�

B y U N E S C O I n s t i t u t e f o r L i f e l o n g L e a r n i n g 2 0 1 6

Conceptions and realities of lifelong learning

This paper was commissioned by the Global Education Monitoring Report as background information to assist in drafting the 2016 report. It has not been edited by the team. The views and opinions expressed in this paper are those of the author(s) and should not be attributed to the Global Education Monitoring Report or to UNESCO. The papers can be cited with the following reference: “Paper commissioned for the Global Education Monitoring Report 2016, Education for people and planet: Creating sustainable futures for all”. For further information, please contact gemreport@unesco.org.

��������������� ���

Background paper prepared for the 2016 Global Education Monitoring Report

Education for people and planet: Creating sustainable futures for all

     

   

2  

Abstract This paper examines conceptions of lifelong learning in national strategic and legal frameworks, taking into account the historical development of the concept as well as characteristics of lifelong learning approaches across regions. It shows how national conceptions are related to the global narrative of lifelong learning promoted by international organizations. Based on this collection of conceptions, the paper proposes a multidimensional classification scheme to systematize lifelong learning policy documents across countries. This classification scheme could serve as a point of departure for creating an elaborated typology, which in turn could facilitate the development of a monitoring scheme for measuring the implementation of lifelong learning. Finally, the paper presents examples of implementation and monitoring practices as well as suggestions for further research.

     

   

3  

Introduction UNESCO’s Learning to Be: The World of Tomorrow report (Faure et al., 1972) recognized that education should be universal and lifelong and proposed that Member States adopt lifelong education as the master concept for education policies. Since the publication of this report, lifelong learning has become increasingly important on the global agenda as an organizing principle of education. Socio-economic changes such as demographic shifts, the spread of information and communications technologies, and the emergence of a knowledge-based economy require the recognition for all forms of education and learning. The important role played by lifelong learning in ensuring sustainable development is reflected in the fourth Sustainable Development Goal (“Quality Education”), adopted at the 2015 United Nations Sustainable Development Summit, which calls upon countries to “ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all”. However, while countries have placed huge emphasis on lifelong learning in the Sustainable Development Goals, there is no real agreement on what exactly lifelong learning means. This paper demonstrates that interpretations of lifelong learning vary widely around the world and that, while some countries develop lifelong learning policies that are closely aligned with the definitions of international institutions such as UNESCO, the OECD, the World Bank or the European Union, others integrate only some features of these definitions and/or develop their own conceptual understandings. This paper begins by examining whether countries make any explicit references to lifelong learning in their legal, policy and strategic frameworks, or whether different terminology is used to invoke the idea of lifelong learning. In comparing how countries define and conceptualize lifelong learning, Part 1 of this paper reveals the varying understandings of the concept across the five UNESCO regions. Part 2 of the paper suggests five key dimensions to classify education policies that are oriented towards lifelong learning. The final part of the paper examines implementation and monitoring practices as well as suggestions for further research.

     

   

4  

1. Definitions and approaches to lifelong learning Since the early 1970s, international organizations such as UNESCO and the OECD and institutions of the European Union have been the main proponents of the view that “learning is a lifelong process and that all education should be organized around that principle” (Schuetze, 2006, 289). These organizations have played a crucial role in promoting this approach to learning across states, although it is worth noting that they have not always used the term “lifelong learning”; other terms used in the past to describe this approach include “recurrent education”, “lifelong education” and “permanent education”. The evolution of the political discourse on lifelong learning can be divided into three phases. Until the late 1970s, the lifelong learning discourse was heavily influenced by a humanistic vision, and its focus was on the design and development of learning within educational institutions. The Faure report Learning to Be (1972) advocated lifelong education as the master concept for educational policies in both developed and developing countries .It was seen as a turning point and the start of a period of optimism in international education policy, as it recognized that education was no longer the privilege of an elite, or a matter for one age group only. Instead, it concluded that education should be both universal and lifelong. Essentially, this meant moving to a humanistic, rights-based and holistic view of education (Ouane, 2011). It was in 1996 that UNESCO published a report titled Learning: The Treasure Within (Delors et al, 1996). The OECD also published a report titled Lifelong Learning for All (1996). Both documents emphasized the multiple contexts of learning and firmly linked the concept to the economic, social, cultural and environmental challenges that societies and communities face (Yang & Valdes-Cotera, 2011). The political focus on lifelong learning shifted to labour market security and economic competitiveness, and so there was a stronger orientation towards the principles of human capital and employability. In the European Union, the lifelong learning discourse entered a third phase from the year 2000, influenced by the EU’s goals of creating the most dynamic knowledge-based economy in the world and ensuring social cohesion. Devised in 2000, the Lisbon Process (the EU’s plan for economic growth) “made education and training a generally accepted policy area for the first time in EU history” (Rasmussen, 2014, p. 32) and led to the development of national lifelong learning policies within the European Union. The ideas of the Lisbon Process are reflected in similar conceptions of lifelong learning across the European countries (e.g. European Commission, Memorandum on lifelong learning [2000]; European Council, Council resolution on lifelong Learning [2002]; European Parliament, Commission proposal for the introduction of a new action program to promote lifelong learning in the 2007-2013 period [2006]). The understanding of learning as a lifelong process has also changed within the research community. There are two main philosophical conceptions of lifelong learning in academic discourse. The first conception posits learning as an existential-continuous process involving a lifelong biographical transformation that “occurs whenever we are conscious and it needs no objective in itself, although it frequently does have a purpose” (Jarvis, 2009, p. 10). This conception thus sees learning as an essential part of conscious living. The second conception sees learning as a functional-episodic process. Research based on this conception is mainly discipline-bound, oriented towards competences and learning outcomes and interested in methods for measuring learning as well as making learning processes more efficient. Such research is shaped by the idea of individuals accumulating knowledge for certain (work-related) purposes. Here, learning is often framed as something that happens in marked-off spaces, detached from everyday life (Usher and Edwards, 2007, 4f.).

