best option, however, this is far from

always true, sometimes it would be preferable to change the wording completely. The different

strategies which we will be focusing on within the microstrategies are: Direct transfer, calque,

direct translation, oblique translation, explicitation, paraphrase herein also modulation,

condensation, adaptation, addition, substitution, deletion and permutation.

2.1.5.1 Direct transfer

Applying this microstrategy to a translation entails using a direct copy of a unit from the source

text (Schjoldager 2008: 93). This is what Vinay and Darbelnet refer to as “borrowing” and it is

usually found in connection with names and places. This is done, for example, when retaining

foreign words in order to add a cultural twist (Munday 2008: 56). A direct transfer can also be

employed when the target language does not have a sufficient equivalent or perhaps a

suggestion which is even remotely close to the original word or term (Armstrong 2005: 143). An



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example from the movie could be the name Stoick, which has been transferred directly from

the English original to the French version.

2.1.5.2 Calque

When a translation can be identified as calque it is because it follows the original structure of

the source text. However, the outcome will usually seem unidiomatic to the target-text

audience (Schjoldager 2008: 94). This may all seem a little negative but according to Nigel

Armstrong calque translations have their advantages too; for example, these translations will

be easy to spot if they are connected to a certain culture and they will most likely also be

somewhat shorter than a translation which is the result of a direct translation as this may need

some sort of explanation (Armstrong 2005: 146).

2.1.5.3 Direct translation

Direct translation is often considered to be the obvious choice when making translations; it is a

so-called word-for-word translation. This microstrategy is, as opposed to calque, normally

perceived as idiomatic (Schjoldager 2008: 95+96). Vinay and Darbelnet refer to this as “literal

translation” and add that “literalness should only be sacrificed because of structural and

metalinguistic requirements and only after checking that the meaning is fully preserved”

(Munday 2008: 57). Direct translation places the focus on the forming of sentences, and the

placing of words, rather than on the use of words (Armstrong 2005: 147).

2.1.5.4 Oblique translation

Oblique translation is very similar to direct translation which means that the target text is very

close to the source text in both instances. However, when using an oblique approach the

translator will tend to centre the focus on the preservation of the sense of the source text, it is

a so-called sense-for-sense translation (Schjoldager 2008: 97).



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2.1.5.5 Explicitation

Another microstrategy which can be used as a translation tool is explicitation. A translator may

run into situations where it would be necessary to add certain details in order to make the

audience understand the full meaning of the translation (Schjoldager 2008: 99). For example, in

the Danish subtitles from the movie the English word inside is translated into personlighed.

2.1.5.6 Paraphrase

Paraphrasing can be defined as a translation where the meaning is retained but the wording

may be completely different from the source text. This means that the length of the text can be

severely altered (Schjoldager 2008: 100).

2.1.5.6.1 Modulation

Vinay and Darbelnet’s theory of modulation is part of Schjoldager’s microstrategy paraphrase

(Schjoldager 2008: 100). According to Vinay and Darbelnet modulation constitutes a change in

point of view from the source text to the target text (Munday 2008: 57). Modulation entails

that the source-language perception will be somewhat reversed when the term in question

reaches the target language; what is lost may become found, where may become when and so

on (Armstrong 2005: 151).

2.1.5.7 Condensation

A translator may run into situations where it would be more natural to leave out certain details

in order to make the audience understand the full meaning without telling them things they

already know. This is referred to as condensation (Schjoldager 2008: 102). Armstrong refers to

this phenomenon as “non-translation or compression”, and suggests that it may also be

employed when something occurs in the source text which will be very hard to translate into

another language because it is so closely related to the culture from which it stems (2005: 159).



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2.1.5.8 Adaptation

Adaptation puts the focus on the effect of the text, in trying to reproduce the effect of the

source text in the target text. This may very well mean that the wording and the literal meaning

of the source text will not be preserved, the effect, however, will (Schjoldager 2008: 103).

Armstrong claims that this is the “most free type of translation” as the translator may change

the content of the original text completely in the target text; Walmart may become Carrefour,

rugby may become football or an eagle may become a falcon - it all depends on the cultural

setting of the target text (2005: 155).

2.1.5.9 Addition

When applying the microstrategy of addition to a translation task the translator adds a new and

meaningful element to the target-text version. This means that the additional part does not

originate from the source text in itself. Addition is closely related to the microstrategy of

explicitation (Schjoldager 2008: 104+105).

2.1.5.10 Substitution

Substitution is found whenever there is a change in meaning in the translation from the source

text to the target text. Even though the semantic meaning is altered it is still apparent that it

originates from a certain source text. A translator might use this microstrategy in order to make

the target text seem more accurate to him or herself (Schjoldager 2008: 106). An example of

this could be the translation of Hiccup into Harold in the French version of the movie.

2.1.5.11 Deletion

The microstrategy of deletion entails deleting certain items from the source text. This means

that the units which are deleted will in no way be present in the target text, not even as implicit

or unspoken parts of another unit, they will simply be left out (Scholdager 2008: 108).



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2.1.5.12 Permutation

The term or microstrategy of permutation is the recreation of an effect from the original text, in

the target text. However, this effect will be placed differently than it is in the source text. By

using this strategy the translator makes a choice to keep a certain effect from the source text

but also to move it to another place in the text. This would most likely happen because it would

be quite difficult to keep it in its original position (Schjoldager 2008: 109).

2.2 Humour

The subject of humour has been investigated by several theorists, of which we have chosen to

include: Dirk Delabastita (1997), Marta Dynel (2009), Peter Alan Low (2011), Peter Newmark

(1988), Katja Pelsmaeker and Fred Van Besien (2002), as well as Alison Ross (1998). The works

of these theorists is relevant to our research in their own individual way and describe different

areas of humour in a more contemporary fashion than many other scholars within the field. The

works of Walter Nash (1985) and Victor Raskin (1984) could also have been made use of in our

research. However, they both seem relatively outdated compared to the other possibilities.

According to Alison Ross humour can be defined as: “Something that makes a person laugh or

smile” (1998: 1). However, humour can be a lot of things and the essential factor is that it is all

in the eyes and ears of the beholder/listener. What someone considers to be funny depends on

personal preferences, culture and social settings. When a person is alone the tendency to laugh

is diminished, whereas company can influence the amount of laughter in a positive direction,

though not always. When watching something familiar which someone would usually find

funny, company can also have the opposite effect if the majority does not laugh (Ross 1998: 1).

Humour can be difficult to define and as Ross highlights her definition may be a little too

narrow. People do not have to laugh to consider something funny as they might laugh even

though they do not find it funny at all (1998: 1). Humour might lose its power over time if it is

repeated too often and becomes too well-known (Ross 1998: 4). This indicates that humour is

most successful when our brains encounter something new and get surprised as a result.



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2.2.1 Translating Humour

Since humour is grasped differently from one person to another it might make up quite a

challenge to the translator. When translating humour, it is, according to Peter Alan Low (2011),

very important to recognise which type of humour is used. The nature of the text can assist the

translator in deciding how relevant the humour is and thereby the importance of preserving the

humour in the target text. Furthermore, the intended effect of the humour should be

considered in order to gain knowledge about how to translate the humour in question.

Moreover, it can be advantageous for the translator to reflect upon whether the humour is

specific to one language or culture to create the original effect from the source text for the new

target audience (Low 2011: 60-61). In short, the key element to a successful humour translation

is: preservation of the effect.

2.2.2 Types of humour

Humour can be divided into several different categories. The most important kinds of humour

have been selected and will be described in the following. These are: Irony, visual humour, the

incongruity theory, wordplay and puns, surreal humour, parody, language-specific humour and

culture-specific humour.

2.2.2.1 Irony

Irony is a special kind of humour which can be described as follows: “In terms of locutionary

act, irony arises when there is some kind of contrast or incongruity between what is said (the

proposal content) and what can be inferred from the situation” (Pelsmaeker & Besien 2002:

243). What is essential to irony is that it often functions as some kind of criticism since the

spoken utterance will contain either incongruity or superiority. However, irony is often

accompanied by a twinkle in the speaker’s eye and therefore it is meant to be humorous

(Pelsmaeker & Besien 2002: 242). Ironic remarks can also function as positive or complimentary

irony, but this kind of irony is not as widespread (Pelsmaeker & Besien 2002: 244). There are

different ways in which irony can be used and can for example be found as oppositions,



19

understatements, overstatements and sentences which are not strictly truth-sensitive (meaning

an utterance where people would have to search for a deeper meaning which is not said),

(Pelsmaeker & Besien 2002: 243).

Irony can be difficult to use in practice because as humour in general depends on personal

preferences so does the use of irony. Some people might find a particular use of irony hilarious

while others could be offended or hurt by the utterance. According to Pelsmaeker and van

Besien this may depend on whether a person feels targeted by the content of the ironic

statement or not (Pelsmaeker & Besien 2002: 242). If someone feels criticized the irony will not

be grasped as funny and thereby the humorous function will be lost.

There are different reasons for making use of ironic utterances depending on which effect or

result is intended. Irony can for example serve as requests or statements in order to make

people act or intercept a certain message or information (Pelsmaeker & Besien 2002: 245).

To make sure that the audience knows that irony is used the sender will often tend to indicate

this by the means of what is referred to as ironic cues. These cues can either take the form of

non-verbal signs for example by talking through the nose or speaking very slowly or forcefully.

They can also function as verbal signs being expressed by reappearances, interjections and

intensifiers (Pelsmaeker & Besien 2002: 245-246).

2.2.2.2 Visual humour

Visual humour is obviously not spoken but it is something funny shown with images. It can

sometimes be connected to what is said and function as a kind of support to words which helps

underline a point or make something spoken more funny (Ross 1998: 5). However, it might also

be completely out of context. Some of the tools which can be used to convey humour in a visual

way are movements and facial expressions such as smiles, frowns, scowls and wry faces.



20

2.2.2.3 The Incongruity theory

Another kind of humour relies on the incongruity theory which tells us that people find

something funny when they are surprised by the content. In order to succeed at this kind of

humour a person will most likely arrange particular words carefully and time them well (Ross

1998: 7). Incongruous humour is based on misunderstandings: A person is made to believe that

what is said has one meaning but in fact the words are ambiguous, and may suggest a

completely different meaning than anticipated. The unexpected amuses people (Ross 1998: 8).

This is closely related to wordplay and puns.

2.2.2.4 Wordplay and puns

Wordplay and puns can be identified when there is structural ambiguity. They can have many

different functions and we have chosen the ones we consider to be most relevant in connection

with humour in movies.

First of all, the phonology principle gives people the possibility of being ambiguous by playing

with words and their sounds. Homophones are words which have different meanings and

spellings but are pronounced similarly. (Ross 1998: 9). An example of this could be the words

made and maid. Another phenomenon is that of homonyms which are words with the same

spelling and pronunciation. However, these identical words have different meanings (Ross

1998: 9). An example of this could be the word mean which can be both a verb and an

adjective.

Second of all, the morphology of some words can be changed to create another meaning than

the original. This is done by adding, changing or deleting prefixes and suffixes in order to make

something funny (Ross 1998: 14). Prepositions are polysemic and can seem very similar to

homonyms. However, homonyms have completely different meanings, whereas polysemes

have the same meanings but fit into different contexts (Ross 1998: 17). As can be seen in for

example the word on: On a table or on New Year’s Eve.

Third of all, syntax can play an important role in the aspect of humour. Sentences can have

completely different meanings even though the words are the same. The placing of stress in

speech is essential to the understanding (Ross 1998: 20).



