GRAMMATICAL STRUCTURE OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE

Synthetic and analytical types of languages

Analytical verb-forms: function word + full /content word

continuous forms perfect forms forms of the future interrogative forms negative forms forms of the passive voice

Synthetic verb-forms:inflectional morphemes + inner flexions

GRAMMAR=study of rules governing the use of a language

PRESCRIPTIVE APPROACH TO GRAMMAR prescribes grammatical norms

DESCRIPTIVE APPROACH TO GRAMMAR describes how language is used in practice

THE SUBFIELDS OF GRAMMAR

phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, and semantics.

In traditional terms: morphology and syntax

SYNTAX (Greek: syn=together + assein= arrange; Latin: syntaxis)

deals with the structure of sentences

MORPHOLOGY (Greek: morphé= form/structure + logos= word)

= branch of linguistics that studies word structure

= the study of how words are formed out of smaller units called morphemes

= study of morphemes and the way they are joined together to make words

L. Bloomfield: MORPHEME=smallest meaningful unit in a given language

= different realisations (morphs) in different context e.g. the verb morpheme “do“ = do, does, don´t

Such alternating morphs of a morpheme = allomorphs.ALLOMORPHS=variants of a single morpheme: pl.-s: /-

z/,/-s/,/iz/

MORPHEMESFREE: lexical functionalBOUND: derivational inflectional

CLASSIFICATION OF WORD CLASSES(PARTS OF SPEECH)

Full / content/ notional / words = open classes (can form new words)

Function words = closed classes

A lot of English words belong to more than one word class.

NOUNS (Latin nomen = name)

= person, place, thing, idea, animal, quality, activity, state, event,

Distinctive features of nouns: noun-forming derivational affixes the threefold inflectional sibilant suffix marking by determiners fixed position in the sentence substitutable by pronouns

Some nouns: the same form as verbs graphically different phonetically different

CLASSIFICATION OF NOUNS

COMMON NOUNS PROPER NOUNS names of individuals = personal names, geographical

names, names of a group of individuals

CONCRETE NOUNS - definite objects

ABSTRACT NOUNS - quality, action, state, ideas, concepts

COLLECTIVE NOUNS – groups of people or things

MATERIAL NOUNS - do not require limiting modifiers - usually have no plural forms

MORPHOLOGICAL COMPOSITION OF NOUNS

1) SIMPLE NOUNS: no affixes

2) DERIVATIVE NOUNS: prefixes: un-, mis-, pre-, for-; anti-, ex-, il-, -in-, non-,

sub-, super-, vice-, suffixes: -al, -ance, -ence, -ant, -ar, -er, -or, -ion, -iour,

-ledge, -ment, -y, -ee; -age, -ce, -cy, -ry, -ty, -ity, -ness, -ation,

-dom, -ess, -hood, -ian, -ism, -ist, -ship

-ing forms used as nouns- diminutives: -let, -ing, -ie, -ock, -ette-ian, -er, -ese, -an, -ish, -iteNouns with 2 suffixes: -ishness

3) COMPOUNDSwords joined together referring to a single object

N stem + N stem Adj stem + N stem Adv stem + N stem Verb stem + N stem

CN with –ing forms

CN with a linking element: - a vowel/consonant- a preposition - a conjunction

DERIVATIONAL COMPOUNDS

OTHER WORD FORMATION PROCESSES

CONVERSION = lexemes change their word class without adding affixesV > NAdj > NN > VAdj > VAdv > VN > AdjAdv > AdjAdv > NBLENDING; CLIPPING;

GRAMMATICAL CATEGORY OF NUMBER

Countable Ns = sg + pl; valley; country; BUT: Kennedy; photo; BUT: hero; cargo; VOICING PLURAL: wife; BUT: roof; dwarf; MUTATED PLURAL: Englishman; BUT: German;

-en PLURAL: child; BUT: brother;

UNINFLECTED PLURAL: sheep; BUT: oyster:

FOREIGN PLURAL: phenomenon; analysis; bacterium; BUT: focus; larva; antenna; index; PLURAL IN COMPOUNDSbedroom; postman; brother-in-law; passer-by; forget-me-

not;

PLURAL IN COLLECTIVE NOUNS

- in sg. followed by Vs in sg.: foliage, machinery;- in sg. followed by Vs in pl.: cattle; vermin; - in sg. used with Vs in sg. or pl.: committee; police;

Ns in pl. - V in pl.: clothes, goods; pyjamas, scissors; Ns with -s – V in sg: billiards; mumps; news; BUT:

statistics; the same sg + pl = V in sg. or pl.: series; species;

PLURAL OF NAMES OF NATIONS Switzerland: sg. a Swiss, pl. many Swiss, nation: the

Swiss The Netherlands = Dutchman, Dutchmen, nation: the

Dutch

COUNTABILITY

COUNTABLE Ns: living beings or things with a definite form; some abstract Ns; sg. and pl.; articles; numerals; How many?

few;

UNCOUNTABLE Ns: sth can be measured but not counted, without shape/limits; 1 form; the; no numerals; How much?

little; material, liquids, substances: snow, iron, water, gold abstract qualities and ideas: courage, success, peace

UC in EN, BUT: gossip, information, hair, homework, news, soap

UC in pl.= kinds, extension, intensity: wines, waters, sands, heats

C/U = glass, iron, paper Partitives

GRAMMATICAL CATEGORY OF GENDER

OE = grammatical gender; ModE = natural gender:male= masculine; female= feminine; inanimate things=

neuter

gender-forming suffix -ess: actress other suffixes: heroine, widower, usherette gender expressed lexically:- by different words: mother – father- by pronouns: wolf – she-wolf - by words indicating the gender: male reader – female

reader

Nouns with a generic term + a pair: horse; pig; sheep; monarch

COMMON GENDER

singer, journalist, neighbour, student = pronouns - male or female;

A pet: F = cat, parrot; car, ship; M = dog, horse, canary

PERSONIFICATION (in poetry):Masculine = Ns - strength, inflexibility, resistance, necessity- names of winds, rivers, mountainssummer, autumn, winter, the sun, anger, love, murder, war,

death

Feminine = Ns denoting tenderness, feableness, loveliness- names of countries (ref. to the nation), towns, universitiesthe moon, the earth, mercy, charity, faith, hope, modesty,

justice

GRAMMATICAL CATEGORY OF CASE

OE = 4 cases: N, G, D, Acc.ModE: the common case = uninflected form the possessive/genitive case = inflected by:-´s in sg: a girl´s book; my mother-in-law´s pen; Peter and Paul´s quarrel;-´ in pl.: girls´ school; BUT: children´s toys; Dickens´/ Dickens´s novel;

DEPENDENT GENITIVE

proper names: Paul´s car; personal nouns: my sister´s school personal indefinite pronouns: someone´s passport names of animals: dog´s life collective nouns: government´s decision geographical names: Slovakia´s export; BUT: institutional names: the school´s history expressions of time, space, weight, distance: two week

´s work names of seasons/months/days: Sunday´s newspaper with words: sun, moon, earth, world: the earth´s surface with words: ship, boat, vessel: ship´s cargo with personification (in poetry): wind´s whistle fixed expressions: by a hair´s breadth

THE OF-CONSTRUCTION / OF-GENITIVE

refers to: things when we cannot form a compound parts of things abstract nouns partitives geographical notions some other nouns

THE ABSOLUTE / ELYPTICAL GENITIVE

= without a following noun: when it is clear what / who we are talking about when referring to work-places, shops, banks, houses:

THE DOUBLE GENITIVE = when a noun is determined by: articles numerals some demonstrative pronouns

DETERMINERS= words used in front of common nouns

CENTRAL DETERMINERS = mutually exclusive

1) articles 2) possessive 3) demonstrative 4) assertive; nonassertive 5) negative6) universal 7) dual 8) WH-determiners