     

   

5  

Boshier (2012, p. 703) identifies a current trend whereby integrated approaches towards lifelong learning (i.e. approaches covering the whole lifespan) are being replaced by more disintegrated approaches focusing on certain life phases, modalities of learning and topics, such as the recognition, validation and accreditation of the outcomes of non-formal and informal learning. In other words, such approaches focus on specific issues without questioning the education system as a whole. This leads Boshier to argue that Faure’s utopia of lifelong learning did not last: “Today, not much is left of integrated (or systemic) approaches to lifelong learning. What remains are mostly disintegrated remnants of utopia” (Boshier, 2012, p. 702). However, while the trend towards partial or sectoral approaches to lifelong learning is reflected in some national policies, there is also evidence of comprehensive lifelong learning systems which integrate all levels of education, ages and learning modalities. The principle of lifelong learning is by now a global norm or “new master narrative” (Ioannidou, 2014, p. 208) in education policy, promoting a certain understanding of how education systems should be built in order to meet the challenges of the knowledge economy. National governments are increasingly relying on similar principles and values in relation to lifelong learning. The danger here is that these governments adopt global concepts without sufficiently taking into account the specifics of the national context (Jakobi, 2012, 32ff). Furthermore, the discrepancy in many UNESCO Member States between general advocacy on the one hand and a lack of clarity on the definition of lifelong learning on the other has consequences for the operationalization of lifelong learning, as it is leading to inefficient implementation of policies and strategies. In terms of governance, education is a complex, multilevel system, ranging from supranational agendas to local programmes and activities. Education systems are not formed by any one actor, such as the government; instead, a multitude of actors at different levels are involved in establishing and changing an education system (Altrichter, 2015, p. 30). This calls for openness towards a variety of concepts and theories about lifelong learning. It is important to acknowledge that diverse practices of lifelong learning play a vital role in the evolution of the theoretical concept. It is also useful to provide examples of differentiated approaches to the concept that can be operationalized and that can further our understanding of the benefits and challenges of designing a global mechanism for measurement and monitoring. This means that even though international organizations have shaped the global understanding of lifelong learning, Member States are more than just passive recipients of these concepts. In other words, states do not simply integrate the concept into their national education and training systems. Rather, their operationalization and implementation of lifelong learning also contributes to the international discussion and influences international policymaking (Schuetze, 2006, p. 300). Furthermore, lifelong learning activities at the provincial and municipal level should play a significant role in shaping the global discourse. While some UNESCO Member States follow the idea of lifelong learning in their respective education policies as a holistic and sector-wide approach involving all sub-sectors and levels of education and targeting people of all ages through a variety of modalities, other countries do not. What follows is an exploration of how lifelong learning is conceptualized within national policies across all five UNESCO regions. Given that lifelong learning is a “loose and all-encompassing term” (Field, 2006, p. 2) which allows for a multitude of interpretations, and that there is a lack of consistent terminology, the discussion below considers both policies that use the term “lifelong learning” as well as policies that

     

   

6  

describe education as a lifelong process without using the specific term “lifelong learning”. Thus, the basic selection criteria for inclusion is that policies deal with the full range of provision of learning opportunities, from early childhood through school to further and higher education. Furthermore, the selection extends beyond formal education to non-formal and informal learning for out-of-school youth and adults, thus covering a lifelong perspective (all ages, levels of education and modalities of learning in all life contexts). The analysis is based on the 141 national progress reports provided by UNESCO Member States to UIL for the second Global Report on Adult Learning and Education and the Collection of Lifelong Learning Policies and Strategies that was compiled and published by the UNESCO Institute for Lifelong Learning (UIL) in 2015. This collection contains 60 education policy documents with references to lifelong learning, and another 16 that address lifelong learning non-explicitly were also included. These comprise laws, policies, strategies, plans – including five national plans – and other documents, such as white papers, concepts and programmes (see Appendix 1). All of the documents have been published since the mid-1990s, the period often referred to as the “second generation” (Schuetze, 2006, p. 290) of lifelong learning concepts. As the concept of lifelong learning has changed over time, an analysis of national lifelong learning policies has to consider the historical context in which they have evolved. It is noticeable that the great majority (i.e. 22 out of 25) of the policy documents that mention the term “lifelong learning” in the title originate from Europe.

Africa In the African region, the Southern African Development Community (SADC) has framed lifelong learning “in a more collective, interconnected and holistic way” than the contemporary European discourse (Preece, 2013, p. 99). Preece argues that while national lifelong learning policies in Africa have inevitably been influenced by international aid agencies, alternative discourses are arising as well. The International Council for Adult Education (ICAE) has been promoting the use of the internet and email to facilitate broad discussions, thus supporting the integration of indigenous values as well as alternative interpretations of the concepts of development as “living well”. A strong humanistic vision can be found in many African policy documents, such as Gambia’s Education Policy (2004), which espouses non-discrimination, inclusion, ethical norms, a culture of peace, and respect for individual rights, cultural diversity and indigenous cultures. This policy integrates a wide range of societal interests, which are mirrored in the objectives of life skills education. Life skills are seen as a behavioural complement to formal skills and knowledge and something that is essential to the self-fulfilment of each individual. Issues such as HIV/AIDS prevention, gender responsiveness, peace building, patriotism, tolerance, family life, and guidance and counselling are addressed. Yang’s (2015) analysis of Botswana reveals a different reason for a change in attitude towards recognizing non-traditional modes of learning: an acute shortage of tertiary

institutions was counteracted by the establishment of open and distance learning opportunities for employed people to develop personal, academic and professional skills. This vacuum of formal tertiary learning, Yang argues, forced a change in attitudes towards full recognition of non-traditional modes of learning. Mauritius’s Education and Human Resources Strategy Plan 2009 shows a stronger orientation towards economic principles. It calls for re-engineering of the education and human resource development system in order to achieve a transition to a multi-pillar economic base with newly emerging sectors. The strategy’s mission is to develop a culture of achievement and excellence and to foster innovation and generate new knowledge for socio-economic and sustainable development.