21

Wordplay is a kind of humour which is usually specific to one language only (Low 2011: 62) this

will be dealt with in one of the following sections: Language-specific humour.

2.2.2.5 Surreal humour

When humour is used to illustrate something unrealistic it can be referred to as surreal

humour. Children are often unaffected by realism, they have no worries but instead they have a

lively fantasy enabling them to relate to strange and impossible situations, creatures and

objects (Ross 1998: 36). An example of this from the movie could be the fact that it features

dragons, which do not exist.

2.2.2.6 Parody

This kind of humour occurs when somebody makes fun of someone else by copying their

behaviour, attitude, manner of speaking etc. In order to poke successful fun at somebody by

the use of parody there has to be a person to make fun of whom all the listeners are familiar

with in some sort of way (Ross 1998: 48). Furthermore, a parody does not always entail

targeting a person but can also be used to imitate certain religious communities, professions,

organisations etc.

2.2.2.7 Metaphors

Peter Newmark defines metaphors as: “Any figurative expression: the transferred sense of a

physical word; the personification of an abstraction; the application of a word or collocation to

what it does not literally denote, i.e. to describe one thing in terms of another”(1988: 104).

Differently put, a metaphor is a comparison between two objects which would normally have

little in common. What makes a metaphor funny is the fact that it is unexpected and brings

something new to the situation. Furthermore, when a metaphor is created there is incoherence

between the two compared elements (Dynel 2009: 31). The audience will react by laughing or

smiling because something strange or unsuitable to the situation is mentioned.



22

2.2.2.8 Language-specific humour

According to Peter Alan Low the largest part of humour specific to one language entails the use

of some sort of wordplay which can sometimes be made funny by strange pronunciations or

other useful means like for example parody - as explained in the above (2011: 62). The

humorous use of words that sound alike but have different spellings and meanings, commonly

known as homophones, is something which can to a certain degree be categorised as specific to

only one language (Delabastita 1997: 217). However, there are some instances where pairs of

homophones have an equivalent in another language with the same meanings as those of the

source language (Low 2011: 63).

2.2.2.9 Culture-specific humour

This kind of humour often relies on the use or mention of a person or institution which

everybody who is part of the culture in question would know about, and thereby they would be

able to understand why it is funny (Low 2011: 68). People who are not part of the culture in

question may have a really hard time relating to what is basically a kind of private joke. This can

be because they either do not know about the things mentioned or because it is simply not in

their culture to think that these subjects are particularly funny (Low 2011: 67). Furthermore,

what is funny in one culture may be something which is rarely spoken of in another (Low 2011:

68).



23

3 Analysis of the Danish and French subtitles

In the process of discovering different translation strategies and types of humour we will go

through all of the segments given below. The analysis of most examples consist of two parts:

One section concerning the translation strategies employed and another section about the

humour incorporated in the example. However, not all examples contain humour and therefore

this part will be left out. Furthermore, every part of the analysis will contain thoughts on the

Danish target text, as well as taking the French target text into account. But first of all, this

section will be introduced by a summary of scene 2.

3.1 Scene 2

Hiccup and Gobber return from a dragon attack where Hiccup succeeded in wrecking the

village. Hiccup is convinced that he hit a dragon, however, Gobber is not, and they discuss

Stoick’s reasons for disliking Hiccup. Here the scene changes and we are at a Viking’s meeting,

Stoick is speaking. He is a proponent of the Vikings taking action and finding the dragons’ nest

and encourages the other Vikings to accompany him on a quest to destroy the dragons’ home.

The others are not as enthusiastic about his proposal as he is. However, when they are

presented with the alternative of looking after Hiccup they all volunteer. The other Vikings

leave while Stoick and Gobber remain. Stoick feels dejected because he does not consider

Hiccup fit to be a Viking and Gobber tries to persuade Stoick into putting Hiccup in dragon

training. Stoick shares some childhood memories and concludes that Hiccup is not like him.



24

3.2 Analysis of the chosen examples

3.2.1 Segment 5

HICCUP And when he does,

it's always with

this... disappointed

scowl. Like

someone skimped on

the meat in his

sandwich.

(MIMICKING STOICK)

Excuse me, barmaid.

I'm afraid you

brought me the wrong

offspring. I

ordered an extra

large boy with beefy

arms. Extra guts and

glory on

the side. This here.

This is a talking

fish bone.

Når han gør, er det med et

skuffet udtryk, som om

nogen har snydt med kødet

i hans sandwich.

Undskyld mig, kromutter,

men det er det forkerte

afkom. Jeg bestilte en

ekstra stor dreng med

stærke arme og ben i

næsen.

Det der er et talende

fiskeben.

Quand il écoute, il

fait la tronche,

comme si on mégotait

sur son bifteck.

Mam’zelle, y a eu

erreur sur ma

progéniture.

J’ai commandé un

taureau XL, avec

tripes et lauriers en

garniture.

Ça, c’est une arête

qui cause!

Translation strategies:

In this excerpt several different microstrategies can be found. We have chosen to focus on the

ones which in our opinion are the most interesting technically and academically. When taking a

look at the phrases highlighted in blue we find an example of the microstrategy adaptation. The

original meaning of the source text remains, but in the Danish version some of the effect is lost

in the translation. The Danish word “udtryk” only means expression, whereas the English word

“scowl” indicates more than just an expression. It is generally understood from scowl that

someone is looking at someone else in an angry way. Put differently, the intended effect is

preserved but only in part since the feeling of anger is left out in the Danish version. In the

French translation the meaning is also only maintained partially. However, the French version

has lost even more of the original effect because “faire la tronche” only means to make a face,

hence, the angry feeling contained in scowl is completely lost and the disappointed part is only



25

somewhat recreated. It cannot be directly deduced from the French subtitles that there is a

feeling of disappointment but the context implies it.

The pink marking represents three different microstrategies: Direct translation, adaptation and

deletion. Direct translation is used in the Danish subtitles since it is a word-for-word translation

which is employed and it is the closest translation possible to the source text. It is an obvious

solution for the translator to make a direct translation of this phrase because it remains

completely idiomatic when translated into Danish. “Excuse me, barmaid” becomes “undskyld

mig, kromutter” which means almost exactly the same. Deletion and adaptation are both

employed in the French target text. The translator has chosen to leave out “excuse me” thereby

making a deletion. However, this can be done in French without losing any great part of the

meaning as the word “mam’zelle” when spoken with a high intonation indicates an enquiry.

Even though the French version does not include an enquiring opening, the French natives will

still understand the meaning. Furthermore, the French translator has made a small adaptation

as the word “mam’zelle” does not mean “barmaid”. It means miss and therefore does not

indicate someone working in a pub or bar and some of the meaning is thereby lost. Moreover,

the expression “mam’zelle” is an example of a colloquialism as it is an informal version of the

word mademoiselle.

The phrases highlighted in green represent two different microstrategies: Oblique in the Danish

version and a direct translation in the French version. Depending on one’s idea of the Danish

expression “ben i næsen” the translation can be categorised as either a substitution or an

oblique translation. If this saying is understood as meaning having a mind of one’s own it

changes the intended meaning of the source text, consequently, a substitution has been made.

However, if the expression is grasped in the way that we understand the expression, the

translation represents an oblique translation. We fathom this phrase as meaning tough and

strong, in this way the meaning remains the same as in the source text but the words are

different. Hence, it is an oblique translation. In the French target text, the translator has

managed to make a direct translation as the meanings and the words are the same.



26

Humour:

Many different types of humour have been incorporated into this part of the movie such as:

Parody, irony, visual humour and metaphor. The last part of the extract is a parody where

Hiccup is aping his father’s way of talking, acting and looking. The audience is aware of Stoick’s

normal behaviour and can relate to his character in the movie. This is one of the conditions if a

parody is to be successful. What makes it funny is the fact that the spectators are able to

recognise Stoick in Hiccup’s exaggerated imitation. This kind of humour is supported by the use

of irony which is introduced by an ironic cue. As soon as Hiccup starts talking with an

exaggerated version of his father’s accent the audience becomes aware of the fact that he is

about to say something with an ironic twist. In fact, everything said during the parody has an

ironic meaning. Furthermore, while Hiccup is making fun of his father he is also visualising the

parody by the use of body language. He indicates strength by squeezing his own arm and

gesturing wildly. When visuals are used simultaneously with parody and irony it reinforces the

humour. This part of the scene also includes the use of a metaphor. The metaphor consists of

Hiccup comparing himself to a dish. This is clear from the specific language which is normally

associated with the placing of an order in a restaurant. Words like “ordered” and “on the side”

are meant to make the audience think of food. The Danish version makes use of the same

metaphor but because “on the side” has been left out some of the meaning is lost. However, in

the French translation both “ordered” and “on the side” have been translated into

“commandé” and “en garniture”. In general, irony and parody work well and remain intact in all

three languages. The Danish translator does not manage to recreate the effect of the original

resulting in a much weaker metaphor.



27

3.2.2 Segment 6

GOBBER You're thinking about this

all wrong. It's not so much

what you look like. It's

what's inside that he can't

stand.

Du har misforstået

noget.

Det er ikke dit

udseende… Det er din

personlighed, han ikke

kan lide.

Tu as tout faux.

C’est pas ton

aspect mais ce

que tu es, qui

l’énerve.


This example contains several different microstrategies and we will be taking a closer look at

the following translation strategies: Oblique translation, paraphrase, deletion, explicitation and

adaptation. The translated sentences highlighted in blue are both translated rather freely,

which could make one think of a paraphrase. Even though the Danish translation “du har

misforstået noget”, meaning you have misunderstood something, is translated quite freely it

has still preserved the original sense from the source text. Therefore, it can be classified as an

oblique translation. The French translation, on the other hand, is what can be referred to as a

paraphrase because “tu as tout faux” means you are totally wrong. Thereby, the meaning is

somehow retained but the wording is very different and so is the length of the sentence. When

a person is totally wrong he or she could not be more wrong, whereas when a person has

misunderstood something he or she is only wrong to a certain degree. In short, it can generally

seem rather difficult to distinguish the two microstrategies used because the differences

between them are somewhat small. However, a closer look at the sentences reveals the fact

that they operate in dissimilar ways.

The microstrategy of deletion can be found in the pink marking. The English source text “it’s not

so much what you look like” is translated into the Danish sentence “det er ikke dit udseende”

and the French sentence “c’est pas ton aspect” which both mean it is not your appearance. The

translations show us that both the Danish and the French translator have chosen to leave out

“so much”, which in our opinion carries important meaning in the context. The words “so

much” hint at the fact that Hiccup’s father neither likes his son on the inside nor on the outside.



28

In the two target texts the aspect of appearance is unimportant in the context, whereas the

original implies that appearance plays a subordinate part. Because a unit of meaning has been

left out, both translations can be classified as deletions.

The words marked in green provide us with the microstrategies: Explicitation and oblique

translation. The Danish word “personlighed” means personality and is an elaboration of the

word “inside” from the English original. In this connection we regard “inside” as a super

ordinate, whereas “personlighed” is a subcategory, meaning that “inside” is a broad term and

may refer to several things - personality being one of them. In short, this translation method

can be classified as an explicitation. The French words “ce que tu es” mean what you are and

retain the same sense and slight ambiguity as the English source text. Hence, we are dealing

with an oblique translation strategy.

