cultural transformations : religion & science 1450-1750 ways of the world chapter 15
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Cultural Transformations:Religion & Science1450-1750Ways of the World Chapter 15
Cultural Trends The Early Modern Era gave birth to two intersecting
cultural trends: Spread of Christianity to Asians, Africans, & Native
Americans Emergence of a modern scientific outlook that sharply
challenged Christianity These trends connected distant peoples Christianity became a worldwide religion
Firmly est. in the Americas & Philippines Modestly est. in Siberia, China, Japan, India Not at all est. in the Islamic world
Science became a new and competing worldview
Cultural Trends Though Europeans were the crucial
player in these two trends, they were not acting alone: Asians, Africans, & Native Americans
determined the success of Christianity in new cultural environments
Science emerged in a worldwide context Cultural interactions were a two way
street
Globalization of Christianity At the beginning of the Early Modern Era
Christianity was mainly limited to Europe Christianity was seriously divided:
Roman Catholics in Western & Central Europe Eastern Orthodox in Eastern Europe & Russia
Christianity was on the defensive against the spread of Islam: Muslims controlled the Holy Land by 1300 Ottoman Empire seized Constantinople in
1453
Protestant Reformation Began in 1517 when
German priest Martin Luther issued his 95 Theses
Led to debate about abuses within the Roman Catholic Church Luxurious life of the
pope Corruption & immorality
of some of the clergy Selling indulgences
Protestant Reformation Revolutionary for challenging the
authority of the Roman Catholic Church & for Luther’s differing view on how to achieve salvation Luther believed in salvation by faith alone Neither good works nor sacraments effect
eternal destiny The source of belief & religious authority
was the Bible itself interpreted by the individual
Protestant Reformation Luther’s ideas led to a massive schism in the
world of Catholicism: Some kings & princes find this is justification for
independence from the Church; also to gain land & tax money previously held by the church
Middle-class urban dwellers found social legitimacy in the Reformation’s idea of equal merit of all vocations
Lower class saw the Reformation’s challenge to authority as their opportunity to express their opposition to the established social structure
The Reformation and Women A large number of women were drawn to
Protestantism, but did not have a greater role in the church compared to Catholicism: End to the veneration of Mary & female saints Closed convents
Protestant stress on the importance of reading the Bible for yourself stimulated education & literacy for women
Protestantism also emphasized the role of women as wives & mothers Women had little opportunity to use their newfound
literacy & skills outside of the home
Protestant Reformation Spread quickly within & beyond
Germany largely due to the printing press
Continued to split into distinctive sects as it spread through France, Switzerland, & England None had allegiance to the pope
Protestant Reformation Divided societies + fractured political systems +
religious differences = violence! 1562-1598: France was torn apart by violence b/t
Catholics & Protestant Huguenots Edict of Nantes: guaranteed religious toleration for
French Protestants 1618-1648: 30 Years’ War engulfed most of Europe &
was massively destructive to property & populations Peace of Westphalia: ended the conflict, redrew some
state boundaries, each European state was sovereign & had the authority to control religious affairs in its territory
Counter Reformation 1545-1563: Council of Trent
Catholic Church reaffirmed its unique doctrines & practices Authority of the pope Priestly celibacy Monastic life Veneration of saints & relics Importance of good works
Corrected abuses & corruption Cracked down on dissidents Renewed focus on individual spirituality & piety Creation of new religious orders like the Jesuits
A brotherhood of priests committed to the renewal & extension of the church & its beliefs
Protestant Reformation Though the Reformation was religious in
nature, it encouraged a skeptical attitude towards authority & tradition throughout Europe.
Skepticism & independent thought led to questioning all conventional religion & opened space for new directions in European intellectual life Scientific Revolution & Enlightenment
Christianity: Outward Bound Christianity both motivated & benefited
from European political & economic expansion
Globalization of Christianity was supported by the creation of empires Settlers & traders brought their faith with
them Attempted to replicate it in their new
homes
Spread of Christianity Protestants in North America
Emphasis was on education, moral purity, & civic responsibility
No tolerance for competing faiths
Little interest in converting natives – just pushing them off of their ancestral homelands
Catholics Mainly responsible for
spreading the Christian message beyond Europe through organized monastic orders, trade, & conquest: Dominicans, Franciscans,
Jesuits & Portuguese in Asia & Africa
Spanish & French in the Americas
Eastern Orthodox in Siberia & the Russian Empire
Conversion& Adaptation in Spanish America Europeans saw their military & economic
success in the Americas as a demonstration of the power & superiority of their God Native Americans mostly agreed
Conquering people like the Aztecs & Incas had always imposed their gods on defeated peoples, so this imposition of Christianity was not a new practice
Millions accepted baptism Europeans claimed to have exclusive religious
truth & sought to destroy local gods, shrines, temples, etc.