DETERMINERS = determine (affect) the meaning of the noun

PREDETERMINERS = precede the required CD in a N phrase:

- quantifying - fractional - intensifying - multiplying

POSTDETERMINERS = follow the required CD in a N phrase

- cardinal numerals - ordinal numerals - many, much + its relatives - the forms of other - the phrasal quantifiers

THE DEFINITE ARTICLE: the

= from OE demonstrative pronoun sé- particular object; sth that is known; specific or definite

reference;- C in sg.; C in pl.; U; the definite object;- we know exactly from the context;- unique things- political parties; the whole family; nouns of nationalities;- in proverbs- ordinal numerals; superlative degree – adj.; substantivized adj. - with some places, even if we don´t know exactly which- with: same, very, right, wrong; the weather; - some, many, none, most + preposition of; - abstract Ns modified by an attribute in post-position

THE INDEFINITE ARTICLE: a / an

= from OE numeral án (one)

- meaning “one“: Ns denoting time, measure, weight, numerals

- people or things in general

- all the representatives of the class = “every“

- Ns introduced for the 1st time - CNs

- object belonging to a class = “some, any“

- with jobs, Ns of nationalities; some illnesses;

- proper Ns (member of family; literature, art)

- Ns: period, population, distance, height, salary + OF constr.

- after “there is“, “what a ...“, “such a ...“

- personal names modified by “certain“

THE ZERO ARTICLE

= shows that Ns are used in a general sense- with pl CNs in general statements- abstract Ns; UNs of material- some illnesses; illnesses in -s- activities + sport games- in general: names of periods of a year, months, days,

holidays- languages; names of subjects; names of food;- names of persons; forms of addressing people; titles +

names;- Ns expressing relationship - in certain prepositional phrases

THE USE OF ARTICLES

No article: Articles:I like spring. It happened in the spring of 1968.It was spring. It was a cold spring.Day is meant for work, He won´t forget the day when...night for sleep. The night was warm.to be in prison (= prisoner) to be in the prison (= building)to leave school/at school (study) to leave the school; a good schoolIs dinner ready? The dinner we had today was ...speak French use the French language at workDickens, the great novelist, ... It´s a Dickens novel. /a Picasso

THE USE OF ARTICLES

NO ARTICLE: THE DEFINITE ARTICLE:Africa, Asia, Europe the Antarctica, the Continent (Europe)England, Germany the UK, the Vatican, the Ukraine- the Pacific (Ocean), the Black Sea, the

NileLake Ontario, Lake Geneva the Ontario (no: lake)Mount Everest, Mont Blanc, the Matterhorn, the Jungfrau,Elbrus, Snowdon, Ben Nevis the Alps, the Himalayas,Malta, Sicily, Madagaskar the Isle of Capri, the Isle of Man

groups of islands: the Bahamas, the Azores, the Canaries- the Gobi (Desert), the SaharaLondon / Westminster Bridge the Golden Gate Br., the Tower Br.

PRONOUNS point out objects / qualities without naming them

1) PERSONAL: = refer to the person speaking, spoken to, spoken about Gram. categories of P, N, C, G – 3rd sg.Common case is replaced by: - subjective case- objective case

2) POSSESSIVE: = refer to parts of the body and personal belongingsGram. categories: P, N, G2 forms:- the dependent / attribute form (possessive

determiners)- the independent / the nominal form

SPECIFIC PRONOUNS

3) DEMONSTRATIVE: express the number contrast= point at what is nearer or farther in time and spaceSuch = of this/that kind; such as = for example

Same = always with “the“

4) REFLEXIVE: indicate - action expressed by V passes back to S

Gram. categories: P, N, G – 3rd sg.- as direct or indirect O- after a preposition; after “by“ meaning alone; - as part of the predicative of the V to be- in fixed phrases- to emphasize sth.= used with reflexive Vs