Turning to the example highlighted in yellow, we find the microstrategies of adaptation and

somehow an oblique translation. In the English original Gobber says; “he can’t stand” and the

translations into Danish and French respectively, try to recreate the effect of the original but

they both come across as less powerful. The Danish version “han ikke kan lide” means he does

not like and seems to create the weakest effect among the three possibilities. When a person

cannot stand another he or she has trouble even being close to the person in question. If the

person, on the other hand, does not like the other then he or she is simply not satisfied with the

other person’s character. The English original seems stronger than the Danish translation, some

of the effect has been lost, making the translation an adaptation. The French translation

“l’énerve” means, directly translated, get on his nerves which could be categorised as either an

adaptation or an oblique translation. On the one hand, the effect of this example seems weaker

than that of the English source text and may therefore be categorised as an adaptation. On the

other hand, it can be discussed whether the two subtitles have the same sense and then it

might also be classified as an oblique translation.



29

Humour:

Humour plays an important role in this extract from the movie in which irony and incongruity

are the most prominent types. Irony is a form of humour which is used often in the film and this

example is no exception. The irony is introduced by the use of an ironic cue, which consists of

the change in Gobber’s intonation. All the underlying criticism of Gobber’s utterance is more

easily said by the means of irony. The use of irony is closely connected to the aspect of

incongruity. When Gobber says “you are thinking about this all wrong” the audience is lead to

believe that he is about to say something comforting to Hiccup - that is not the case. Instead, he

does something unexpected and criticises all of Hiccup as opposed to just his looks. In the

Danish and the French translations some of the humour, both the irony and the incongruity,

has been lost as the importance of Hiccup’s looks is left out.

3.2.3. Segment 7

HICCUP Thank you, for summing

that up.

Tak for

påmindelsen.

Merci pour cette

precision.


In this segment the microstrategy of adaptation can be identified. In the Danish subtitles we are

dealing with an adaption, since the target text does not create the same effect as the one

presented in the source text. The Danish phrase “tak for påmindelsen” means thank you for

reminding me and in this context the meaning remains almost the same as the line “thank you

for summing that up” from the original. However, the words reminding and summing up mean

two different things and therefore the intended effect is somewhat changed. In our opinion to

remind someone of something refers to the mentioning of old knowledge, whereas summing up

does not necessarily have to refer to something already known. The same microstrategy can be

found in the French translation. The French word “précision” means precision and does not

create the same effect as summing up. When making a precision it entails the addition of

details, whereas when summing up the details tend to be left out. We consider both



30

translations to be adaptations; however, they could also be classified as oblique translations

depending on how the different terms; summing up, reminding and precision are defined.

Humour:

Again, irony is the dominant type of humour used in this example. It is obvious that Hiccup does

not mean what he is saying. The audience becomes aware of the fact that Hiccup is going to say

something ironic because of the ironic cues: The change in his intonation and body language.

Even though Hiccup says “thank you, for summing that up” it is apparent that he would rather

Gobber had not summed that up. The irony is kept intact in both the Danish and the French

target texts, since some of the original effect is retained and thereby the humour has been

preserved.

3.2.4 Segment 10

STOICK Either we finish them or

they'll finish us! It's

the only way we'll be

rid of them! If we find

the nest and destroy it,

the dragons will leave.

They'll find another

home.

Det er enten dem eller

os!

Kun sådan kan vi slippe

af med dem. Finder vi

deres rede og ødelægger

den, forsvinder

dragerne. De vil slå sig

ned et andet sted.

Soit on les tue,

soit on est morts !

Seul moyen de s’en

débarrasser.

Si on détruit leur

nid, les dragons

s’en iront.

Ils s’installeront

ailleurs.


Segment 10 offers us the interesting microstrategy of condensation along with an oblique

translation strategy. We will start out with the phrases highlighted in blue. In the original

version Stoick is expressing himself very explicitly and when he says “finish” it is apparent that

he means kill. However, in the Danish translation “Det er enten dem eller os!”, “finish” has

become implicit and it is somewhat unclear what should be done to the dragons. This is an

example of the translation strategy condensation. It is obvious that there is not room for both

the Vikings and the dragons but nobody mentions death. The French translator, on the other



31

hand, has chosen an oblique translation strategy where the meaning is kept. Directly and

loosely translated the French version “soit on les tue, soit on est morts!” means either we kill

them or we are dead. The words from the source text have not been preserved in the target

text, however, the sense has.

The pink markings show an oblique translation in both the Danish and the French subtitles. In

the English original the word “home” is used, whereas in the Danish version it is translated into

“et andet sted” which is an equivalent of elsewhere. The French translator has arrived at the

same solution by using “ailleurs” which is also an equivalent of elsewhere. The reason why the

subtitles do not include the word “home” in Danish and French could be that “home” is

something closely connected to humans, not dragons or other animals. Especially in French, a

direct translation may represent a problem because the French word for “home”, maison can

mean both home and house. A translator would most likely not want to create an illusion of a

dragon in a house. Instead the target texts preserve the original sense by the use of

unambiguous words.

3.2.5 Segment 14

VIKING

Today's not good for me.

VIKING

Not today

VIKING

I've gotta do my axe

returns.

Jeg kan ikke.

-

Ikke I dag.

Jeg skal lave

selvangivelse.

Compte pas sur moi.

-

Je suis pris

Je fais ma declaration

de pots.

Translation Strategies:

The phrases in this extract are spoken at the meeting by three unknown Vikings, hence the title

“Viking”. The parts highlighted in blue represent two different translation strategies: Deletion

and paraphrase. The Danish translator has chosen to leave out a meaningful part of the line as



32

the word “today” is missing in the Danish subtitles, thereby making a deletion. What is missing

is an indication of time. This may have been done to avoid repetition since the following line

also includes the word “today”. However, the rest of the sentence is translated as directly as

possible. The French version has been translated quite freely as the meaning is not completely

the same as the original, making it a paraphrase. “Compte pas sur moi” means do not count on

me and is left more open to interpretation than the original. This expression can mean both I do

not have time and I do not want to, which makes it ambiguous.

The pink markings present the microstrategy of substitution, in the Danish target-text

translation. This is apparent as the meaning is somehow changed - in the English version the

words “axe returns” make up something unrealistic because Vikings probably did not have to

do “axe returns” or returns of any other kind. In the Danish subtitles “axe returns” have been

translated into “selvangivelse”, which means tax returns. Taxes and axes are not the same

things; hence, they have different meanings. The French translation retains the unrealistic

element from the original, thereby making an oblique translation. “Déclaration de pots” means

pot returns and keeps the original sense of the source text even though axes have turned into

pots.

Humour:

The pink lines offer us several different elements of humour; surreal humour and wordplay

which are closely connected to language-specific humour. The surreal humour in this part is

furnished by the words “axe returns”, “selvangivelse” and “déclaration de pots”, because

returns do not belong in the age of the Vikings. Furthermore, there is no such thing as “axe

returns” and “déclaration de pots”. However, what adds to the humour is the fact that

“returns” have been combined with “axe” and “pots” in the English and French versions. These

are objects which the Vikings most likely had and by combining them with a modern term they

are made funny. The humour in the Danish translation is not as complete as it does not

combine words from different eras but uses only a modern term. The English source text

contains wordplay as well and the writers surprise the audience on a phonological level



33

because “axe” and “tax” sound alike. The wordplay from the original has not been transferred

to the Danish and French target texts probably because this phenomenon is very language-

specific and hard to translate. However, the French translation does retain some of the

wordplay; déclaration de revenue means tax returns and by keeping “déclaration” they try to

recreate some of the effect of the source text. The Danish translator, on the other hand, has

chosen to use the form which the other languages make fun of, tax returns. All in all, the Danish

translation preserves the humour partly by the use of surreal humour and the omission of

wordplay. The French subtitles include more humorous elements from the original by keeping

both the surreal humour and part of the wordplay.

3.2.6 Segment 19

GOBBER I'll pack my undies.

Jeg pakker mit undertøj.

J’emballe mes culottes.


Here is an example of the microstrategy of direct translation in both the Danish and the French

subtitles. The translators have transferred the wording of the original completely.

Humour:

Even though this sentence may not be particularly interesting from a translation strategic point

of view, it is intriguing in connection with humour. The following types of humour can be found

in the example: Surreal humour and incongruity. The word “undies” and the translations of it,

“undertøj” and “culottes”, are all surreal because they do not fit into the context. We assume

that vikings did not have items such as “undies” and therefore it is surreal. The unexpected

element of humour surprises the brain and makes the audience laugh. Furthermore, “undies”

can be defined as underwear worn primarily by females or underwear in general, making this

word ambiguous. The fact that the line is spoken by a man makes it even more surprising and

incongruous, since a man is not usually supposed to wear women’s underwear. The Danish



34

translator has chosen to translate “undies” into “undertøj” which means underwear. This term

is not specific to one gender and therefore does not include the same amount of humour. The

French translator has chosen to use the word “culottes”, which has the same ambiguous

meaning as “undies”. The French expression means knickers i.e. the lower part of women’s

underwear or unisex underpants. Regarding humour, the phrase in question has been

translated better in the French version than the Danish, since the aspect of ambiguity has been

preserved in French but not in Danish.

3.2.7 Segment 21

GOBBER Oh, perfect. And while

I'm busy, Hiccup can

cover the stall. Molten

steel, razor sharp

blades, lots of time to

himself...what could

possibly go wrong?

Perfekt. Mens jeg har

travlt, kan Hikke passe

smedjen.Smeltet jern,

skarpe klinger, en masse

tid alene.

Hvad kan gå galt?

Parfait. Pendant

cee temps-là,

Harold gardera

l’échoppe.

Acier en fusion,

lames affûtées,

livré à lui-même.

Situation sous

contrôle !


The words highlighted in blue give us examples of a direct translation strategy and a

substitution. In the Danish version the name of the main character has been directly translated

from “Hiccup” to “Hikke”. They have the same meaning and provide the audience with the

same effect. However, in the French subtitles “Hiccup” is translated into “Harold”. This does not

mean the same and therefore it can be classified as a substitution. There are some similarities

between the name which the French translator has chosen and the original: The name begins

with the same letter and contains the same number of syllables. The meaning has changed as

“Harold” is an ordinary English boy’s name without any obvious meaning, whereas “Hiccup” has

a fairly straightforward meaning. Therefore the translation strategy used can be referred to as a

substitution.



35

The pink markings present the microstrategies of explicitation in the Danish subtitles and a

direct translation strategy in the French translation. The English word “stall” can be defined as a

small shop with an open front, whereas the Danish word “smedje” is a blacksmith’s workshop.

The Danish translator might have chosen to use the word “smedje” because it is more exact

and provides more details than the English word “stall”, thereby making an explicitation in the

subtitles. The French word “échoppe” is an equivalent to “stall”, as it also means small shop. As

the two words have the same meaning the French translator has made a word-for-word

translation, making it a direct translation.

The lines highlighted in green offer us the microstrategies of calque and that of modulation

which is a kind of paraphrase. These strategies provide us with a new interesting angle, since

calque is identified as being unidiomatic in the target language and modulation requires a shift

in the point of view from the source text to the target text. In the Danish subtitles the line

“what could possibly go wrong?” has been translated into “hvad kan gå galt?”. At first sight, this

question might appear to be directly translated and it is, however, this creates a problem. In

our opinion, the line “hvad kan gå galt?” which means what could go wrong?, does not come

across as completely idiomatic Danish, it seems like a piece of the puzzle is missing. It would be

more idiomatic if the line had been translated into hvad kunne dog gå galt? or det kan da

umuligt gå galt. If the Danish translator had chosen to use our second proposal it would have

been similar to the approach of the French translator. “Situation sous contrôle!” means

situation under control and creates the same effect as the English original. However, the

question has now turned into a statement which generates a change in point of view. Since the

phrase is translated quite freely we are dealing with a paraphrase and because the viewpoint

has changed we are presented with the subclass modulation.



