grwth and devt

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Growth and Development

Theory by Piaget


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Piaget's theory of cognitive

development is a comprehensive theory

about the nature and development ofhuman intelligence first developed by Jean

Piaget. It is primarily known as

a developmental stage theory, but in fact,

it deals with the nature of knowledge itselfand how humans come gradually to

acquire it, construct it, and use it


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Cognitive development

Sensorimotor stage

The sensorimotor stage is the first of the four stages ofcognitive development. "In this stage, infants constructan understanding of the world by coordinating sensoryexperiences (such as seeing and hearing) with physical,motoric actions. Infants gain knowledge of the world fromthe physical actions they perform on it. An infantprogresses from reflexive, instinctual action at birth tothe beginning of symbolic thought toward the end of the

stage. Piaget divided the sensorimotor stage into sixsub-stages"[3]:


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Sub-StageAgeDescription1 SimpleReflexesBirth-6 weeks"Coordination ofsensation and action through reflexivebehaviors".[3] Three primary reflexes are

described by Piaget: sucking of objects in themouth, following moving or interesting objectswith the eyes, and closing of the hand when anobject makes contact with the palm (palmargrasp). Over the first six weeks of life, thesereflexes begin to become voluntary actions; forexample, the palmar reflex becomes intentionalgrasping.[4]).


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First habits and primary circular reactionsphase6 weeks-4 months"Coordination ofsensation and two types of schemes: habits(reflex) and primary circular reactions

(reproduction of an event that initially occurredby chance). Main focus is still on the infant'sbody." [3]As an example of this type of reaction,an infant might repeat the motion of passingtheir hand before their face. Also at this phase,passive reactions, causedby classical oroperant conditioning, canbegin.[4]


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3 Secondary circular reactions phase48 monthsDevelopmentofhabits. "Infants become more object-oriented, moving beyondself-preoccupation; repeat actions that bring interesting orpleasurable results."[3] This stage is associated primarily with thedevelopment ofcoordination between vision and prehension. Three

new abilities occur at this stage: intentional grasping for a desiredobject, secondary circular reactions, and differentiations betweenends and means. At this stage, infants will intentionally grasp the airin the direction of a desired object, often to the amusement offriends and family. Secondary circular reactions, or the repetition ofan action involving an external object begin; for example, moving aswitch to turn on a light repeatedly. The differentiation between

means and ends also occurs. This is perhaps one of the mostimportant stages of a child's growth as it signifies the dawnoflogic.[4]


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4Coordination of secondary circular reactionsstage812 months"Coordination of vision andtouch--hand-eye coordination; coordination of

schemes and intentionality." [3] This stage isassociated primarily with the development oflogic and the coordination between means andends. This is an extremely important stage ofdevelopment, holding what Piaget calls the "firstproperintelligence." Also, this stage marks thebeginning ofgoal orientation, the deliberateplanning of steps to meet an objective.[4]


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5 Tertiary circular reactions, novelty, and

curiosity1218 months"Infants become intrigued

by the many properties of objects and by the

many things they can make happen to objects;they experiment with new behavior." [3] This

stage is associated primarily with the discovery

of new means to meet goals. Piaget describes

the child at this juncture as the "young scientist,"conducting pseudo-experiments to discover new

methods of meeting challenges.[4]


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6Internalization of Schemes18

24 months"Infants develop the ability to

use primitive symbols and form enduring

mental representations." [3] This stage is

associated primarily with the beginnings

ofinsight, or true creativity. This marks the

passage into the preoperational stage.


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Preoperational stage

The preoperative stage is the second of

four stages of cognitivedevelopment.[5] By observing sequences

of play, Piaget was able to demonstrate

that towards the end of the second year, a

qualitatively new kind of psychologicalfunctioning occurs.