The Arab States

     

   

7  

While the policy papers analysed for this paper do not explicitly refer to lifelong learning in the Arab States, the concept nonetheless informs policy to some extent and is being operationalized in several states in the region. The national reports for the Sixth International Conference on Adult Education (CONFINTEA VI, 2009) include no discussion of lifelong learning as a broad governing concept encompassing all levels of education, but instead focus on “literacy and adult education in the narrow traditional sense” (Yousif, 2009, p. 16). However, there is evidence of partial approaches to lifelong learning in some countries such as Egypt, which has undertaken efforts in the field of non-formal (adult) education by establishing “equivalency” schools such as community schools and building a non-formal vocational education and training system (Sabri, 2007). Other examples of lifelong learning in the Arab States can be found at the local level, for instance in the city of Amman, Jordan. A collaboration between the Arab Education Forum and Greater Amman Municipality brought into life a learning city project that was featured in Unlocking the Potential of Urban Communities (2015, pp. 84-95). There it is explained that, while Jordan does not have lifelong learning legislation, there do exist community-based approaches that provide lifelong learning opportunities to the citizens of Amman.

Asia and the Pacific In Asia and the Pacific, there is a wide range of education policies oriented towards lifelong learning but there is a tendency of sectoral approaches emphasizing adult education and skills development. In Tonga’s Education Policy Framework (2004), lifelong learning is framed by an economic perspective and “skills development and lifelong learning” is defined as one of seventeen priority areas. Tonga launched a National Qualifications Framework in 2009 in order to allow for multiple pathways, re-entry into learning and lifelong learning. The Tongan Strategic Development Framework 2011–2014 mentions lifelong learning in relation to creating a healthy, well-educated and skilled workforce that will enable the private sector to flourish. Supporting vocational training and appropriate skills training and providing opportunities for lifelong learning are regarded as crucial in order to reach this goal. India’s National Skill Development Initiative (2009) also relates lifelong learning to skills development. Other policies from Asia place their focus on adult and continuing education (see for example the Blueprint on Enculturation of Lifelong Learning for Malaysia 2011–2020). In China, wide-ranging activities have been carried out in many provinces to establish learning associations, cities, enterprises, communities and families. The Chinese Government has issued a series of laws, regulations and policies on lifelong learning in recent years. The Education Invigoration Action Plan for the 21st Century (1998) noted that a lifelong learning system would be established throughout the country by 2010. China’s National Plan for Medium- and Long-Term Education Reform and Development aims at “building a flexible, open system for lifelong education” (2010, p. 22) with a strong focus on the formal education system. References to lifelong learning can be found not only in education policies, but also in national plans and policies covering general development issues. For example, Bhutan’s Tenth Five Year Plan (2009) follows a lifelong learning perspective in the section on education. There, the development of human capital is conceptualized as a lifelong learning process. The plan emphasizes the necessity for lifelong learning due to economic changes and the labour market’s increasing demand for high-level skills and knowledge. Learning to learn is described as “a highly essential skill and attribute of an individual to participate meaningfully in a knowledge-based society” (p. 48). The concept of lifelong learning includes all formal and non-formal education processes as well as effective human resource development in the public and private sectors. The plan states that flexible and multi-education pathways with multiple entry and exit

     

   

8  

stages are required in addition to second-chance, distance and e-learning educational opportunities. In the subsequent Eleventh Five-Year Plan (2012), the term “lifelong learning” is introduced in connection with adult literacy and the non-formal education programme, which was established in 1991. Lifelong learning is understood as a “system of continuous learning” that can be created by providing opportunities “to those who could not continue formal education and wish to upgrade their qualifications through the continuing education programme”.

Europe and North America The majority of education policy documents from European countries reflect the European metadiscourse, in which lifelong learning is conceptualized as learning at any stage in people’s lives (lifelong) within formal, non-formal and informal learning contexts (lifewide). This discourse conveys the idea that learning has become a constant necessity with the emergence of a knowledge-based society. A great number of policy documents from European countries (such as Bulgaria’s National Strategy for Lifelong Learning for the Period 2008–2013; Estonia’s Lifelong Learning Strategy 2005–2008; and Hungary’s Strategy for Lifelong Learning in Hungary [2006]) show a strong orientation towards the Memorandum on Lifelong Learning (MoLLL), which was published by the Commission of the European Communities in 2000. Although this memorandum explicitly integrates the social dimension of lifelong learning (i.e. its potential to promote active citizenship and strengthen social cohesion), the focus is on economic development and adapting to the needs of the knowledge-based economy through skills development (Preece, 2013, p. 99). Another fundamental document to which education strategies in Europe (e.g. Latvia’s Lifelong Learning Policy 2007-2013, Slovakia’s Strategy of Lifelong Learning and Lifelong Guidance, Denmark’s strategy for lifelong learning: Education and lifelong skills upgrading for all, and Turkey’s Driving Force for the Success of Turkey: Lifelong Learning Policy Paper) frequently refer is The Presidency Conclusions of the Lisbon Process (Lisbon European Council, 2000), whose chief objective is to make Europe “the most competitive and dynamic knowledge-based economy in the world, capable of sustainable economic growth with more and better jobs and greater social cohesion” (para. I.5, The way forward). In North America, the Canadian Council of Ministers of Education published a joint declaration (Learn Canada 2020) in 2008 which describes lifelong learning as a four-pillar system consisting of early childhood learning and development; elementary to high-school systems; postsecondary education; and adult learning and skills development. While the Government of Québec’s Action Plan for Adult Education and Continuing Education and Training (2002) primarily framed lifelong learning in terms of employment opportunities, its Government Policy on Adult Education and Continuing Education and Training (2002), uses a broader definition of “lifelong learning” that covers both academic learning and employment-related training for personal growth, social cohesion and labour force development.