36

Humour:

The use of irony is omnipresent in this extract from the movie where Gobber gives the audience

several different ironic cues, indicating that he does not mean what he says. To begin with he

rolls his eyes and opens them wide, and then he changes his tone. Furthermore, this means

that the ironic element is reinforced by the use of visuals. In order to make Stoick understand

that Hiccup cannot be left alone, Gobber criticises his order by making an ironic comment. The

funny aspect consists in the fact that the audience is aware of Gobber not meaning what he

says. This is apparent because he mentions “molten steel” and “razor sharp blades”, which are

obviously dangerous objects, as if they were harmless. Even though the Danish and the French

versions of the subtitles are not translated in a completely identical way they still retain the

same level of irony as presented in the original. Another kind of humour which is used in this

extract is surreal humour, and it consists in the fact that the main character is called “Hiccup”.

The unrealistic choice of naming a child “Hiccup” is what makes it funny in a surreal way

because the hiccups is something you get, not something you are called. The Danish translator

has translated the name directly and therefore preserved the humour. The French translator

changes the name “Hiccup” into “Harold” and thereby the surreal humour is completely lost.

“Harold” is a real name and therefore is not humorous.

3.2.8 Segment 23

GOBBER Put him in training with

the others.

Lad ham gå til

dragetræning.

Mets-le à

l’entraînement.


This example offers us some interesting translations and possible microstrategies: Explicitation,

direct translation, deletion and condensation. The part highlighted in blue contains the

microstrategies of explicitation and direct translation. The Danish subtitles “lad ham gå til

dragetræning” mean put him in dragon training and it may seem like a direct translation at first

glance. However, the Danish translator has chosen to add further information about the



37

training by mentioning the Danish equivalent of the word dragon. There are two possible

microstrategies which may fit the translation strategy used, these are addition and

explicitation. Since a meaningful unit is added to the sentence it could be characterised as an

addition. However, it could also be classified as an explicitation because the kind of training in

question becomes more explicit. In our opinion we are dealing with an explicitation because it

can be deduced from the situation and the plot of the movie that “training” ultimately means

dragon training. The French version “mets-le à l’entraînement” means exactly the same as the

English original and the same words have been used, therefore it constitutes a direct

translation.

When looking at the pink marking it is obvious that this part has been left out in the target texts

- it only exists in the English original. This can be categorised as either a deletion or a

condensation depending on one’s understanding of the previous words “put him in training”. It

could be that these words imply that Hiccup is going to attend training along with the others

and if this is the case then we are dealing with a condensation since the words “with the

others” have been left out. Both the Danish and the French translations have become shorter

than the source text. If the line “with the others” is considered to contain new information then

this cannot be classified as a condensation but must be categorised as a deletion. A meaningful

part has been left out. As previously mentioned, the choice of microstrategy depends on the

understanding.



38

3.2.9 Segment 24

STOICK No, I'm serious.

Nej, jeg mener det.

Je suis sérieux.


Segment 24 has been translated as closely as possible into Danish, this does, however, not

mean that it is a direct translation. “No, I’m serious” has been translated into “nej, jeg mener

det” which loosely translated becomes no, I mean it. A direct translation would sound

unidiomatic in Danish. Directly translated the original sentence would have been nej, jeg er

seriøs which does not work well in Danish. Therefore, an oblique translation strategy has been

used in order to create the exact same sense but in other words. If the Danish translator had

wanted to preserve “serious” the translation could have been nej, jeg mener det seriøst. The

French translation has been directly translated since “je suis sérieux” means exactly the same

as the original and sounds perfectly idiomatic in the target language.

3.2.10 Segment 30

STOICK No, actually I do.

Jo, jeg gør.

Si


This segment is quite interesting as it represents the translation strategies of modulation and

condensation. In the English source text Stoick says “no”, but in the Danish and French target-

texts the “no” has been translated into “jo” and “si”, which both mean yes. By doing so, the

translators have made a modulation in the translations since the viewpoint shifts. Furthermore,

the microstrategy of condensation can be found in the French subtitles as the translator has

chosen to translate the original line into something much shorter and leaves out “actually I do”.

In the Danish version, on the other hand, “actually” is the only thing to be left out. This means

that something has been left out in both the Danish and the French versions. At first sight this



39

may seem like a deletion, however, by leaving them out none of the important meaning has

been lost. We consider the French translation to be an example of a condensation because it is

seriously shortened and keeps only one word, whereas the Danish version only leaves one word

out. Since “actually” is an adverb which carries very little meaning and plays a very small part in

the sentence we think that it can be left out and still leave the sentence almost directly

translated.

3.2.11 Segment 32

STOICK Listen! You know what

he's like. From the time

he could crawl he's

been...different. He

doesn't listen.

Du ved selv, hvordan

han er.

Lige siden han var

helt lille, har han

været … anderledes.

Han hører ikke efter.

Écoute! Tu le

connais.

Quand il marchait à

quatre pattes, il

était déjà...

différent.

Il écoute rien.

Translation Strategies:

This excerpt from the movie is packed with different microstrategies. The part highlighted in

blue contains the following translation strategies: Deletion and direct translation. First of all,

the exclamation “listen!” from the English original has been left out in the Danish subtitles,

which means that a meaningful unit is missing. “Listen!” is a call for attention which is why we

think it is important in this connection. This deletion may have been made to shorten the

sentence. Second of all, in the French subtitles “listen!” has been preserved and is translated

into “écoute!” which has the exact same meaning and could not possibly have been translated

more directly, hence, a direct translation has been made.

The pink marking can be difficult to categorise because it seems like many different

microstrategies are at work at once. Firstly, the Danish phrase “du ved selv, hvordan han er”

has been almost directly translated from the original. However, the word “selv” does not



40

appear in the source text which is why it can be somewhat problematic to name this a direct

translation, because this kind of translation entails a word-for-word translation. Secondly, this

line could be defined as an example of explicitation because a new element, “selv”, which

makes “du” more precise and explicit, has been introduced. However, the information given in

“selv” is rather vague and it might be said that we already know it from “du”. Thirdly, the

Danish translation of the English original could also be referred to as an oblique translation

because it provides the audience with the same sense, even if the wording is not completely

the same. It is hard to decide between these three possibilities as they all make sense in some

way. The French translator has used an oblique translation strategy as “tu le connais” means

you know him. The sense from the original is retained.

The part marked in green gives us two different microstrategies: Oblique and direct translation.

In the Danish translation an interesting translation choice has been made since “from the time

he could crawl” has been translated into “lige siden han var helt lille”. Here the Danish

translator has chosen an oblique translation strategy which means that the original sense and

effect have been preserved. This could seem like a strange or unnecessary choice because the

sentence could easily have been translated directly into “lige siden han kunne kravle” which

means the same as the original. A direct translation strategy has been used in the French target

text and the phrase has been translated as directly as possible since “quand il marchait à quatre

pattes” means from the time he could crawl.

Substitution, direct and oblique translation can all be found in the sentences marked in yellow.

In the Danish version the line “he doesn’t listen” has been directly translated into “han hører

ikke efter”. The wording and the meaning remain the same from the source text to the target

text, hence, a direct translation has been made. The French section highlighted in yellow

represents two possible translation strategies: Oblique translation and substitution. This phrase

could be regarded as an oblique translation if one considers merely the sense and the effect of

the source text to be retained in the target text. However, if one, like us, finds the meaning of

the original somewhat changed in the French translation it can be categorised as a substitution.



41

In our opinion “he doesn’t listen” means he does not listen to me (the speaker), whereas “il

écoute rien” means, directly translated, he does not listen to anything which we consider to

have a different meaning than the intended meaning of the original. Whether it is analysed as

being an oblique translation or a substitution depends on how the source text is perceived.

3.2.12 Segment 33

STOICK Has the attention span

of a sparrow. I take him

fishing and he goes

hunting for... for

trolls.

Hans opmærksomhed er

flyvsk som en fugl.

Jeg tager ham med ud

at fiske, og han jager

trolde!

Il est aussi

concentré qu’un

moineau.

Quand on va à la

pêche, il chasse...

les trolls !


The blue marking represents an oblique microstrategy. The English original highlighted in blue

contains a saying with the word “sparrow”. In Danish it has been translated into “fugl”, which

means bird. Something explicit becomes implicit since a sparrow is a special kind of bird,

whereas “fugl” can be any kind of bird. For this reason one might consider this a condensation.

However, as the Danish version is not shorter than the original and we are dealing with a saying

we find it more correct to categorise the translation as an oblique translation. The saying exists

in all three languages and even though the English and the Danish are not identical they still

have the same sense. Therefore, we are dealing with an oblique translation. This is also the case

in the French translation as “il est aussi concentré qu’un moineau” means he is just as

concentrated as a sparrow. A sense-for-sense translation has been used in order to retain the

effect of the original.

The part highlighted in pink offers us two microstrategies: Direct and oblique translation. The

Danish subtitles have been translated as directly as possible and is a word-for-word translation

thereby making it a direct translation. The French subtitles, on the other hand, have not been



42

translated directly. The French target text is similar to the English original and creates the same

sense even if the wording is somewhat different. The French sentence is introduced by the

word “quand” which means when and brings something new to the translation. It can be

discussed whether “quand” adds new meaning to the sentence, making it an addition or

whether the word does not carry any relevant meaning in this context. In our opinion the

translation strategy used seems more like an oblique translation than an addition, because in

this context “quand” is not that important. We think that the translation is oblique, since the

sense is preserved even if the wording has been changed.

Humour:

The use of humour in this segment is not as conspicuous as in many of the other segments but

this part still contains both a metaphor and the use of surreal humour as well as wordplay. A

metaphor is created since “attention span” is compared to “sparrow”. These two terms do not

normally have anything in common and are not usually used together, making the comparison

surprising. In the Danish and the French versions the humorous effect is preserved because

they make use of metaphors which make the same comparisons and have the same meaning as

the original. Furthermore, the English and the Danish subtitles contain a form of wordplay as

the first syllable of “span” and “sparrow”, “flyvsk” and “fugl” are similar phonologically and

lexically - they sound alike and look alike as they begin with the same letter. This kind of

humour, wordplay, has been left out in the French version. However, this is due to the fact that

the French saying simply does not contain this form of humour and a saying cannot be

modified. The use of surreal humour becomes apparent in this extract of the movie, where the

word “trolls” is introduced. The funny aspect lies in the fact that trolls do not exist, not in the

real world anyway. The word “trolls” is kept both in the Danish and the French versions. In the

target texts the original humour has been preserved by almost the same means.



43

3.2.13 Segment 34

GOBBER Trolls exist! They steal

your socks.

But only the left

ones. What's with that?

Trolde findes.

De stjæler vores

sokker.

Men altid kun den

venstre. Hvorfor mon

det?

Ça existe, les

trolls.

Ça vole les

chaussettes.

Mais que les gauches.

Pourquoi?


The microstrategies of modulation and oblique translation can be found in the part highlighted

in blue. In the English subtitles it says “your socks”, whereas in the Danish version it says “vores

sokker” which means our socks. This entails some sort of change in point of view because in our

opinion “your” and “vores” do not include the same people. “Your” does not necessarily include

the speaker, whereas “vores” does. This kind of translation can be referred to as a modulation.

The French translator has tackled this translation in a different way by translating “your socks”

into “les chaussettes” which means the socks or socks in general. By doing this the translation

strategy becomes oblique because the sense remains the same and the viewpoint becomes

irrelevant.