Conversion& Adaptation in Spanish America High cost of conversion for native
women: Women who were previously shamans,
priests, or other religious figures in their native religion had no role in the Catholic Church
Convent life was reserved for Spanish women in the Americas
Conversion& Adaptation in Spanish America Some resistance to Christianity was seen,
but was quickly crushed by the colonial powers
More common were efforts to blend native traditions with Christian beliefs
Through these efforts, distinct forms Andean & Mexican Christianity emerged Interpretation of Christian beliefs within the
framework & patterns of local culture Not a copy of Spanish Christianity
Christianity in China China encountered Christianity during
the powerful Ming and Qing Dynasties Unlike the Americas, China’s political
independence & cultural integrity were never threatened by European missionaries & traders
Missionaries in China needed permission to be there & sought to convert the elites, not the masses
Christianity in China Initially emphasized exchanging ideas & learning
from Chinese culture Learning Chinese Thoroughly digesting Confucian works Dressing like the Chinese
Carried the secular knowledge of Europe with them to an audience of curious Chinese scholars Science Technology Geography Mapmaking
Christianity in China A modest number of Chinese scholars
converted to Christianity Attracted by the lives of the missionaries
& an interest in Western knowledge Missionaries initially found favor in the
Emperor’s court Knowledge & skills considered useful
Christianity in China Missionaries had limited success overall
200k-300k converts from 1550-1800 from a population of roughly 300 million .06% - 0.1% of the population
Christianity offered little the Chinese needed
“all or nothing faith” meant converts would have to abandon many aspects of traditional Chinese culture
Issues with Christianity in China Missionaries lost favor with the emperor
when the pope claimed authority over Chinese Christians Forbade ancestor worship & sacrifices to
Confucius These declarations were a challenge to
the emperor’s authority over his own people & an insult to Chinese culture
Further Issues with Christianity in China Missionaries were willing to work with the
Qing Viewed by scholars & the elite as uncivilized
figures whose rule over China was illigitimate “miracle worker” reputation damaged their
scholarly/scientific credibility Communion = cannibalism Miracles & supernatural beliefs were fit only
for the uneducated masses Maybe they were spies & revolutionaries
A New Way of Thinking:The Birth of Modern Science Scientific Revolution was a vast intellectual &
cultural transformation in Europe from the mid16th – early 18th cent
No longer reliant on the Bible, the church, ancient philosophers, or the wisdom of cultural traditions for knowledge about the natural world
Knowledge acquired through careful observation, controlled experiments, & the formulation of general laws expressed in mathematical terms
A New Way of Thinking:The Birth of Modern Science Europe’s rebirth & development as a
fragmented society gave rise to unique conditions favorable to science Legal systems guaranteed some independence
for a variety of institutions Autonomy of universities gave scholars the
freedom to pursue their studies w/o interference from the church or state
Most major figures of the Sci. Revolution had been trained in & affiliated with these universtities
A New Way of Thinking:The Birth of Modern Science Western Europe was in a in unique position to
draw on knowledge of other cultures Islamic World
Medicine Mathematics Astronomy Translation of ancient Greek classic works
16th century Globalization Massive exchange of information through a new
awareness of the wider world Land, people, animals, plants, etc.
A New Way of Thinking:The Birth of Modern Science Skepticism about established views
rooted in the Reformation contributed too Challenges to authority Encouragement of mass literacy Value of secular professions
A New Way of Thinking:The Birth of Modern Science Prior to the Sci. Revolution, the
European worldview was derived mainly from Aristotle & Ptolemy
Sci. Revolution fundamentally challenged this view of the universe
Initial breakthrough came from Nicolaus Copernicus in 1543 Heliocentric universe
A New Way of Thinking:The Birth of Modern Science Culmination of the Sci. Revolution came from Sir
Isaac Newton Laws of motion & mechanics
Radical view that the heavens & earth obeyed natural laws
Universe functions according to scientific principles that can be defined mathematically
Knowledge is obtained through human reason Observation Deduction Experimentation
A New Way of Thinking:The Birth of Modern Science Mostly male scientists – women excluded from
universities A few aristocratic women were able to contribute
through their male relatives Catholic Church strongly opposed to developments of
the Sci. Revolution Opposed their teachings Seen as another attack on their authority
None of the early scientists rejected Christianity Galileo proclaimed their compatibility Newton was a serious Biblical scholar who saw no
contradiction b/t science & Christianity
Science & Enlightenment Sci. Revolution spread to a wider
European audience in the 1700s Printing techniques/printing press Popular press (newspapers, magazines) Growing literacy Scientific societies
Science & Enlightenment Guiding principles of the Sci. Revolution led to
the Enlightenment Knowledge is rooted in human reason, is skeptical
of authority, & is expressed in natural laws These principles could be applied to human affairs
“Enlightenment” was to discover ways in which humans could govern themselves more effectively
Philosophers of the Enlightenment shared a belief in the power of knowledge to transform societies
Science & Enlightenment Enlightenment philosophy aimed at:
Divine right of kings Aristocratic privilege Superstition, ignorance, corruption of
established religion John Locke
Natural rights Principles of constitutional government
Voltaire Religious tolerance
Women & Enlightenment