Latin America and the Caribbean In the region of Latin America and the Caribbean, the term “lifelong learning” is used interchangeably with “lifelong education”. Nevertheless, the idea of extending learning processes over the whole lifespan is expressed in many national education documents. Lifelong learning is often cited as a separate line of action or goal rather than as an overarching category (Ouane, 2011, p. 33). While some of the documents emphasize education throughout life, others focus on adult or continuing education. Indeed, the Regional Synthesis Report for CONFINTEA VI (Torres, 2009, p. 16) indicated that most education initiatives and plans in this region reduce lifelong learning to the adult population. The Bolivian law Ley de la Educación N°70 (2010) defines “education” as lifelong, comprising pre-school education within the family, regular

     

   

9  

(formal) education as well as alternative education. The latter refers to educational activities for persons over the age of 15 who seek to continue their studies outside the regular education system for personal and professional reasons. It also refers to continuing education which responds to the needs of organizations, communities and families. Uruguay’s policy document Ley General de Educación no. 18437 (2008) promotes the coordination and complementarity of formal and non-formal education as principles of lifelong learning. Since CONFINTEA VI, national action plans have been developed and/or updated both in adult literacy and adult learning and education, ensuring literacy and the completion of compulsory schooling by providing second-chance education and including new regulations for the validation and accreditation of previous learning outcomes (GRALE 2). The Mexican Programa Nacional de Educación (2001) emphasizes enhancing flexible access to education, giving more consideration to the individual requirements of learners as well as establishing permanent learning throughout the lifespan. The programme also calls on educational institutions to provide new learning spaces and to ensure lifelong learning opportunities for everyone, making use of new information and communications technologies and providing distance learning programmes. One of the objectives of the subsequent Programa Sectorial de Educación (2007) is to promote the proliferation of continuing education programmes in order to help professionals keep their knowledge up to date and stimulate lifelong education processes.

     

   

10  

2. Towards a typology of lifelong learning-oriented education systems

The aim of the previous section was to explore the wide variety of ways in which learning is defined and conceptualized across countries and regions. This section describes some of the key dimensions of education systems that are oriented towards lifelong learning. This section takes into account UNESCO’s Education 2030 Framework for Action, which states that the achievement of the Sustainable Development Goal on education calls for the mobilization of national, regional and global efforts with the aim of: 1) achieving inclusive partnerships; 2) improving education policies and the way they work together; 3) ensuring highly equitable, inclusive and quality education systems for all; and 4) mobilizing financial resources for education and ensuring monitoring and review of all targets (UNESCO, 2015a, 5). According to the Education 2030 Framework for Action, providing flexible lifelong learning opportunities for all involves ensuring “equitable and increased access to quality technical and vocational education and training and higher education and research” and “the provision of flexible learning pathways, as well as the recognition, validation and accreditation of the knowledge, skills and competencies acquired through non-formal and informal education” (UNESCO, 2015a, vi). As national education systems are highly heterogeneous, creating a typology entails the risk of over-simplification. Furthermore, as it can be assumed that no one education system fits neatly into one single “type”, the results necessarily provide a rather narrow or even distorted picture of educational perspectives: “Such typologies tend to reduce differences between cases which are seen to be within the same group, whilst simultaneously increasing the differences between groups” (Saar and Ure, 2013, p. 73). Taking these difficulties into consideration, this section describes five key dimensions that serve as a scheme for describing lifelong learning policies and can be further developed to create a comprehensive typology of education systems oriented towards lifelong learning. The five key dimensions are: (a) the scope of education (education levels, target groups, modalities and contents of learning); (b) the underlying orientation and aim of learning (humanistic/transformative, economic/adaptive); (c) modalities of learning; (d) the recognition, validation and accreditation of all forms of learning (RVA); and (e) stakeholder involvement.

The scope of lifelong learning The key dimension “scope” refers to the extent to which lifelong learning is integrated into all stages of the education system, addressing people of all ages and creating links between different levels of learning to ensure openness and flexibility of educational pathways. Policy documents can be roughly divided into two main categories: those that demonstrate an integrated lifelong learning approach, and those that take a sectoral approach. Thus for example the Czech Republic’s Strategy of Lifelong Learning (2007) takes an integrated, comprehensive approach towards lifelong learning. It describes the introduction of the concept of lifelong learning as a “basic conceptual change in the approach to education and its organizational principles”. As such, all forms of learning within and outside of the traditional educational system are seen as part of a single interconnected unit that facilitates transitions between education and employment. The Basque Lifelong Learning Law (2013) also follows a comprehensive approach, defining lifelong learning (“aprendizaje a lo largo de toda la vida“) as all learning activities undertaken from childhood to the post-retirement phase with the aim of improving knowledge, skills and competences within a personal, civic, social and employment-related perspective. Lifelong learning also refers to transitions between education,

     

   

11  

training and working life and includes formal, non-formal and informal learning. Other examples of comprehensive lifelong learning approaches include the Finnish Education and Research development plan (2007) and the Austrian Lifelong Learning Strategy “LLL:2020” (2011). In contrast to a comprehensive approach, the sectoral perspective refers to integrating lifelong learning as a separate, complementary unit or level within the education system. In most of the documents following a sectoral approach, lifelong learning is referred to as those learning processes that people are engaged in after formal schooling and vocational and higher education. One example of this is the Malaysian Blueprint on the Enculturation of Lifelong Learning (2011). Here, the working definition of lifelong learning is narrowed to learning processes after primary and secondary education: “Learning engaged by everyone of age 15 and above except professional students” (those enrolled full-time in school, college or university with the aim of acquiring academic qualification or skills). It entails formal, non-formal and informal learning, which can also take place within the traditional education system, such as through learning opportunities provided by centres for continuing education at universities. “Enculturation” refers to a process of embracing lifelong learning as an integral part of people’s lives. Although the contribution of lifelong learning to personal growth, inclusiveness and sustainability is recognized as important, the blueprint clearly targets persons in the “productive age” (15–64 years) and focuses on the economic contribution of lifelong learning. The area of lifelong learning is defined as one of the three equally significant pillars of the “Human Capital Development System”, together with the school system and higher education. The successful implementation of this blueprint is supported by specific budget allocations of the Tenth and Eleventh Malaysia Plans, which cover the period from 2011 to 2020. Further examples of countries that frame lifelong learning as adult education include Thailand (1999) and Belize (2010).