The pink marking represents the microstrategies of Condensation and oblique translation. An

oblique translation strategy has been used to translate “what’s with that?” into “hvorfor mon

det?”. However, we think a more obvious and direct translation exists as “hvorfor mon det?”

means why is that?. An alternative could be hvad sker der for det? which carries the same

meaning and effect as the English original. Even though the meaning of the Danish translation is

the same it would be more realistic in the context if Gobber’s utterance was translated more

directly. The French translation contains the microstrategy of condensation as the original line

“what’s with that?” has been reduced to “pourquoi?” which means why. Again the meaning is

preserved but the effect does not appear to be as strong as in the original.



44

Humour:

One kind of humour has been identified and it takes the form of surreal humour. As in the

previous example “trolls” are mentioned, they represent something unrealistic. “Trolls” have

been mentioned in both the Danish and the French target texts. The funny element lies in the

unexpected. “Trolls exist!” this does not fit with the real world as trolls do not exist. “They steal

your socks” but trolls would not be interested in stealing socks. It is hard to imagine why trolls

would be especially interested in socks and Vikings probably did not have any socks. Another

element which makes this part unrealistic is the utterance “but only the left ones” as it is not

possible to distinguish the left sock from the right one and it seems strange to only want one

sock.

3.2.14 Segment 37

STOICK My father told me to bang

my head against a rock

and I did it. I thought

it was crazy, but I

didn't question him.

And you know what

happened?

... bad min far mig

slå hovedet mod en

klippe, og jeg

gjorde det.

Jeg syntes, det var

dumt, men jeg

adlød.

Ved du, hvad der

skete?

... mon père m’a dit

de ma taper la tête

contre un roc.

J’ai trouvé ça

délirant, mais j’ai

obéi.

Et tu sais quoi ?


In this segment from the movie many interesting microstrategies have been used, such as

modulation and substitution. The words highlighted in blue may represent either a paraphrase

or a substitution. The Danish word “dumt” means stupid, which is not a direct equivalent to the

English word “crazy”. Had it been a direct translation the Danish translator would have chosen

skørt instead. On the one hand, the translation can be categorised as a paraphrase as the

original word has been replaced by another word with a different meaning and it has been



45

translated quite freely. On the other hand, this does also characterise the microstrategy of

substitution. It is apparent that “dumt” originates from the word “crazy” but there is a

significant change in the semantic meaning. In the context where this word appears, “dumt”

does not seem as powerful as “crazy”, which makes the statement weaker. In the French

translation the word “crazy” has been translated into “délirant” which means insane or

ridiculous. In this case the target text can also be categorised as either a paraphrase or a

substitution depending on one’s focus. The big difference between the Danish and the French

translation is that “délirant” sounds stronger than “crazy” and “crazy” seems stronger than

“dumt”.

The pink marking is an example of the translation strategy modulation in both the Danish and

the French target texts. In Danish “but I didn’t question him” has been translated into “men jeg

adlød” which means but I obeyed. Moreover, the French “mais j’ai obéi” means exactly the

same. It is obvious that a change in point of view has occurred in both translations. “But I didn’t

question him” indicates some sort of choice and the possibility of turning the suggestion down,

whereas but I obeyed does not seem to contain a choice.

Turning to the green lines, here we are dealing with a direct and an oblique translation. The

Danish subtitles “ved du, hvad der skete?” is translated directly from the English original “and

you know what happened?”. However, the word “and” has been left out in the target text but

since this term does not carry any significant meaning it does not influence the translation

strategy. Furthermore, the translation has retained the wording and tone of the original. The

French translation is oblique because the sense is preserved but the wording is somewhat

different than that of the English original. “Et tu sais quoi?” means and do you know what?

showing us that “happened” has been left out. However, no meaning is changed.

Humour:

This example contains a very interesting and often occurring kind of humour: Surreal humour.

The audience is supposed to get surprised by the sentence “my father told me to bang my head



46

against a rock” which is very unexpected because it is not normal behaviour. The humorous

element lies in the stupidity of the act in question.

3.2.15 Segment 38

GOBBER You got a headache.

Du fik hovedpine.

T’as eu la migraine.


In this extract the Danish translation is easily classified, whereas the French translation method

is a little more ambiguous. Starting with the Danish subtitles, the translation strategy used is a

direct translation since the wording consists of terms which are direct equivalents of those of

the English original. The meaning has been completely preserved from the source text to the

target text. The French translation, on the other hand, is a little harder to categorise as more

than one microstrategy can be deduced from the translation. The translation might be regarded

as a direct translation. The French word “migraine” can mean headache and if it does, then this

translation can be categorised as a direct translation. However, “migraine” can also mean

migraine and if this is the case then the translation would be either a paraphrase or an

explicitation. How the translation is classified depends on one’s personal understanding of the

word migraine. A migraine can be defined as a very painful kind of headache which would make

the translation an explicitation. It can also be described as something more than just a

headache because it can involve other symptoms such as disruptions in eyesight or vomiting

which would make this translation a paraphrase.

Humour:

As in many of the previous examples the use of humour is a very important ingredient. In this

part of the movie two humorous elements have been incorporated namely irony and visual

humour. The irony is introduced by several different ironic cues. First of all, Gobber makes a

pause in what he is doing and a change in his behaviour gives a signal of the irony to come.



47

Second of all, he rolls his eyes at Stoick’s utterance and looks quite annoyed. Third of all, the

irony is introduced by a big sigh which occurs simultaneously with the rolling of the eyes. The

funny aspect lies in the criticism behind the irony which indicates that Gobber and Stoick

probably had this conversation a couple of times before. Furthermore, he makes fun of the

previous statement made by Stoick: “My father told me to bang my head against a rock and I

did it”. Both the Danish and the French translator succeed in retaining the irony created in the

original. The irony is supported by the use of visual humour; Gobber has lost a tooth and is

trying to put it back by hammering on it with a mead mug. The act is completely out of context

and emphasises the fact that Gobber could not care less about what is said.

3.2.16 Segment 39

STOICK That rock split in

two. It taught me

what a Viking could

do, Gobber.

He could crush

mountains, level

forests, tame seas!

Even as a boy,

I knew what I was,

what I had to become.

Hiccup is not that

boy.

Klippen flækkede i to

stykker. Jeg lærte,

hvad en viking kan

gøre, Gobert.

Han kan knuse bjerge,

rydde skove, tæmme

havene!

Selv som dreng vidste

jeg, hvad jeg var, og

hvad jeg ville blive!

Hikke er ikke sådan

en dreng.

Le roc s’est cassé en

deux. Ça m’a appris de

quoi est capable un

Viking.

Broyer les montagnes,

raser les forêts,

dompter les flots.

Tout petit, je savais ce

que j’étais, ce que je

deviendrais.

Harold est pas comme ça.


Within this example many different microstrategies can be identified. In the following we will

present several interesting translation strategies: Direct translation, modulation, adaptation,

substitution and oblique translation. Starting with the part highlighted in blue, it can be said

that the Danish translation is the most intriguing. The Danish words “jeg lærte” means I learned

and are not complete equivalents of the English original “it taught me”. Since there is a change



48

in the viewpoint from the source text to the target text a modulation has occurred. The change

in point of view consists in the difference in meaning between I learned and “it taught me”.

When a person learns something it entails some sort of effort on that person’s side, whereas

when somebody or something teaches something to a person it places most of the effort off

the person in question. The French translator has chosen to use a direct translation as “ça m’a

appris” means it taught me which is completely similar to the source text.

The name “Gobber” constitutes the words highlighted in pink. Here we are dealing with the

translation of a name and it would have been an obvious solution to make a direct transfer,

meaning that the name is simply copied from one text into another. However, this is not the

case in the Danish translation. “Gobber” has been changed into “Gorbert” and we categorise

this translation as an adaptation and because the two names are similar the target audience

might still experience the same effect, even though the names are slightly different. The

original impact that “Gobber” had on the audience remains intact by the use of “Gorbert”

because these words have no meaning. In the French subtitles “Gobber” has been left out and

this could be classified as a deletion if the translator considers the name to carry meaning.

Moving on to the example marked in green we will take a closer look at the microstrategy of

substitution. The Danish and the French translations of “I had to become” have been translated

rather similarly. The Danish “hvad jeg ville blive!” and the French “ce que je deviendrais” both

mean what I was going to become. In our opinion the source text has another meaning than

that of the target texts and therefore the translations can be defined as substitutions. The

sentence “I had to become” refers to something which has already been decided and leaves no

choice, whereas I was going to become describes something a person is destined to become

and leaves that person with a greater possibility to choose.

The yellow marking represents the microstrategy of oblique translation. The Danish subtitles

“Hikke er ikke sådan en dreng” retain the same sense as the original “Hiccup is not that boy”.

However, the Danish translation means Hiccup is not that kind of boy and therefore it does not



49

preserve the exact same wording as that of the original. It can be concluded that we are dealing

with an oblique translation. The French translation “Harold est pas comme ça” means Harold is

not like that and something has obviously been left, “boy”, but no important meaning has been

left out and therefore we also categorise this as an oblique translation. In this example we

encounter the translation of “Hiccup” once again but since it has already been analysed in

segment 21 we will not go into further detail here. Instead we refer to this segment.

3.3 The overall macrostrategy

In this section we will focus on the macrostrategy of the Danish and the French subtitles and

analyse them by the means of the theory presented by Schjoldager (2008). We will try to

estimate the overall strategy of the Danish and French versions. When analysing a translation

on the macro-level many aspects should be considered, such as: Overtness, purpose/skopos,

the translation situation in general and the wanted result. It could have been interesting to

include the subtitling agency in the macroanalysis but surprisingly enough we have been unable

to discover the agency of both the Danish and the French translators. This makes it impossible

for us to find out what kind of material these agencies usually translate, how they do it and

their normal level of quality. The fact that the translators are unknown might indicate that

these agencies are relatively unknown and that the subtitles could be of poor quality.

3.3.1 Estimation of the Danish macrostrategy

In order to estimate the macrostrategy of the Danish translation we will start out by taking a

closer look at the nature of the translation. The Danish target text that we are dealing with

consists of subtitles. Subtitles are visible simultaneously with the spoken source text and

therefore they are impossible not to notice. Moreover, since the source language is different

from the Danish target language it should be rather obvious to the spectators that when they

are reading the subtitles they are reading a translation. Therefore, this is an overt translation. If

the audience is aware of the translation taking place, as they would be when watching this

movie, then it could be considered a source-text oriented macrostrategy. When dealing with



50

subtitles it is difficult to classify the translator’s role as either communicating somebody else’s

communication or functioning as a mediator between two parties. It can be regarded as

communicating somebody else’s communication because the source text was originally

intended for an American audience and not the Danish. Furthermore, one could also perceive

the audience as spectators and not receivers, meaning that the message is not meant for the

audience but for the other characters in the movie. However, the role might also be considered

to be that of a mediator, as it can be assumed that the movie was always meant to be

translated into other languages. This means that the receivers could be the audience and if this

is the case then the target group should be rather wide because a lot of Danes would tend to

choose a subtitled version. A source-text oriented strategy should focus on the form and

content of the source text (Schjoldager, 72) and the Danish subtitles do that to a certain degree

by aiming at preserving the original content. However, especially when humour is involved it is

apparent that form and content are pushed aside in favour of the effect. This means that in the

humorous parts of the movie, the macrostrategy used tends to be more target-text oriented.