5) SPECIFIC INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS

= form questions; always precede the VWho = 3 case-forms, used only for personsSubjective; Objective; Genitive/Possessive (determiner);What = no case-forms; used: for things for an activity to ask for a person´s profession, character, etc. in idiomatic expressionsWhich = used for things and persons; sg. or pl; subject or

object;= implies choice among a certain number of things often followed by an of-phraseCompound interrogatives: = used for emphasis

6) SPECIFIC RELATIVE PRONOUNS

point out back to a N or pron. mentioned before = antecedent

Forms : personal: subject: who; object: whom; possessive: whose; non-pers: subj: which, that; obj: which, that; poss:

whose

That =for persons/things in restrictive relative clauses- can sometimes be left out of a sentence- cannot be preceded by a preposition- after the superlative; after most indefinite pronouns;- after opening phrases; antecedent = both person +thing

What is used when an antecedent is not expressedCompound relative pronounsRelative as = always after such + after the same (also: that)

7) SPECIFIC RECIPROCAL PRONOUNS

= express mutual action or relation= the subject = always in pl.

Each other implies only twoOne another = two or more persons

The common caseThe genitive case

INDEFINITE: UNIVERSAL PRONOUNS

ALL: persons / things; in sg. / pl.; expresses unity;- as a pronoun meaning: everything; - as an adjective meaning: the whole of;- in some expressions

EACH: 2 or more than 2 persons/things separately- a limited number; after of and at the end- as a pronoun + as a determiner

EVERY: more than 2 persons/things meaning: altogether; - unlimited number; after: nearly, not; only as a determiner- in idiomatic expressions

BOTH: with pl N and pl V- as pronoun; as adjective; adverbially;

INDEFINITE: PARTITIVE PRONOUNS

SOME = determiner or nominal function; CNs + UNs; compounds- indefinite quant./nr; contrast; particular but unidentified- affirm. sent.; interrogative = positive reply; before numerals

ANY = it doesn´t matter who, which, what; CNs+UNs; compounds- in: interrog.; negative; indirect quest.; condit. clauses; adverbially

NO = determiner function; “not any, not a“; CNs + UNs;Nobody, no one, nothing =nominal f., sg V; replaced by any-;NONE = nominal function; sg+ pl; of-constructions

THE OTHER /+sg N= the second of twoANOTHER = an additional one; a different one;THE OTHERS; THE OTHER + pl N = remaining ones;OTHERS; OTHER + pl N = different, additional, remaining ones;EITHER=1/the other of 2;both; NEITHER=not this, not the other

INDEFINITE: QUANTIFYING PRONOUNS

MANY, FEW = pl., used with CNsMUCH, LITTLE = sg., used with UNsIn affirmative s.: a lot of, lots of, plenty of, a good deal of,

MANY, MUCH: in interrog. + negative; MUCH = also adverbially

FEW, LITTLE = negative meaning; A FEW, A LITTLE = positive

SEVERAL: in pl.; determiner+nominal f. with of-construction

ENOUGH: with CNs + UNs; determiner or nominal function;

ONE: - numerical - replacive = a word-substitute (not with UNs)

- indefinite = “people in general“- after WHICH;

ADJECTIVES / MODIFIERSlimit or qualify words by describing them

According to morphologic characteristics:

1) GRADABLE the positive the comparative the superlativeTwo types of comparison: synthetic and analytical

2) NON-GRADABLE

IRREGULAR FORMS OF ADJECTIVESSpelling rules

ADJECTIVESdo not change in gender, number, case

According to their meaning:QUALITATIVE /descriptive: size, shape, colour, m. + ph.

qualities RELATIVE = to materials, place, time, action

SUBSTANTIVIZED ADJECTIVES: wholly or partially

MORPHOLOGICAL COMPOSITION OF ADJECTIVES: primary / simple secondary: - derived /derivative - converted compound

Pre-modifiers x post-modifiers

ADVERBS express some circumstances that attend an action, state, or point out some characteristic features of an action or a quality

- answer questions: HOW? WHEN? WHERE? HOW OFTEN? TO WHAT EXTENT? IN WHAT ORDER?- can modify:Vs, adj. , indefinite pron., other adv., Ns, whole sentences;