Orientation Lifelong policies demonstrate two main orientations: humanistic and economic. While humanistic approaches emphasize the role of lifelong learning in facilitating individual and collective transformation, economic approaches tend to present lifelong learning as a means of adapting to the knowledge-based economy. While few policies can be labelled as purely humanistic or purely economic - most policies incorporate both elements to different degrees - an example of a policy with a more humanistic orientation is the Norwegian Strategy for Lifelong Learning (2006). Here, lifelong learning is described as providing conditions that enable the individual to continue learning from childhood into old age in all the contexts where he or she may find him- or herself. Lifelong learning is seen as important for the individual’s personal development, for the development of democracy and social life, and for ensuring that humanistic values are upheld in working life. In contrast, a stronger emphasis on economic principles can be found in the Policy on Tertiary Education, Technical Vocational Education and Training, and Lifelong Learning in Trinidad and Tobago (2010), which pays much attention to human capital development as a major contributor to economic growth and sustainable wealth creation. This policy seeks to create highly skilled, adaptable and innovative workers and to establish a tertiary education and training sector that meets “the demands of the country’s social and economic development programme”.

Modalities of learning Across regions, the majority of education policies oriented towards lifelong learning include formal, non-formal and informal modalities of learning, such as Chile’s Education Law Ley Nº 20.370 D.O. (2009) which describes “education” as a process of permanent learning which encompasses all stages of life with the aim

     

   

12  

of promoting spiritual, ethical, moral, intellectual, artistic and physical development and cultivating values, knowledge and skills. This law explicitly states that education comprises formal, non-formal and informal modes. Other documents use the term to describe learning processes that take place in addition to formalized learning. For example, Zimbabwe’s National Action Plan: Education for All towards 2015 (2005) uses the term “lifelong and continuing education” to refer to complementary education “running parallel to the formal education system”. It aims to increase “access to and participation in education to the previously denied and disadvantaged members of the society”, particularly by providing adult literacy classes and distance education. Adult education is primarily related here to non-formal learning contexts.

Recognition of the learning outcomes of formal, non-formal and informal learning as equal components of education As lifelong learning goes beyond formal education and also includes non-formal and informal learning at work, in the community and in leisure time, RVA of competences gained in all learning contexts can be seen as a key component of education systems oriented towards lifelong learning. This involves developing national standards integrating the outcomes of non-formal and informal learning and the establishing a national qualifications framework (UNESCO Institute for Lifelong Learning 2012, p. 5). References to RVA and proposals for implementing RVA frameworks and practices can be found in a large number of education policy documents. Denmark’s Strategy for Lifelong Learning: Education and Lifelong Skills Upgrading For All (2007) promotes the recognition of prior learning within adult education and continuing training by promoting RVA-related legislation, quality assurance of competence assessment, development of simple and easily accessible documentation tools and a nationwide information campaign on new and existing adult education and continuing training specifically targeted at bilinguals and immigrants. In the longer term, Denmark plans to establish the recognition of prior learning in the mainstream education system. In India’s National Skill Development Initiative (2009), the term “lifelong learning” is introduced in relation to improving the skills recognition system and the National Vocational Qualifications Framework (NVQF). Both the NVQF and the recognition of prior learning in formal, non-formal or informal arrangements are seen as supportive of lifelong learning. The scope of the strategy covers “adult learning, retraining of retired or retiring employees and lifelong learning” as one field, which indicates that skills development is framed within a lifelong learning perspective. Chile’s Education Act (2009) explicitly refers to formal, non-formal and informal learning as equal components of education and recognizes learning acquired outside the education system, such as in the workplace and through personal experience. As for African countries, Mauritius has established practices of recognizing prior learning in order to widen access and to transform the education and training system. In the Seychelles, the recognition of prior learning system is used to enhance equality and facilitate access, transfer and award of credits, leading to the certification of qualifications within the NQF. Also, in Asia and the Pacific, RVA of non-formal and informal learning has become an important issue within education policy. In Japan, knowledge and skills obtained through informal learning can in some cases be translated into formal credits. Thailand has established various programmes to promote lifelong learning (basic education, occupational development, education for life skills development, and education for community and social development). The credits gained through these programmes are transferable across different educational institutions, including credits from non-formal and informal education, vocational training and work experience (Yang, 2015, 16f).

     

   

13  

Inclusive partnerships in the development, implementation and monitoring of lifelong learning While the primary responsibility for the operationalization of lifelong learning on a national level lies with the government, transparent cooperation with stakeholders from the public and private sector, civil society organizations as well as research and educational institutions on all levels are widely considered to be essential for the successful development, implementation and monitoring of education policies (UNESCO, 2015a, vii). In order to make lifelong learning a reality, some policies see a need to promote participatory governance and multifaceted partnerships that bring together all key actors. Collaboration between all key actors will be highly supportive for planning, implementation and monitoring. Kenya’s Policy Framework for Education (2012) defines the reorganization of the education system as essential for staying internationally competitive and economically viable. In order to achieve this and secure funding for education, the policy framework foresees the adoption and operationalization of a public-private partnership framework for the education sector. The chief aims of this partnership are to create innovative funding initiatives, such as an education bond and a revolving capital fund that provides loans to educational entrepreneurs at a low interest rate, and to issue sovereign bonds to support the funding of the sector. In Croatia’s Strategy for Adult Education (2007), partnerships are regarded an “unavoidable way of cooperation between all relevant parties within or outside the formal system of education”, including employers and institutions, social partners, investors, negotiators and promoters of learning. At the local level, partnerships with public administration and local government offices, county councils, educational and research institutions, guidance services, enterprises, public employment services and NGOs are considered to be of high importance.