This overlap in the use of macrostrategies is very interesting and makes it difficult to choose

between them. We assess the overall macrostrategy to be a mix of both the source-text

oriented and the target-text oriented strategy. Even though there is more than one aspect

which advocates a source-text oriented strategy we believe that the target-text effect is the

most important element. Our opinion on this point stems from the fact that we are dealing with

a certain kind of genre in which humour is paramount. This is why we consider the overall

strategy to be more target-text oriented than source-text oriented and we have tried to

illustrate the choice of strategy used in the Danish subtitles below:

Source-text oriented..........................................................Subtitles→................target-text

oriented



51

3.3.2 Estimation of the French macrostrategy

The choice between a source-text oriented macrostrategy and a target-text oriented

macrostrategy in the French subtitles seems rather difficult because it involves several aspects

which may contradict each other. As mentioned above with the Danish translation the effect of

the original plays a central role in this kind of movie, and this is also what the French translator

has focused on. When taking only this aspect into consideration the macrostrategy which would

be the obvious choice is a target-text oriented strategy. However, there are other aspects to

consider, such as: Overtness and the translator’s role. As with the Danish translation, it is rather

difficult to define the role of the French translator as either functioning as a mediator between

two parties or as communicating somebody else’s communication. We do not know who the

sender is and the receivers are somewhat unclear, it could be either the characters of the

movie or the audience. Logically, the audience ought not to be children because they cannot

read or because they might simply not be interested in watching a movie in English. Moreover,

we think that the majority of all Frenchmen prefer the French dubbed version when it is

available because they generally do not understand a sufficient amount of English to make the

English version advantageous. In France most movies are dubbed (Gottlieb 2008: 229) which

means that the French are not used to movies featuring English speech. Hence, the target

group seems limited but could be adults who either want to learn English or who are already

familiar with the language. Concerning overtness, we are dealing with an overt translation,

since the target text is a form of screen translation in which the English source text and the

French target text appear at the same time. When these last points are also taken into account

it becomes apparent that a source-text oriented macrostrategy has been used as well. As was

the case with the Danish translation, we identify both the target-text oriented and the source-

text oriented macrostrategy in the French translation. We have tried to illustrate the choice of

strategy used in the French subtitles below:

Source-text oriented..........................................................Subtitles→................target-text

oriented



52

4 Results and Comparison

In this section we will start out by presenting the results which we expected to find before

starting the process of analysing the chosen segments from the movie. Then, we move on to

stating the actual results concerning the microstrategies used; how often the different

strategies have been used and what they can be identified as. This will be followed by the

results of our analysis of the macrostrategies. It may seem more obvious to place the results of

the macrostrategies before the microstrategy results. However, we feel that the use of

macrostrategies becomes clearer when the results of the microstrategies have been taken into

account. Next, we will turn to the results concerning the retention of humour. In this part, we

will try to discover which methods have been used in order to retain the humorous elements

from the movie and the preservation of humour. In order to create transparency and clarity we

have chosen to divide the three parts on microstrategies, macrostrategies and humour into a

part about the Danish subtitles and a part about the French subtitles. Finally, we will conduct a

comparison of the Danish and the French results to find out which translation approaches have

been used and which of the two has been the most effective.

4.1 Expected results

Before starting our analysis, we had some ideas about what we expected to find and how the

results could turn out. First of all, we regarded the Danish culture as being more closely related

to the American culture than the French. As How to Train Your Dragon is an American movie we

expected the translations from English into Danish to be more similar and direct than those

made from English to French. The Danish society is in our opinion very Americanised in general,

which might also be the case with the French society but only to a certain degree. However, the

French are known for their national pride and the tendency to want to preserve their culture.

Hence, the Danish subtitles ought to be more similar to the English original than the French

subtitles. Second of all, we know that in France American movies and tv-shows are normally

translated by the use of dubbing, whereas in Denmark we are familiar with American humour



53

because we listen to the original speech as movies and tv-shows are translated by the use of

subtitles. Therefore, we expected that the French translation would lose more of the humour

from the original than the Danish translation.

4.2 Microstrategies

The two following sections will contain the results of the Danish and the French translations in

connection with the microstrategies used in all of scene 2. We will focus on the frequency of

the different strategies and their usage. The microstrategies used in the Danish translation will

be our starting point followed by the microstrategies used in the French version. In order to

create clarity we have made a counting of all the different microstrategies used in Danish and

French, which can be found in Appendix B.

4.2.1 Danish microstrategies

When looking at the microstrategies used in the making of the Danish subtitles, it becomes

apparent that some of the strategies are used frequently, whereas others never appear. Direct

transfer and permutation are the only microstrategies which are not used in scene 2 of the

movie. A reason why direct transfer is not applied could be that this strategy is often made use

of when dealing with either a name or a word which does not exist in the target language. The

Danish translator has chosen to translate or change the characters’ names into something

different than those of the original. Furthermore, there seem to be no examples of words which

are specific to one language. Therefore, there are no reasons to use the microstrategy of direct

transfer in this scene. This is also the case with the strategy of permutation. In our opinion, it

would seem quite strange to employ this strategy in translating speech into subtitles, because

the subtitles have to match the picture on the screen at the right time. It would be impossible

to translate a unit of meaning in another place without creating confusion between the

subtitles and the visuals.

The microstrategy of calque is used only once, which indicates that the translation in general is

of a high quality. Since calque is an unidiomatic form of direct translation it should appear as

little as possible. Moving on to the use of direct translation, it is obvious that this microstrategy



54

is the most frequently used of them all, in the Danish translation. This means that the Danish

subtitles, generally, stay very close and loyal to the English source text. We believe that this will

be well received by the Danish audiences, because they tend to understand the speech in itself

and want the subtitles to be similar to the original. An oblique microstrategy has been used

second most in the Danish translation and that indicates once again that the Danish target text

remains similar to the source text. However, this strategy also entails a difference in wording

making the translation more its own while retaining the original sense from the source text. The

microstrategy of explicitation is found four times in the Danish translation. Compared to the

original, the Danish translator has chosen to specify more. One might presume that this

strategy is used to explain something which Danes either do not understand or do not know

about. However, this is not the case in this translation, where the strategy has been used to

clarify something which seems unnecessary.

Turning to the microstrategy of paraphrase it can be said that the subtitles stay close to the

English original, since the use of free translation only appears once. However, if we include the

subclass of modulation then the count goes up. Modulation is used four times to change the

point of view. At first, it sounds rather important but the meaning is not changed and if it is,

then the change is of minor importance. Condensation is used for two purposes in the Danish

subtitles; to make something more implicit and to shorten something. In connection with

subtitles the shortening of speech is an advantage because the translator must operate on

limited space. The microstrategy of adaptation is employed six times and plays, among others,

an important role in connection with humour. This strategy can be found in the translation of

humour but also in other non humorous contexts. The effect is important in movies and the

fact that it has been used six times indicates that the Danish translator ascribes great

importance to preserving it. Another microstrategy which can be found in the Danish

translation is that of addition. However, only once. The reason why this strategy is used so little

could be that there is no need to add information, since the text is quite straightforward. The

microstrategy of substitution is rather important, as it changes the meaning of the original

source text. The Danish translator has used this strategy three times and it occurs both in



55

connection with humour and without. In our opinion, it is apparent why the meaning has been

changed in connection with translating humour, but it might seem a bit more unclear why the

other changes have been made. In the Danish subtitles there are also cases in which a unit of

meaning is left out, indicating the use of the microstrategy of deletion. This means that in some

places in the Danish translation the content has become more unclear than the original because

relatively important information is missing. In short, the microstrategies used tell us that the

Danish translator has tried to stay loyal to the source text, while also putting great emphasis on

preserving the original effect.

4.2.2 French microstrategies

In the French subtitles some microstrategies are obviously used quite often, whereas four of

them are not employed in the translation at all. These are direct transfer, calque, addition and

permutation. None of the names which have been transferred directly from the movie appear

in scene 2 and no words have been copied, making the strategy of direct transfer obsolete.

Once again, the absence of calque puts the translation in a positive light. Concerning the

microstrategies of addition and permutation, these may have remained unused due to the fact

that the translation takes the form of subtitles. When adding information to a sentence it

should logically become longer but subtitles only give limited space, making additions

impractical. The same can be said about permutations, as picture and text must conform to

each other.

The two strategies which are most commonly used in the French translation are those of direct

translation and oblique translation. Direct translation is used fifteen times and oblique

translation is used twenty seven times. These strategies make sure that the target text is very

similar to the source text. The microstrategy of explicitation appears twice in the French

translation which indicates that the French translator has not needed to specify very often.

Turning to the strategy called paraphrase we can see that a rather free translation has been

used three times giving the translator a freer hand. In addition to this, we find the subclass of

modulation which is used just as frequently. Condensation has been used five times which



56

means that the French translator has chosen to shorten the text or make something more

implicit. The microstrategy of adaptation has been employed four times indicating that the

French translator has focused not only on the source text but also on the target-text effect.

Moving on to the microstrategy of substitution, it becomes apparent that the French translator

has chosen to or thought it necessary to change some of the meaning as the strategy has been

used four times. Finally, some things have been left out in the French translation. Hence,

deletion has also been used. All in all, the source text appears to have been rather important to

the French translator and also the effect of the target text.

4.3 Macrostrategies

The results of the analysis of the macrostrategies used will be given in the following sections.

Now that the results of the analysis of the microstrategies have been presented it will help us

clarify and explain which overall strategy has been used in the Danish and the French subtitles

respectively.

4.3.1 Danish macrostrategy

From the analysis it can be deduced that the macrostrategy used in the Danish subtitles cannot

be classified as either completely source-text oriented or solely target-text oriented. There are

several elements which tell us that we are dealing with a source-text oriented macrostrategy,

these are: The overtness of the translation and the fact that there is focus on the form and

content of the original, this can be deduced from the frequent use of the microstrategies of

direct and oblique translation. On the other hand, certain factors seem to point at a target-text

oriented macrostrategy, these are: The focus on the preservation of the original effect and the

frequent use of the microstrategy of adaptation. Consequently, the Danish translation leans

somewhat towards both macrostrategies. The only aspect of the macrostrategy which remains

unaddressed is that of the translator role. However, it does not provide any decisive

information which points at either of the macrostrategies. As can be discovered in the analysis,

the role of the translator can be regarded as both a mediator between two parties, which

points to a target-text oriented strategy and as communicating somebody else’s



57

communication which points to a source-text oriented strategy. In conclusion, the translation is

a mixture of both macrostrategies.

4.3.2 French macrostrategy

The macrostrategy used in the French subtitles cannot be said to be either source-text or

target-text oriented. Instead we are dealing with a translation which resembles both

macrostrategies. The fact that the translation is overt and has a certain focus on the content

and form of the English original leans towards a source-text oriented macrostrategy.

Furthermore, the frequent use of oblique and direct translations gives the translation an

inclination towards this macrostrategy as well. However, the focus on the effect which the

translation of humour demands is more equal to a target-text oriented strategy. Taking a closer

look at the translator role does not change the circumstances, as it can be regarded as both

communicating somebody else’s communication and as being a mediator between two parties.

Therefore, the macrostrategy of the French subtitles must be considered a cross between the

two possibilities.

4.4 Humour

Humour is a crucial element in this movie and therefore it is interesting to find out whether it is

preserved in the Danish and the French target texts. The following results will help us find out

how often the different kinds of humour have been used and if they have been retained in the

subtitles. We have made a counting showing the number of humorous elements and

translations, which in our opinion have been successful in scene 2 (Appendix C). From this

document it can be seen that the most commonly used forms of humour in the original movie

are: Irony, incongruity and surreal humour.