The modifying adverb is usually an INTENSIFIER

According to their structure: simple derivative compound compositeAdverbial phrases

GRADABILITY OF ADVERBS

GRADABLE: synthetic or analyticalIrregular forms of comparison

NON-GRADABLE

According to their meaning: adverbs of MANNER adverbs of PLACE and DIRECTION adverbs of TIME adverbs of FREQUENCY adverbs of DEGREE, MEASURE and QUANTITY2 forms of adverbsThe same forms of adverbs and adjectivesCONSTRUCTIONS WITH COMPARISON

POSITION OF ADVERBS IN A SENTENCE

of manner:

of degrees:

of place and directions:

of time:

of frequency:

VERBS = word class / clause element

Grammatical categories of Vs: tense, aspect, voice, mood

A sentence: - a single verb = the finite verb phrase (VP) is simple: - a cluster of Vs = the VP is complex:

Within a complex VP = up to 4 auxiliaries in front of the main V.

4 basic types of the complex finite VP: modal perfective progressive passive

VERBS

- according to the function within a VP = 3 classes of Vs:

primary auxiliary Vs modal auxiliary Vs lexical (main, full) Vs

- according to the finiteness: finite V forms non-finite V forms

- according to morphological forms: regular Vs irregular Vs

VERBS

Regular Vs = 4 morphological forms: the base form (no inflections) = 4 functions the -ed form (past form + -ed participle form) = 3

functions the -s form -ing form

Irregular Vs = either 5 forms or 3 forms- classified into: 3 forms alike 3 forms different past tense equals -ed participle V base equals -ed participle V base equals the past tense

PRIMARY AUXILIARY VERBS

= assist the main V to express gram. contrasts (in P, N, T)= a separate class

TO BE= unique, 8 forms; uncontracted x contracted negative

forms

2 functions: 1. as an aspect auxiliary for the progressive 2. as a passive auxiliary

Lexical V = when combined with Adj., Adv., Pron., Ns

Forms: present; past; present perfect; past perfect; future; future

perfect; progressive present; progressive past;

PRIMARY AUXILIARY VERBS

TO HAVE= base, -s, past, -ing, -ed; contracted x uncontr. negative formsLexical V = to possess;

Forms: present; past; present perfect; past perfect; future; future

perfect;

HAVE x HAVE GOT = often interchangeableIn BrE: have got = perfect form of “get“ + have got = to

possess; In BrE questions - by inversion, in AmE - by operators

When a stative V = no progressive formWhen a dynamic V = meaning: eat, drink, enjoy, take,

experience

HAVE + determiner + noun = to perform activity

PRIMARY AUXILIARY VERBS

TO DO= present; -s; past; contracted x uncontracted negative

forms;

Lexical V = to perform; to work at or be engaged in sth.

Forms: -ing; -ed; ...

Auxiliary V:- negated imperative- in questions- in tag questions- in emphatic or persuasive constructions- in inversion caused by introductory words (negative

adverbs: hardly, seldom)

MODALS = the speaker´s attitude toward the action or state indicated by the infinitive

I CAN / COULD (periphrastic form: to be able to) CAN = ability, capability; CANNOT/CAN´T = inability, incapability

CAN expresses: physical and mental abilities asking and giving permission with Vs with perception possibility

CAN´T/COULD/COULD NOT + perfect inf.= ref. to the past

CAN/CAN´T + passive infinitive

MODALS - defective, not inflected; followed by bare infinitive;

I MAY / MIGHT (periphrastic = to be allowed to) permission in questions MAY is more formal than CANMIGHT in more polite requestsMUSTN´T stronger prohibition than MAY NOT- possibility (= it is possible)

MAY + present infinitive = about present or future happenings

MAY/MIGHT + perfect infinitive = guess about past happening

MIGHT expresses reproachMIGHT + perfect infinitive = action was not carried out in

the pastMAY as a subjunctive auxiliary (expresses wish)

MODALS - cannot form imperative; do not have the infinitive form;

I MUST (to have to) = to be obliged to; to be compelled to inescapable obligation, duty or necessity an absence of obligation by NEED NOT or DON´T

HAVE TOMUSTN´T is a strong way of forbidding to do sth.