Design of a multidimensional classification system for lifelong learning policy documents In the following, the five key dimensions outlined above are applied to examples in order to illustrate the different characteristics of national education policies oriented towards lifelong learning. Four policy types identified in the multidimensional matrix below have been inductively derived from four selected national policies. Thus the matrix does not provide a generally applicable classification for lifelong learning policies; instead, it should be understood as a draft scheme that can serve as a basis for further elaboration, testing and refining. It is important to note that the policy types refer to specific policy documents which do not necessarily reflect the general lifelong learning approach of each country, as some countries have adopted several different policies, strategies and laws over the years. Key dimension

Characteristics

Scope Integrated lifelong learning system Sectoral approach to lifelong learning Orientation and aim of learning

Humanistic vision, (trans)formation of the person

Economic focus, adaptation to the needs of the economy

Socio-economic approach, formation of the person

Not specified

Modalities of learning

Emphasis on formal learning

All modalities of learning

Non-formal learning

Systematic education

     

   

14  

outside regular school

Recognition, validation and accreditation of learning outcomes (RVA)

Plans to introduce technical and vocational education and training (TVET) standards, no concrete plans for RVA system

Establishment of complete RVA system planned

No mention of RVA practices

Regulations on the recognition of lifelong education courses

Stakeholder involvement

Partnerships with a multitude of stakeholders, focus on schools

Partnerships with stakeholders across sectors

Mainly partnerships with development partners

Government has main responsibility

Example case Bahamas 2009 Education Plan

Hungary 2005 Strategy

Tanzania 2012 Plan

Korea 2009 Law

a) Bahamian 10 Year Education Plan (2009)

The Bahamian 10 Year Education Plan (2009) acknowledges lifelong learning as an integrated part of the education system. It demonstrates a strong humanistic vision, promoting the (trans)formation of the person. Learning is defined as a “lifelong pursuit” which “allows for increased self-knowledge, a deeper understanding of their community and a greater awareness of the world”. The vision for the Bahamian education system is to produce “students who are intellectually curious, compassionate, responsible and capable of making a meaningful contribution to the country’s productivity, prosperity and peace”. Economic goals are included, but appear to be subordinate. As the plan emphasizes the formal education system (especially schools), its approach cannot be regarded as fully comprehensive. Nevertheless, other modalities of learning are promoted, e.g. distance education through e-learning and the provision of broadcasting programmes for self-learning. With regard to RVA, the plan provides little evidence for existing recognition practices. With respect to work-related competences, the plan foresees the establishment of a National Training Agency responsible for the implementation of standards, training and the coordination and development of technical and vocational education. In addition, it seeks to introduce a national system of skills certification for technical and vocational education and training (TVET). Two of the plan’s performance indicators refer to the revision of the Bahamian Education Act. During the development of the plan, consultations were held with a broad cross-section of stakeholders, including ministries, civic organizations, government agencies, trade unions, political parties, the media, students and other members of civil society. Regarding the successful implementation of the plan, intense partnerships between social partners, relevant ministries, government agencies, businesses, service organizations and parent-teacher associations are considered necessary.

     

   

15  

Strategy of the Government of the Republic of Hungary for Lifelong Learning (2005) The Strategy of the Government of the Republic of Hungary for Lifelong Learning (2005) draws on the European metadiscourse and refers to the Lisbon Process. The strategy is comprehensive in that it covers all relevant areas, addresses a wide range of potential partners and integrates a number of associated sub-policies into a single system. It follows a cradle-to-grave approach, in which lifelong learning encompasses all learning from pre-school education to retirement. Although the strategy also pays attention to the social value of education, the primary focus is clearly on the economic benefits of competence development. The purpose of learning, according to this strategy, is adaptation rather than transformation; it states that people should be enabled to “adapt to the new circumstances and [be] capable of updating their knowledge”. The importance of non-formal and informal learning, which encompasses the use of information and communications technologies, distance learning, workplace learning and parent-school initiatives, is acknowledged, especially with regard to improved labour market prospects. The plan foresees the establishment of a complete RVA system that draws on the existing National Qualifications Register and also includes non-vocational education and training. The strategy refers to intersectoral cooperation involving various sectors such as youth policy and public education, healthcare, and social and family affairs. Organizations representing minority interests, employers and employees, municipal organizations and chambers are also acknowledged as crucial partners for making lifelong learning a reality.

Tanzania’s Adult and Non-Formal Education Development Plan (2012) Tanzania’s plan can best be described as a socio-economic approach towards lifelong learning. It emphasizes the high illiteracy rate among the adult population, which is impeding poverty reduction initiatives and holding back the socio-economic development of the country. The plan aims to achieve higher adult literacy, provide basic education for out of school children and promote life skills, work skills and culture. The plan follows a sectoral approach regarding levels of education and modalities of learning. The focus is on non-formal education, which may take place both within and outside educational institutions, and on adult education, which in the Tanzanian context is concerned with the provision of basic and functional literacy skills. With respect to RVA, there is no mention of recognizing the outcomes of non-formal learning in the plan. As a first step towards standardizing qualifications, a qualifications framework was proposed in 2009 by the Ministry of Education and Vocational Training and the Tanzanian Commission for Universities. As for partnerships, the plan states that while for a long time civil society organizations have been involved in the government’s efforts to enhance access to quality basic learning opportunities, there have been no recent direct interventions in adult education. Partnerships primarily exist with development partners, which provide crucial support for government initiatives by providing technical assistance and contributing financial resources. Since the initiation of the Education Sector Development Programme, development partners have supported the sector dialogue process, which aims to strengthen government plans and systems.