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(Pre)Operatory Thought is any procedure for mentallyacting on objects. The hallmark of the preoperationalstage is sparse and logically inadequate mentaloperations. During this stage, the child learns to use and

to represent objects by images, words, anddrawings.[5] The child is able to form stable concepts aswell as mental reasoning and magical beliefs.[5] Thechild however is still not able to perform operations;tasks that the child can do mentally rather than

physically.[5] Thinking is still egocentric: The child hasdifficulty taking the viewpoint of others. Two substagescan be formed from preoperative thought.[5]


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Concrete operational stage

The concrete operational stage is thethird of four stages of cognitivedevelopment in Piaget's theory. Thisstage, which follows thePreoperationalstage, occurs between the ages of 7 and11

years[8] and is characterized by theappropriate use of logic. Importantprocesses during this stage are:


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Seriationthe ability to sort objects in an order according to size, shape, or any othercharacteristic. For example, if given different-shaded objects they may make a color gradient.

Transitivity- The ability to recognize logical relationships among elements in a serial order, andperform 'transitive inferences' (for example, If A is taller than B, and B is taller than C, then A mustbe taller than C).

Classificationthe ability to name and identify sets of objects according to appearance, size orother characteristic, including the idea that one set of objects can include another.

Decentering

where the child takes into account multiple aspects of a problem to solve it. Forexample, the child will no longer perceive an exceptionally wide but short cup to contain less than

a normally-wide, taller cup.

Reversibilitythe child understands that numbers or objects can be changed, then returned totheir original state. For this reason, a child will be able to rapidly determine that if 4+4 equals t, t4will equal 4, the original quantity.

Conservationunderstanding that quantity, length or number of items is unrelated to thearrangement or appearance of the object or items.

Elimination of Egocentrismthe ability to view things from another's perspective (even if they

think incorrectly). For instance, show a child a comic in which Jane puts a doll under a box, leavesthe room, and then Melissa moves the doll to a drawer, and Jane comes back. A child in theconcrete operations stage will say that Jane will still think it's under the box even though the childknows it is in the drawer. (See alsoFalse-belief task).


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AKA Sigismund Schlomo Freud

Born:May 6, 1856Birthplace: Freiberg, MoraviaDied: September23,1939

Location of death: London, EnglandCause of death: Euthanasia [1]Remains: Cremated, Golders Green Crematorium, London,England

Gender: MaleReligion:AtheistRace or Ethnicity: WhiteOccupation: Psychiatrist

Nationality:AustriaExecutive summary: Die Traumdeutung


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He was the first one to suggest that

psychological problems might have their roots in

how children were treated. Freud believed that

most of our personality is formed by earlychildhood, much of it so early that we dont even

have conscious memories. For example, people

who were toilet-trained strictly and at an early

age grow up to be intolerant of mess, disorderand anything that doesnt go by the rules of how

things are supposed to be.


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Freud's Theory of Developmental

Phases The Oral Stage: Birth to 18 Months

Anyone familiar with very young babies and

children knows that they are focused on their

mouths. A baby's first nourishment is receivedthrough suckling, and the sucking instinct is

usually strong, even in newborns. Freud

theorised that an infant's oral focus brought

not only nourishment, but pleasure.


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The Anal Stage: 18 Months to ThreeYears

Freud believed that during this time period,children derive much pleasure from theprocess of either retaining or eliminatingfaeces, and are quite focused on the

process. This is often the time frame inwhich many parents choose to potty traintheir children.


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The Phallic Stage: 3 Years to 6 Years

From about age 3-6 years, Freud believedthat children's pleasure centres focused ontheir genitals. He further theorised thatyoung boys develop unconscious sexual

feelings for their mothers, complicatingtheir relationships with both parents.Struggling with a feeling that they are incompetition with their fathers for the

attention of their mums, Freud felt thatboys from 3-6 years also fear that theirfathers will punish them for these sexualfeelings.


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Latency Stage: 6 Years to Onset of

Puberty

Freud seemed to view this time as theleast complicated in childhood, believing

that during these years, children focus

their energies on their schooling as well as

forming friendship bonds with otherchildren of their own gender.


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Erikson's Theory of Psychosocial

Development

Erik Eriksons theory of psychosocial

development is one of the best-known

theories of personality in psychology.