MUST, HAVE TO, HAVE GOT TO = interchangeable obligation comes from the speaker stronger obligation for other personsMUST in notices, documents, commandsMUST in pressing invitation and emphatic advice

MUST + present inf. = deduction refers to the present

MUST + perfect inf. = deduction about the past

MODALS - negative and interrogative forms without the auxiliary

SHALL expresses: volition (mostly for 1st sg.) in questions = obligation or suggestion insistence, threat in legal documents- in 2nd, 3rd person

SHOULD in reported speech; in offers, suggestions, requests; escapable obligation, duty probability; after if and in case = possibility recommendations from an outside authority

OUGHT TO = more objective force, talk about laws, dutiesSHOULD/OUGHT TO + perf. inf.= action wasn´t carried

out

MODAL AUXILIARY VERBS

WILL expresses: prediction about the future; about the present; giving

orders; habitual predictive meaning in conditional; willingness to do sth.; intention to make promises or

threats to make requests or to give orders

WILL+perfect inf.= logical deduction about the past

WOULD = past form, in reported speech- about past habits + characteristic behaviour (no with state

V)WOULD as conditionalWOULD = more polite request than WILL- after I wish / If only I ... expresses willingness

MARGINAL MODALS / SEMI-MODALS

NEED = in the negative; Yes/No questions- after negative adverbs (hardly, seldom, rarely)- in formal style, expressing doubts- in informal use = ordinary (lexical) V formNEEDN´T + perfect inf.= sb did it but it was not necessary

DARE: in questions + negatives or with bare infinitive or a full V

- in informal style; the negative DAREN´T: YOU DARE! or: DON´T YOU DARE! = to discourage people I DARE SAY = probably

USED TO = past habit = only in simple past; also with state V

USED NOT or USEDN´T = in the negative; in questions;

GRAMMATICAL CATEGORY OF VOICE

ACTIVE VOICEThe clause with transitive Vs contains: 3 gram. elements: S+V+O; 3 semantic units: A+P (A)+GSUBJECT = AGENT if V is in the active voice; OBJECT = GOAL If WO - changed = both gram. + semantic roles of Ns change

PASSIVE VOICE= the SUBJECT - not interpreted as the AGENT AGENT (NP) is preceded by the preposition by.AGENT (unknown, unimportant) = unexpressedThe emphasis = on the action, not on people who perform it.Sth that the AGENT used to perform the action = preposition

with:After ditransitive Vs either OBJECT = SUBJECT of a passive

clause.

THE FORMS OF THE PASSIVE VOICE

= to be + -ed participle present simple: John is helped by Mary. present progressive present perfect simple past past progressive past perfect simple future future perfect present infinitive perfect infinitive - ing form perfect –ing form

GRAMMATICAL CATEGORY OF ASPECT

reflects the way in which the verb action is “regarded“ or„experienced“ with respect to time; - is closely connected in meaning with tense2 types of aspectual contrast:1) THE PERFECTIVE ASPECT2) THE PROGRESSIVE (CONTINUOUS) ASPECT

1 THE PERFECTIVE ASPECT is associated with time orientation + various time

indicators (already, since, for, so far, lately, recently, up to now, how long, ever,...)