Korean Lifelong Education Act (2009) Korea’s history of “lifelong education” goes back to 1980, when article 31 of the constitution was amended to declare the state as “responsible for promoting lifelong education”. Two years later, the Policy Framework for Non-formal and Adult Education was adopted. The Korean Lifelong Education Act (2007, amended in 2009) makes it compulsory for local governments to establish their own lifelong education promotion plans, and

     

   

16  

to form regional committees for the implementation of such plans (Ouane, 2011, p. 31). The term “lifelong education” is defined as “all types of systematic educational activities other than regular school curriculums, including supplementary education for educational attainment, basic literacy education for adults, occupational ability enhancement education, humanities and liberal education, culture and art education, and citizens’ participation education.” The act thus follows a sectoral approach that focuses on non-formal education and includes an article on the “Recognition of Credits and Educational Attainment” for lifelong education courses. It is worth noting that the Korean Second National Lifelong Learning Promotion Plan (2008–2012) follows a rather different definition of lifelong learning, with a comprehensive approach which includes all ages, levels and modalities of learning.

     

   

17  

3. Operationalizing and monitoring lifelong learning

The key dimensions outlined above are useful for operationalizing lifelong learning and measuring progress. To turn lifelong learning into a reality, it is essential for national governments to develop their own operational definition that takes into account the specific historical, social, economic and cultural contexts and conditions of the national education system. In order to fulfil the overarching goal of the Education 2030 Framework for Action, education systems oriented towards lifelong learning need to embrace more than a narrow utilitarian concept of economic growth. Instead, they should be guided by a humanistic, open and flexible approach to learning that considers the needs of all learners. Such a humanistic perspective has implications for how learning content, pedagogies and the role of teachers and other educators are conceptualized (UNESCO, 2015b, p. 10). Although there has been an increase in national lifelong learning policies over the past fifteen years, the implementation of the concept has been insufficient. Bernhardsson (2014, p. 179) argues that this has to do with “contracting values which are inherent in the concept of lifelong learning”. On the one hand, policies propagate the creation of “economically meaningful active persons, who feel responsible for their own employability” (Bernhardsson, 2014, p. 185), yet on the other hand they also promote communitarian values and social cohesion. The aspiration to create a society that is highly competitive yet inclusive and cohesive entails conceptual discrepancies that might hinder the successful implementation of lifelong learning policies. Given the ambiguity of lifelong learning as a concept – as well as the wide range of initiatives, programmes and activities that come under the umbrella of lifelong learning – the challenges of creating a framework for measuring and monitoring progress on a national level has become evident. In recent years, several national and regional initiatives have been launched in Europe and North America to measure progress in implementing lifelong learning policies and strategies. Two such initiatives are the European Report on Quality Indicators of Lifelong Learning and the Adult Education Survey, both of which were developed by the European Commission. Another initiative from Europe is the European Lifelong Learning Indicators (ELLI) Index, which was developed by the charitable foundation Bertelsmann Stiftung in Germany. In North America, an example of indicators of lifelong learning at an aggregated national level is the Composite Learning Index (CLI), which was launched in 2006 by the Canadian Council on Learning (CCL). The latter two are both thematically organized under UNESCO’s four-pillar framework proposed in Learning: The Treasure Within (Delors, J., et al., 1996). There are also some active national initiatives in the Asia-Pacific region that are developing a working definition and measuring the progress of lifelong learning. One prominent example is the Blueprint on Enculturation of Lifelong Learning for Malaysia 2011–2020, which proposes a list of initiatives for the enculturation of lifelong learning in Malaysia along with a set of performance indicators. Another example is an annual survey conducted by the Republic of Korea’s Ministry of Education. This survey, which is based on Eurostat’s Adult Education Survey, measures the current provision of lifelong learning opportunities and participation in lifelong learning (NILE, 2015). It includes formal education, non-formal education and informal learning in its definition of lifelong learning, and measures personal, occupational and social learning outcomes.

     

   

18  

The initiatives mentioned above provide valuable reference points for current efforts to develop specific regional and national indicators of lifelong learning. An important commonality is that they all emphasize participation, learning outcomes, and benefits and well-being as feasible indicators for monitoring and assessing progress in lifelong learning systems. Participation in the various modalities of learning is the main indicator of the status and conditions of lifelong learning in a country (UNESCO, 2015c, p. 298). While the chief objective of an overarching set of indicators is to support country-led action, there is also the risk that international measurement indices and targets could cause countries to adopt targets that might not match real needs in specific national contexts. Promoting the idea of lifelong learning through policies and actually implementing it by introducing concrete regulations and actions are two separate steps. Commitments in policies do not always translate into reality. This is what might also be called the “distinction between the rhetorical activity and actual reforms” (Jakobi, 2012, p. 36). A global framework to measure progress would have to be flexible and serve as a guideline for building up effective monitoring and measuring mechanisms that are in line with national priorities and created in cooperation with key stakeholders from all parts of society. Another challenge for monitoring centres on establishing appropriate methods of data collection and creating new data sources. These challenges require multi-stakeholder participatory processes and cooperation in the implementation and monitoring of lifelong learning, which involves not only national and international partnerships, but also cooperation within and across provinces, cities and communities. As demonstrated by the UNESCO Global Network of Learning Cities, there is enormous potential at the municipal level to enable and reinforce individual empowerment and social cohesion, economic and cultural prosperity, and sustainable development. The successful implementation of lifelong learning concepts on the national, provincial and local levels can be facilitated by linking existing legislation, educational priorities and development plans as well as to consider the availability of resources, financing and institutional capacities.