4.4.1 Danish humour

After taking a closer look at our research in connection with humour, it becomes apparent that

the Danish translator has succeeded in recreating the humorous effect approximately four out

of five times (78%). In our opinion, as the movie is brimming over with humour it is a



58

reasonable attempt to transfer the humour from the original into Danish. However, this

number also indicates that some of the intended humour has been lost or reduced in the

Danish subtitles. All in all, the translator has neglected to recreate the humorous effect six

times in scene 2. Several different kinds of humour have been unsuccessfully translated and

there does not seem to be any pattern which points at difficulties with one specific type of

humour. The problematic translations have involved the following types of humour: Metaphor,

irony, wordplay, language-specific humour and incongruity. When the humour has turned out

to be successful, the translator has used the same kind of humour as the one used in the

English version. In conclusion, it is obvious that the translator has attempted to transfer the

original humour to the target text. Most of the time, the results are good and provide the exact

same humour as the original, which is a sign of quality. However, there are also examples of

translations which seem half-hearted, since for example justice is not always done to

metaphors. Even though 78% seems like a high number, it could be discussed whether it is

enough when the movie is practically based on humour. However, sometimes phrases might

contain more than one kind of humour and it happens that one of them is lost, whereas the

other is retained as in segment 14 concerning the word “selvangivelse”. In the Danish subtitles

there are both examples of humour which is completely lost and of humour which is only

reduced.

4.4.2 French humour

The counting of the successful transfers of humour in the French subtitles shows that

approximately four out of five (82%) translation attempts have a positive outcome. This

indicates that the humour has been preserved in the majority of the cases. However, some

humour is lost or at least diminished. We have found five examples in which the transfer of

humour is unsuccessful; these feature the following kinds of humour: Irony, language-specific

humour, surreal humour, wordplay and metaphor. There are no specific tendencies which call

our attention to one kind of humour. Instead, the translator’s failures have been distributed

equally between different types of humour. Some of the unsuccessful translations can be

difficult to understand as they seem almost irrational, for example there seems to be no reason



59

why the French translator has renamed “Hiccup” “Harold” and not the French equivalent of

“Hiccup” which is hoquet. The French word seems to be quite similar to the English word. On

the other hand, we also find examples of somewhat unsuccessfully transferred humour which

still manages to retain some of the original humour, for example “déclaration de pots” in

segment 14. All things considered, we are dealing with a good translation which manages to

recreate most of the humour.

4.5 Comparison

Microstrategies:

Even though we expected the differences between the Danish and the French microstrategies

used to be greater than they are, in fact we discovered that they were quite similar. Many of

the same strategies have been made use of and they have been employed with almost the

same frequency in the two translations. The only aspect worth mentioning is the use of direct

and oblique translation. In both translations these are the most commonly used microstrategies

but the Danish translator has used direct translation more often, whereas the French translator

tends to use oblique translation more frequently. This means that the Danish subtitles are very

close to the original words, whereas the French subtitles have kept the same sense. The use of

the other microstrategies is quite alike. Neither of the translations include permutation or

direct transfer. There are some differences but they are too insignificant to show a clear

tendency.

Macrostrategies:

The overall macrostrategy of the Danish and the French subtitles have turned out to be very

similar which is quite surprising. Both translations are a mixture of a source-text oriented and a

target-text oriented macrostrategy, and most of the elements indicating one or the other

strategy are identical. Obviously, both the Danish and the French translations are overt as they

belong to the same genre, which also makes the point about translator roles exactly alike.

Moreover, in either case the translator has stayed close to the content of the original while also

retaining most of the effect. In our analysis we have made an estimation of the two



60

macrostrategies by illustrating the approximate placement of the subtitles between source text

and target text. We have placed the Danish and the French subtitles in the same place, but

there are different reasons for the location. On the one hand, the Danish translation contains

many adaptations which benefit the effect. On the other hand, the French translation has been

more successful in preserving the effect which consists mainly in humour. In short, both the

Danish and the French translators seem to have chosen the same mixture of macrostrategies.

Humour:

The tendency of similarities between the Danish and the French subtitles also exists in the

humour division. In general, the humour has been well-preserved in both translations.

However, the French translator turns out to have been a little more successful which can be

seen in Appendix C. Both translators have been good at retaining the original kinds of humour

used in the different segments. However, it is apparent that approximately 20 % of the original

humour is lost in both the Danish and the French version. There are no signs indicating that one

of the translators has used a certain type of humour more frequently than the other. In short,

the Danish translator and the French translator have chosen very similar strategies in order to

retain the humour of the original.



61

5 Conclusion

Our main aim in this empirical study was to identify the different translation strategies used in

the Danish and the French subtitles from the movie How to Train Your Dragon and thereby

enable ourselves to find the differences and similarities between the two translations.

Furthermore, we wanted to identify the different kinds of humour used in scene 2 and find out

whether they had been preserved in the target texts. It became apparent that the two versions

are translated rather similarly both in connection with the translation strategies and humour,

which was not expected.

We discovered that cultural differences do not play as central a role in the translation process

as we had expected. We found no signs of intertextuality or cultural references in the movie

and the two translators address the different translation situations in quite the same way. By

means of Schjoldager’s (2008) macro- and microstrategies, we found out that both the Danish

and the French translations employ a mixture of the two possible macrostrategies (see section

4.3), which means that they are both somewhat target-text and source-text oriented.

Furthermore, it became clear that many different microstrategies have been used and that

oblique and direct translations are most commonly employed (see section 4.2). The Danish and

the French translators have arrived at surprisingly similar results in spite of quite different

cultural backgrounds, which is rather astonishing.

By consulting Ross (1998) we were able to describe and identify the different kinds of humour

used in scene 2. Humour plays a very central role in the movie and therefore the preservation

of it is crucial and it is important that the translators focus on the effect in order to do the

original justice. In our opinion, both the Danish and the French translator have succeeded in

retaining the humour as approximately 80 % (see section 4.4) has been preserved.

All in all, it seems that both of the translators have approached this task rather similarly. Even

though they have used the microstrategies somewhat differently, they end up with results

which are quite alike. The same applies to the preservation of humour.



62

In order to analyse the chosen segments several different theories have been used. During the

process we discovered that most of the chosen theories were relevant and sufficient to our

main aim. Schjoldager (2008), Munday (2008) and Armstrong (2005) have been helpful in

connection with the microstrategies and they have proved themselves adequate, since they all

describe and discuss the strategies in different ways. They have functioned as useful tools,

which complement each other well, in discovering the translation choices of the translators.

Schjoldager’s (2008) macrostrategies, on the other hand, turned out to be less appropriate for

our analysis than expected. In the process of analysing the overall macrostrategy it became

apparent that it was quite difficult to estimate which one should have been used. This is due to

the fact that personal understanding makes people regard the translator role in dissimilar ways.

However, in want of a better alternative we chose to use the theory anyway, because we think

it necessary to identify an overall strategy for the translations in order to gain greater

knowledge of the translator’s overall objective.

The theories used concerning humour have all been useful in some way or another. Ross’

(1998) theory has provided a good foundation for identifying the different kinds of humour

used. Many other theories have been used in order to expand on and add further information

to the section. In general, we are very satisfied with the theories which we have selected and

they have been very helpful.

Since our results turn out to be quite different from what we had expected it can be concluded

that culture did not play as central a role as first assumed. We imagine that culture is usually an

important part of translation, especially in the translation of humour. However, this does not

seem to be the case with the subtitles of How to Train Your Dragon. All in all, we are very

surprised by this amazing movie’s ability to stay humorous without any clear cultural

references.



63

6 Discussion

After having come to the unexpected conclusion that the Danish and the French subtitles are

very similar, the next step could be to take a closer look at the dubbed versions of the movie. It

might be very interesting to compare the Danish spoken version and the French spoken version

to see if they are as alike as the subtitled versions. At first, one might think that since the

subtitles are so similar then the dubbed versions may also be. However, when considering the

fact that the speech has to fit lip-movements the two translations could be rather different.

Moreover, we think that the differences between the two versions might be greater because

the target groups might have changed, especially when looking at the Danish dubbed version

we expect that mostly children would want to watch it. The change in the target group would

most likely affect the dubbed version because the content would have to be more child-

friendly. However, we imagine that the differences may be reduced if the original humour is to

be preserved.

Having watched How to Train Your Dragon quite a few times we have come across some

examples of the subtitles being different from the dubbing. The surprising element lies in the

fact that it seems like the Danish and the French subtitles are less different than for example

the Danish subtitles and the Danish dubbing. To illustrate this difference we have chosen an

example from segment 5. In English the line is: “This is a talking fishbone”. The Danish subtitles

say: “Det der er et talende fiskeben”. Whereas in the Danish dubbed version it has become:

“Det der, det er et talende kyllingeskrog”, which means That, that is a talking chicken’s carcass

in English. At first, it seems irrelevant to change the word “fishbone”, but as the two words

have very different lip-movements it might be necessary. It could be interesting to investigate

how often the lip-movements influence the dubbed translation.



64

References

● Armstrong, Nigel. Translation, Linguistics, Culture: A French-English Handbook. Cromwell

Press Ltd. 1st Edition, Great Britain, 2005.

● Bedeker, Laetitia and Feinauer, Ilse. The Translator as Cultural Mediator. Southern

African Linguistics and Applied Language Studies, 2006.

○ http://www.ajol.info/index.php/salas/article/viewFile/6574/13298

● Cressida Cowell’s webpage, http://www.cressidacowell.co.uk/, accessed 05-03-2012

● Delabastita, Dirk. Traductio: Essays on Punning and Translation. St Jerome Publishing,

Presses Universitaires de Namur, 1997.

● Diaz-Cintas, Jorge and Remael, Aline. Audiovisual Translation: Subtitling. St Jerome

Publishing, Manchester, 2007.

● Dreamworks Animation, www.dreamworksanimation.com , accessed 07-02-2012

● Dynel, Marta. Creative metaphor is a birthday cake: Metaphor as the source of humour.

University of Łódź, 2009.

○ http://www.metaphorik.de/17/dynel.pdf

● Gottlieb, Henrik. In chapter 11: Screen translation. Schjoldager, Anne et al.

Understanding Translation. Academica, Aarhus. 1st edition, 2008.

● How to Train your Dragon. Dreamworks, Blu-ray, 2010.

● Longhurst, Brian et al. Introducing Cultural Studies, second edition, Pearson Education

Limited, 2008.

● Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, Pearson Longman, fifth edition, 2009.

● Low, Peter Alan. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology. Routledge, London, 2011.

● Munday, Jeremy. Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications. Routledge,

2nd edition. New York, 2008.

● Nash, Walter. The language of humour. Longman Group Limited, 1985.

● Newmark, Peter. A Textbook of Translation. Prentice Hall International (UK) Ltd., 1988.

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65

● Pedersen, Jan. Cultural Interchangeability: The Effect of Substituting Cultural References

in Subtitling, Perspectives, 15:1, 30-48. Routledge, London, 2007.

http://dx.doi.org/10.2167/pst003.0

● Pelsmaeker, Katja and Besien, Fred Van. In Subtitling Irony: Blackadder in Dutch.

Vandaele, Jeroen. Translating Humour. St Jerome Publishing, Manchester, 2002.

● Raskin, Victor. Semantic Mechanisms of Humor. Springer, 1984.

● Ross, Alison. The Language of Humour. Routledge. Kentucky, USA, 1998.

○ http://site.ebrary.com.www.baser.dk/lib/stats/docDetail.action?docID=1009511

0

● Schjoldager, Anne et al. Understanding Translation. Academica, Aarhus. 1st edition,

2008.

