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Mehdi Hassanian esfahani (GS22456)

Literary Theory (BBL5201) – Final Examination

Coined by William Rueckert in 1978, Ecocriticism attempts to examine the relationship

between human beings and nature. It investigates the common areas related to sociology,

environment and ecology. It is focused on “writings about the natural world” (Mikics, 97) and

evaluates literary texts in terms of “their environmentally harmful or helpful effects” (Waugh,

530). Waugh explains furthermore that there is an effort in it to understand the development

of culture, and the environmental damages it had caused. Ecocriticism, unlike other literary

theories, discards linguistic and [to some extent] historical and cultural aspects of a text. It

embodies human and non-human context and considerations, and may also be considered a

political view.

In late 1970s, when the news of contaminated water and soil, threaten of nuclear

destruction, extinction of species, global warming and high rate of population became

widespread and worldwide issues, according to Love, interests in green reading increased. But

the study of physical world can be rooted to ancient times, because nature has always been a

part of literature, especially trough pastoral tradition, romantic and transcendental periods.

In late 1980s, according to Barry, Ecocriticism was academically established in the

United States, and in early 1990s it was discussed in the UK, although they called it ‘green

studies’. Cheryll Glotfelty in the USA is among the pioneers; she is also the co-founder of ASLE

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(Association for the Study of Literature and Environment) which was established in 1992 and is

the main community of practitioners of Ecocriticism. Other 19th century American writers are

Emerson, Fuller and Thoreau, whose works present the nature and wilderness of America.

When they all followed traditions of Transcendentalism of 1840s, green studies in UK went

after British Romanticism of 1790s, and people like Jonathan Bate and Raymond Williams are

among the founders. Romanticism was the peak of environmental concerns for that time, as it

was politically an objection against urban life and socially a demand to return back to the

outside nature, natural beauty and rural lifestyle.

Defining Nature, and districting it from culture, Barry suggests four categories for

nature and natural scenes: area one is ‘the wilderness’ and includes deserts and oceans; area

two is ‘the scenic sublime’ for example forests and lakes; area three is ‘the countryside’ and

area four is ‘domestic picturesque’ like parks and gardens. Then he claims that British Romantic

writers were more interested in area two (Wordsworth’s Prelude is famous in this case) but

American Transcendentalists were concerned about area one. In another division, first two

areas are preferred settings for epic and saga while the last two ones are more proper for

domestic fiction and lyric poetry.

An example in Ecocriticism may be Silent Spring by Rachel Carson in which she

condemns extreme usage of pesticide and environmental pollution. Or the new BBC

documentary series, called Planet Earth, in which they convict human being for interfering in

nature and endangering lives of thousands of species. Beside pollution (and industrialization),

according to Garrard, Pastoral tradition is another related topic which opposes to

industrialization. In Silent Spring, again, the story starts by narrating the pastoral setting of the

past, and moves to the polluted environment of present. Wilderness and animals are other

issues of Ecocriticism.

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Sixteen years academic studies in Ecocriticism, ASLE has conducted different streams of

attention toward nature in history, and also observed and involved other related areas and

tools, such as cinema, TV, weblogs and the like, and made Ecocriticism not a literary criticism,

but a interdisciplinary approach regarding nature and natural environment. Pollution and most

of activities performed by human being threatens the environment we live in. As the danger

becomes strong and stronger, need for solution becomes obvious. Ecocriticism provides the

study and analysis of social and cultural activities that endangers our world. Its popularity,

therefore, is due to our need. Whitaker believes that global environmental crisis is the main

reasons that Ecocriticism continues to grow. We need a solution, and Ecocriticism attempts to

provide us the required information to find the solution. It investigates the presented

environment in literary works to find if they are in the same boat with ecological concerns, and

if they can help to find a solution.

According to Waugh, related areas of study are Ecofeminism, which seeks to end any

dominant / subordinate relationship, especially subordination of women by men, and nature

by culture; Naturalist Environmentalism, which believes that global warming and other

environmental problems are because of artificial products and modern lifestyle, that oppose to

natural life; and Anthropocentrism, which roots to Bible and subordinates nature by placing

humanity at the center of everything and giving it the right to use nature and natural resources

as a tool to satisfy itself. There are also two genres or styles related to Ecocriticism; pastoral

which depicts ideal nature and environment, away from modernity and urban life; and

Romanticism which was once “a reaction against philosophical and industrial rationality that

had separated humanity from nature” (Waugh, 540). Literary works written in these genres can

be discussed in Ecocriticism as well.

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WWoorrkkss CCiitteedd

Barry, Peter. Beginning Theory: An Introduction to Literary and Cultural Theory. UK: Manchester

University Press, 2002.

Garrard, Greg. Ecocriticism. USA: Routledge, 2004.

Love, Glen A. Practical Ecocriticism: Literature, Biology, and the Environment. USA: University of

Virginia Press, 2003

Mikics, David. A New Handbook of Literary Terms. USA: Yale University Press, 2007.

Waugh, Patricia. Literary Theory and Criticism. USA: Oxford University Press, 2006.

Whitaker, Russel, Marie C. Toft. Nineteenth Century Literature Criticism. USA: Gale, 2004.