Much like Sigmund Freud, Erikson

believed that personality develops in a

series of stages. Unlike Freuds theory of

psychosexual stages, Eriksons theorydescribes the impact of social experience

across the whole lifespan


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One of the main elements of Eriksonspsychosocial stage theory is the develomentofego identity.1 Ego identity is the conscious

sense of self that we develop through socialinteraction. According to Erikson, our egoidentity is constantly changing due to newexperience and information we acquire in ourdaily interactions with others. In addition to ego

identity, Erikson also believed that a sense ofcompetence also motivates behaviors andactions


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Psychosocial Stage 1 - Trust vs. Mistrust

The first stage of Eriksons theory of psychosocial

development occurs between birth and one year of ageand is the most fundamental stage in life.2

Because an infant is utterly dependent, the developmentof trust is based on the dependability and quality of the

childs caregivers.

If a child successfully develops trust, he or she will feelsafe and secure in the world. Caregivers who areinconsistent, emotionally unavailable, or rejecting

contribute to feelings of mistrust in the children they carefor. Failure to develop trust will result in fear and a beliefthat the world is inconsistent and unpredictable.


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Psychosocial Stage 2 - Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

The second stage of Erikson's theory of psychosocial developmenttakes place during early childhood and is focused on childrendeveloping a greater sense of personal control.2

Like Freud, Erikson believed that toilet training was a vital part ofthis process. However, Erikson's reasoning was quite different thenthat of Freud's. Erikson believe that learning to control ones bodyfunctions leads to a feeling of control and a sense of independence.

Other important events include gaining more control over foodchoices, toy preferences, and clothing selection.

Children who successfully complete this stage feel secure andconfident, while those who do not are left with a sense ofinadequacy and self-doubt.


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Psychosocial Stage 3 - Initiative vs. Guilt

During the preschool years, children begin toassert their power and control over the world

through directing play and other socialinteraction.

Children who are successful at this stage feel

capable and able to lead others. Those who failto acquire these skills are left with a sense ofguilt, self-doubt and lack of initiative.3


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Psychosocial Stage 4 - Industry vs. Inferiority

This stage covers the early school years fromapproximately age 5 to 11.

Through social interactions, children begin to develop asense of pride in their accomplishments and abilities.

Children who are encouraged and commended byparents and teachers develop a feeling of competenceand belief in their skills. Those who receive little or noencouragement from parents, teachers, or peers willdoubt their ability to be successful.


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ychosocial Stage 5 - Identity vs. Confusion

During adolescence, children are exploring theirindependence and developing a sense of self.

Those who receive proper encouragement andreinforcement through personal exploration willemerge from this stage with a strong sense of

self and a feeling of independence and control.Those who remain unsure of their beliefs anddesires will insecure and confused aboutthemselves and the future.


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Psychosocial Stage 6 - Intimacy vs. Isolation

This stage covers the period of early adulthoodwhen people are exploring personal

relationships.

Erikson believed it was vital that people developclose, committed relationships with other people.

Those who are successful at this step willdevelop relationships that are committed andsecure.


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Remember that each step builds on skillslearned in previous steps. Eriksonbelieved that a strong sense of personal

identity was important to developingintimate relationships. Studies havedemonstrated that those with a poor senseof self tend to have less committed

relationships and are more likely to sufferemotional isolation, loneliness, anddepression.


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Psychosocial Stage 7 - Generativity vs.Stagnation

During adulthood, we continue to build our lives,

focusing on our career and family.

Those who are successful during this phase willfeel that they are contributing to the world by

being active in their home and community.Those who fail to attain this skill will feelunproductive and uninvolved in the world.


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Psychosocial Stage 8 - Integrity vs. Despair

This phase occurs during old age and is focused onreflecting back on life.

Those who are unsuccessful during this phase will feelthat their life has been wasted and will experience manyregrets. The individual will be left with feelings ofbitterness and despair.

Those who feel proud of their accomplishments will feela sense of integrity. Successfully completing this phasemeans looking back with few regrets and a generalfeeling of satisfaction. These individuals will attainwisdom, even when confronting death.