1.1 THE PRESENT PERFECT

= have + -ed participle

= “past happening related to present time“

past events with results in the present time

indefinite events in a period leading up to the present time

habit in a period leading up to the present time

state leading up to the present time

1.2 THE PAST PERFECT

= had + -ed participle= “past in the past“= conjunctions: after, when show which event took place

earlier

describing one event following another in the past

event in -when clause = completed before event in PS started

in reported speech after past Vs

to narrate events looking back from a point in the past

to express an unrealized hope, wish

1.3 THE FUTURE PERFECT

= (will + perfect infinitive)

= at a certain time in the future sth will be completed / achieved

(often used with by + time reference)

THE PROGRESSIVE ASPECT = to be + ing form

= refers to activity in progress, and therefore suggests that:a) the activity is temporary (i.e. of limited duration)b) it need not be complete

2.1 PRESENT PROGRESSIVE (am/is/are + -ing)= actions in progress at the moment of speaking (now, just)= temporary situation, activity is taking place in the present

time and will continue for a limited period= future reference with Vs of motion (arrive, come, go, leave,

fly)= activities planned for the future= repeated actions – unexpectedly/annoyingly (always,

constantly)

THE PROGRESSIVE ASPECT

2.2 PAST PROGRESSIVE

= was/were + -ing

= an action was in progress at a specified time in the past

= started bef. event in PS,= in progress when event in PS occured

= two parallel actions were in progress at the same time (while)

= progress with adverbials beginning with all (all morning, all day)

= repeated actions

= the background for a narrative in the past

THE PROGRESSIVE ASPECT

2.3 PRESENT PERFECT PROGRESSIVE= has/have been +ing

= an activity taking place in the recent period up to the present

= started in P, continues up to Pr and possibly in the F (since, for)

2.4 PAST PERFECT PROGRESSIVE= had been + -ing

- used to describe an activity looking back from the past

THE PROGRESSIVE ASPECT

2.5 FUTURE PROGRESSIVE = shall/will be + -ing= an activity going on at a particular time or over a particular

period in the future (we mention the future time)

= future activity is the result of a previous decision (arrangement)

= planned activities in the future

= asking (politely) about people´s plans

2.6 FUTURE PERFECT PROGRESSIVE = shall/will + have been + -ing

= activity leading up to time in the future (usually - the particular point in the future (on Saturday, next

year)and the period of time until this point (for a year, for 20 minutes)

GRAMMATICAL CATEGORY OF MOOD indicates the factual, nonfactual, or counterfactual status of prediction

THE INDICATIVE/DECLARATIVE = facts; relatively confident

THE IMPERATIVE MOOD = commands, instructions2 sg/pl (no distinction)= base of V; 1+3 sg/pl = periphrastically

THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD (replaced by other constructions)

1) The Mandative S. = lack of regular concord btw S + FV a) in a subordinate that-clause after Vs (in the main clause): advise, ask, beg, decide, demand, desire, insist, intend, order

b) after adjectives (anxious, determined) with a personal S or (essential, important, urgent, vital)+ impersonal it-constr. c) after Ns (demand, intention, order, request, suggestion)

2) The Formulaic S. in certain set expressions

3) The Were-S. = hypothetical; conditional/wish clauses

GRAMMATICAL CATEGORY OF TENSE

Present: simple, progressive, perfect, perfect progressive

Past: simple, progressive, perfect, perfect progressive

Expressing future: simple, progressive, perfect, perfect progressive

NON-FINITE VERB FORMS = after Vs in VP, after Ns, Adj, in non-finite subordinate clauses

1) THE INFINITIVE present infinitive active: present infinitive passive: present progressive infinitive active: perfect / past infinitive active: perfect / past infinitive passive: perfect / past progressive infinitive active:

The bare infinitive is used after: modals; let; make; had better; would rather; Vs of

perception;

The to-infinitive is used after: some lexical Vs; V to be + adj.; some Vs followed by an O; indicating purpose

NON-FINITE VERB FORMS

2) THE ING-FORM -ing participles in progr. aspect or functioning as participial adj. gerunds = can take place of N or V - in statements = U; as a count = after determiners+´s genitiveForms: present active; present passive; past active; past passiveUse:after most Vs of liking and disliking; some lexical Vs; phrasal Vs;prepositions including adj. + preposition phrases;

3) THE –ed FORM= the past form and the –ed participle form to form the passive; to express perfective aspect (have/had + -ed); to begin a subordinate clause;