● Thomsen, Jane Elisabeth. Translation Strategies in Animated Films: - a comparative

analysis of macro- and microstrategies in subtitling and dubbing. Lambert Academic

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66

Abstract

Our thesis, How to Train Your Dragon - A comparative analysis of the translations into Danish

and French subtitles focusing on the preservation of humour, is an empirical and comparative

study of the different translation strategies and kinds of humour used in the movie. The

emphasis is put on the different macro and microstrategies employed in the translations from

English into Danish and French. Furthermore, the study includes a classification of the different

kinds of humour used and an estimation of whether the humorous elements have been

preserved in the two target texts. By the means of several different theories on translation and

humour, we have been able to gain sufficient knowledge of the subjects and thereby enabling

ourselves to use it as a tool for the analysis.

The study contains a section dedicated to the analysis, which is based on chosen segments from

scene 2. The analysis of the sixteen segments illustrates the tendencies in connection with the

microstrategies and humour in the Danish and French translations, respectively. Hereafter, the

results of the study are presented and they turn out be quite unexpected. It becomes apparent

that the two translators have used rather similar strategies in the making of the subtitles and

have both managed to stay loyal to the source text while retaining the original effect. In general

the humour is well-preserved in both the Danish and French translations and it turns out that

the French translator has been a bit more successful than the Danish translator. Moreover, we

discovered that the macrostrategies used in the two translations were very much alike. During

our analysis we found out that the macrostrategy theory was unsuitable for subtitles.

This study also includes an evaluation of the employed theories as well as the importance of

cultural differences in the movie. Last but not least, there is a discussion focusing on possible

opportunities for further investigation of the translation of How to Train Your Dragon.



67

Appendix A: Manuscript

Seg-

ment English Danish French

1 HICCUP

I really did hit one.

Jeg ramte altså

en.

J’en ai vraiment

eu un.

2 GOBBER

Sure, Hiccup.

Helt sikkert,

Hikke.

C’est ça

3 HICCUP

He never listens.

Han hører aldrig

efter.

Il écoute jamais

4 GOBBER

Well, it runs in the

family.

Det ligger til

familien

C’est de famille

5 HICCUP

And when he does,

it's always with

this... disappointed

scowl. Like

someone skimped on

the meat in his

sandwich.

(MIMICKING STOICK)

Excuse me, barmaid.

I'm afraid you

brought me the wrong

offspring. I

ordered an extra

large boy with beefy

arms. Extra guts and

glory on

the side. This here.

This is a talking

Når han gør, er

det med et skuffet

udtryk, som om

nogen har snydt

med kødet i hans

sandwich.

Undskyld mig,

kromutter, men det

er det forkerte

afkom. Jeg

bestilte en ekstra

stor dreng med

stærke arme og ben

i næsen.

Det der er et

talende fiskeben.

Quand il écoute,

il fait la

tronche, comme

si on mégotait

sur son bifteck.

Mam’zelle, y a

eu erreur sur ma

progéniture.

J’ai commandé un

taureau XL, avec

tripes et

lauriers en

garniture.

Ça, c’est une

arête qui cause!



68

fish bone.

6 GOBBER

You're thinking about

this all wrong. It's

not so much what you

look like. It's

what's inside that he

can't stand.

Du har misforstået

noget.

Det er ikke dit

udseende… Det er

din personlighed,

han ikke kan lide.

Tu as tout faux.

C’est pas ton

aspect mais ce

que tu es, qui

l’énerve.

7

HICCUP

Thank you, for

summing that up.

Tak for

påmindelsen.

Merci pour cette

precision.

8 GOBBER

Look, the point is,

stop trying so hard

to be something

you're not.

Pointen er, at du

ikke skal prøve at

være noget, du

ikke er.

Arrête de

t’acharner à

être ce que tu

n’es pas.

9 HICCUP

I just want to be one

of you guys.

Jeg vil bare være

som jer andre.

Je veux

simplement être

des vôtres.

10 STOICK

Either we finish them

or they'll finish us!

It's the only way

we'll be rid of them!

If we find the nest

and destroy it, the

dragons will leave.

They'll find another

home.

Det er enten dem

eller os!

Kun sådan kan vi

slippe af med dem.

Finder vi deres

rede og ødelægger

den, forsvinder

dragerne. De vil

slå sig ned et

andet sted.

Soit on les tue,

soit on est

morts !

Seul moyen de

s’en

débarrasser.

Si on détruit

leur nid, les

dragons s’en

iront.

Ils

s’installeront

ailleurs.

11 STOICK

One more search.

Before the ice sets

En eftersøgning

mere, før isen

fryser til.

Partons avant la

formation des

glaces.



69

in.

12 VIKING

Those ships never

come back.

De skibe vender

aldrig tilbage.

Mais nos bateaux

ne reviennent

jamais.

13 STOICK

We're Vikings. It's

an occupational

hazard. Now who's

with me?

Vi er vikinger.

Det er en

erhvervsrisiko.

Hvem tager med?

Viking, c’est un

métier à risqué.

Qui me suit?

14 VIKING Today's not good for

me.

VIKING

Not today

VIKING

I've gotta do my axe

returns.

- Jeg kan ikke.

- Ikke I dag.

- Jeg skal lave

selvangivelse.

- Compte pas sur

moi.

Je suis pris

Je fais ma

déclaration de

pots.

15 STOICK

Alright. Those who

stay will look after

Hiccup.

Okay. De, der

bliver tilbage,

skal passe på

Hikke.

Très bien.

Ceux qui restent

surveilleront

Harold.

16 PHLEGMA THE FIERCE

To the ships!

Til skibene !

Aux bateaux

17 SPITELOUT

I'm with you Stoick!

Jeg tager med!

Je te suis

18 STOICK

That's more like it.

Det var bedre.

J’aime mieux ça.

19 GOBBER

I'll pack my undies.

Jeg pakker mit

undertøj.

J’emballe mes

culottes.



70

20 STOICK

No, I need you to

stay and train some

new recruits.

Nej, du skal blive

her og træne nogle

nye rekrutter.

Tu restes pour

entraîner les

recrues.

21 GOBBER

Oh, perfect. And

while I'm busy,

Hiccup can cover the

stall. Molten steel,

razor sharp blades,

lots of time to

himself...what could

possibly go wrong?

Perfekt. Mens jeg

har travlt, kan

Hikke passe

smedjen.

Smeltet jern,

skarpe klinger, en

masse tid alene.

Hvad kan gå galt?

Parfait. Pendant

cee temps-là,

Harold gardera

l’échoppe.

Acier en fusion,

lames affûtées,

livré à lui-

même.

Situation sous

contrôle !

22 STOICK

What am I going to do

with him, Gobber?

Hvad skal jeg

stille op med ham,

Gorbert?

Que faire de

lui?

23 GOBBER Put him in training

with the others.

Lad ham gå til

dragetræning.

Mets-le à

l’entraînement.

24 STOICK

No, I'm serious.

Nej, jeg mener

det.

Je suis sérieux.

25 GOBBER

So am I.

Det gør jeg også.

Moi aussi

26 STOICK

He'd be killed before

you let the first

dragon out of its

cage.

Han bliver slået

Ihjel, før den

første drage er

ude af buret.

Il sera mort

avant que le

dragon sorte de

sa cage.

27 GOBBER

Oh, you don't know

that.

Det ved du ikke.

T’en sais rien

28 STOICK



71

I do know that,

actually.

Jo, jeg gør. Si, je le sais

29 GOBBER

No, you don't.

Nej, du gør ikke.

Non

30 STOICK

No, actually I do.

Jo, jeg gør.

Si

31 GOBBER

No you don't!

Nej, du gør ikke.

Non.

32 STOICK

Listen! You know what

he's like. From the

time he could crawl

he's

been...different. He

doesn't listen.

Du ved selv,

hvordan han er.

Lige siden han var

helt lille, har

han været …

anderledes.

Han hører ikke

efter.

Écoute. Tu le

connais.

Quand il

marchait à

quatre pattes,

il était déjà...

différent.

Il écoute rien.

33 STOICK

Has the attention

span of a sparrow. I

take him fishing and

he goes hunting

for... for trolls.

Hans opmærksomhed

er flyvsk som en

fugl.

Jeg tager ham med

ud at fiske, og

han jager trolde!

Il est aussi

concentré qu’un

moineau.

Quand on va à la

pêche, il

chasse... les

trolls !

34 GOBBER

Trolls exist! They

steal your socks.

But only the left

ones. What's with

that?

Trolde findes.

De stjæler vores

sokker.

Men altid kun den

venstre. Hvorfor

mon det?

Ça existe, les

trolls.

Ça vole les

chaussettes.

Mais que les

gauches.

Pourquoi?

35 STOICK

When I was a boy...

Da jeg var dreng…

Quand j’étais

petit…



72

36 GOBBER

Oh here we go.

Nu igen.

C’est reparti

37 STOICK

My father told me to

bang my head against

a rock and I did it.

I thought it was

crazy, but I didn't

question him.

And you know what

happened?

... bad min far

mig slå hovedet

mod en klippe, og

jeg gjorde det.

Jeg syntes, det

var dumt, men jeg

adlød.

Ved du, hvad der

skete?

... mon père m’a

dit de ma taper

la tête contre

un roc.

J’ai trouvé ça

délirant, mais

j’ai obéi.

Et tu sais quoi

?

38 GOBBER You got a headache.

Du fik hovedpine.

T’as eu la

migraine.

39

STOICK That rock split in

two. It taught me

what a Viking could

do, Gobber.

He could crush

mountains, level

forests, tame seas!

Even as a boy,

I knew what I was,

what I had to become.

Hiccup is not that

boy.

Klippen flækkede i

to stykker. Jeg

lærte, hvad en

viking kan gøre,

Gobert.

Han kan knuse

bjerge, rydde

skove, tæmme

havene!

Selv som dreng

vidste jeg, hvad

jeg var, og hvad

jeg ville blive!

Hikke er ikke

sådan en dreng.

Le roc s’est

cassé en deux.

Ça m’a appris de

quoi est capable

un Viking.

Broyer les

montagnes, raser

les forêts,

dompter les

flots.

Tout petit, je

savais ce que

j’étais, ce que

je deviendrais.

Harold est pas

comme ça.

40 GOBBER You can't stop him,

Stoick. You can only

prepare him.

Look, I know it seems

hopeless. But the

truth is you won't

always be around to

Du kan ikke stoppe

ham, Havblik.

Du kan kun

forberede ham.

Jeg ved, det

Tu peux pas

l’enfermer.

Tu peux juste

l’endurcir.

C’est mal parti,

mais tu seras

pas toujours

derrière lui.



73

protect him. He's

going to get out

there again.

He's probably out

there now.

virker håbløst,

men du kan ikke

altid beskytte

ham.

Han går derud

igen. Han er

sikkert derude nu.

Il ressortira.

C’est sans doute

déjà fait.



74

Appendix B: Microstrategies

Microstrategy: Danish French

Direct transfer 0 0

Calque 1 0

Direct translation 22 15

Oblique translation 17 27

Explicitation 4 2

Paraphrase 1 3

Modulation 4 3

Condensation 3 5

Adaptation 6 4

Addition 1 0

Substitution 3 4

Deletion 4 5

Permutation 0 0



75

Appendix C: Successful Humour

English Danish French

Irony : 8 7 7

Visual humour* : 2 2 2

The Incongruity Theory : 6 5 6

Wordplay and Puns : 2 1 1

Surreal Humour : 5 5 4

Parody : 1 1 1

Metaphor : 3 1 2

Language-specific Humour : 1

Culture-specific Humour :

All in all : 28 22 23

*only the visual humour included in our analysis has been considered

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