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Maslow's hierarchy of needs

Maslow's hierarchy of needs is a theory

in psychology, proposed byAbraham Maslow in

his 1943 paperATheory of Human

Motivation.[2] Maslow subsequently extendedthe idea to include his observations of humans'

innate curiosity. His theories parallel many other

theories of human developmental psychology,

all of which focus on describing the stages ofgrowth in humans.


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1. Self-actualization

What a man can be, he must be.[7] This forms thebasis of the perceived need for self-actualization. Thislevel of need pertains to what a person's full potential is

and realizing that potential. Maslow describes this desireas the desire to become more and more what one is, tobecome everything that one is capable ofbecoming.[8] This is a broad definition of the need forself-actualization, but when applied to individuals the

need is specific. For example one individual may havethe strong desire to become an ideal parent, in another itmay be expressed athletically, and in another it may beexpressed in painting, pictures, or inventions


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2. Esteem All humans have a need to be respected and to have self-esteem

and self-respect. Also known as the belonging need, esteempresents the normal human desire to be accepted and valued byothers. People need to engage themselves to gain recognition and

have an activity or activities that give the person a sense ofcontribution, to feel accepted and self-valued, be it in a profession orhobby. Imbalances at this level can result in low self-esteem oran inferiority complex. People with low self-esteem need respectfrom others. They may seek fame or glory, which again depends onothers. Note, however, that many people with low self-esteem willnot be able to improve their view of themselves simply by receiving

fame, respect, and glory externally, but must first accept themselvesinternally. Psychological imbalances such as depression can alsoprevent one from obtaining self-esteem on both levels.


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3. Love and belonging

After physiological and safety needs are fulfilled, the third layer of human needs aresocial and involve feelings ofbelongingness. This aspect of Maslow's hierarchyinvolves emotionally based relationships in general, such as:

Friendship

Intimacy

Family Humans need to feel a sense of belonging and acceptance, whether it comes from a

large social group, such as clubs, office culture, religious groups, professionalorganizations, sports teams, gangs, or small social connections (family members,intimate partners, mentors, close colleagues, confidants). They need to love and beloved (sexually and non-sexually) by others. In the absence of these elements, manypeople become susceptible to loneliness, social anxiety, and clinical depression. Thisneed for belonging can often overcome the physiological and security needs,depending on the strength of the peer pressure; an anorexic, for example, may ignorethe need to eat and the security of health for a feeling of control andbelonging.[citation needed]


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4. Safety needs

With their physical needs relatively satisfied, the individual's safetyneeds take precedence and dominate behavior. These needs haveto do with people's yearning for a predictable orderly world in whichperceived unfairness and inconsistency are under control, thefamiliar frequent and the unfamiliar rare. In the world of work, thesesafety needs manifest themselves in such things as a preferenceforjob security, grievance procedures for protecting the individualfrom unilateral authority, savings accounts, insurance policies,reasonable disability accommodations, and the like.

Safety and Security needs include:

Personal security

Financial security Health and well-being

Safety net against accidents/illness and their adverse impacts


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5. Physiological needs

For the most part, physiological needs are obviousthey are theliteral requirements for human survival. If these requirements are notmet (with the exception of clothing, shelter, and sexual activity), thehuman body simply cannot continue to function.

Physiological needs include: Breathing

Food

Homeostasis

Sex

sleep

Air, water, and food are metabolic requirements for survival in allanimals, including humans. Clothing and shelter provide necessaryprotection from the elements. The intensity of the human sexualinstinct is shaped more by sexual competition than maintaining abirth rate adequate to survival of the species.


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Three more needs

These are the needs that are most commonly discussed and used.In fact Maslow later added three more needs by splitting two of theabove five needs.

Between esteem and self-actualization needs was added:

Need to know and understand, which explains the cognitive need ofthe academic.

The need foraesthetic beauty, which is the emotional need of theartist.

Self-actualization was divided into:

Self-actualization, which is realizing one's own potential, as above.

Transcendence, which is helping others to achieve their potential.

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