     

   

19  

Conclusion Following a non-normative approach, this paper identified certain characteristics of education systems oriented towards lifelong learning. The aim was to develop a deeper understanding of how comprehensive, sustainable lifelong learning systems can be established and maintained. The paper identifies various distinguishing features of approaches towards lifelong learning. With regard to scope, some policy documents follow a holistic, integrated approach that sees lifelong learning as a truly transversal concept, while others reflect a sectoral perspective that defines lifelong learning as a separate, complementary unit within an education system. Scope can be regarded as an overarching aspect of lifelong learning that subsumes other important descriptors, such as orientation (mainly humanistic or economic) and the aim of learning (primarily transformation or adaptation), modalities of learning (formal, non-formal or informal learning activities) and regulations on RVA, and inclusive partnerships and cooperation with stakeholders. The complexity of building lifelong learning systems and embedding them within existing national legislation and regulations underscores the importance of developing an operational definition of lifelong learning and proposing indicators for measuring it. The overarching goal of education set by the world for the period from 2015 to 2030 is to “ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all”. Achieving this goal will require coordinated efforts from both international organizations and national governments including a clear operational definition of lifelong learning and indicators for measuring it. The foregoing discussion suggests two themes requiring further research. Firstly, the multidimensional matrix presented in this paper to classify policy documents could serve as a basis for creating an elaborated typology of education systems oriented towards lifelong learning. Such an in-depth comparative study of features across regions would be of great value. Secondly, there is a need for research that takes a multilevel approach to examining the governance, implementation and monitoring of lifelong learning. Such research should go beyond the analysis of policy documents by reaching out to the various stakeholders – including experts from government, the private sector, non-governmental organizations, civil society and educational institutions – involved in the development, implementation and evaluation of policies.

     

   

20  

Bibliography Altrichter, H. 2015. Theory and Evidence on Governance: Conceptual and Empirical Strategies of Research on Governance in Education. Schrader, J., Schmid, J., Amos, K. and Thiel, A. (eds), Governance von Bildung im Wandel, Wiesbaden, Springer VS, pp. 25-43. Bernhardsson, N. 2014. Contradicting Values in the Policy Discourse on Lifelong Learning. Zarifis, G. K./Gravani, M. N. (eds), Challenging the 'European Area of Lifelong Learning'. Dortrecht, Springer, pp. 179-187. Boshier, R. 2012. Lifelong Learning as a Flag of Convenience. Aspin, D. N./Chapman, J. D./Evans, K./Bagnall, R. (eds), Second International Handbook of Lifelong Learning. Volume 2. Dortrecht, Springer, pp. 701-719. Delors, J. et al. 1996. Learning: the treasure within; report to UNESCO of the International Commission on Education for the 21st Century. Paris, UNESCO. European Commission. 2000. Memorandum on lifelong learning. [online] Available at: http://arhiv.acs.si/dokumenti/Memorandum_on_Lifelong_Learning.pdf European Council. 2002. Council resolution on lifelong learning. [online] Available at: http://eurlex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:C:2002:163:0001:0003:EN:PDF European Parliament. 2006. Commission proposal for the introduction of a new action program to promote lifelong learning in the 2007-2013 period. [online] Available at: http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:32006D1720 Faure, E. et al. 1972. Learning to Be: the world of education today and tomorrow. Paris, UNESCO. Field, J. 2006. Lifelong Learning and the New Educational Order. Stoke on Trent, Trentham Books. Ioannidou, A. 2014. The Adoption of an International Education Policy Agenda at National Level: Conceptual and Governance Issues. Zarifis, G. K./Gravani, M. N. (eds), Challenging the 'European Area of Lifelong Learning'. Dordrecht, Springer, pp. 203-215. Jakobi, A. P. 2012. International organisations and policy diffusion: the global norm of lifelong learning. Journal of International Relations and Development. Vol. 15, pp. 31-64. Jarvis, P. 2007. Globalisation, Lifelong Learning and the Learning Society: Sociological perspectives. London, Routledge. Jarvis, P. 2009. Lifelong Learning. A social ambiguity. Jarvis, P. (ed.), The Routledge International Handbook of Lifelong Learning. London, Routledge, pp. 9-18. Lisbon European Council. 2000. Precidency Conclusions. [online] Available at: http://www.europarl.europa.eu/summits/lis1_en.htm Ministry of Finance and National Planning. 2011. Tonga Strategic Development Framework 2011-2014. http://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/linked-documents/cobp-ton-2014-2016-oth-02.pdf NILE. 2015. Lifelong Learning in Korea Issue 1. [online] Available at: http://eng.nile.or.kr/eng/contents/contents.jsp?bkind=basic&bcode=DACAAB&bmode=view&idx=BCJDFCECEBGCD&pageNo=1 OECD. 1996. Lifelong Learning for All. Paris, OECD. Ouane, A. 2011. Evolution of and perspectives on lifelong learning. Yang, J., Valdes-Cotera, R. (eds), Conceptual Evolution and Policy Developments in Lifelong Learning. Hamburg: UNESCO Institute for Lifelong Learning, pp. 24-39. [online] Available at: http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0019/001920/192081e.pdf Preece, J. 2013. Africa and international policy making for lifelong learning: textual revelations. International Journal of Educational Development. Vol. 33, pp. 98-105.

     

   

21  

Rasmussen, P. 2014. Adult Learning Policy in the European Commission. In: Milana, M., Holford, J. (eds), Adult Education Policy and the European Union. Theoretical and Methodological Perspectives. Rotterdam, Sense Publishers, pp. 17-34. Saar, E. and Ure, O . B. 2013. Lifelong Learning systems: overview and extension of different typologies. In: Saar, E., Ure, B. and Holford, J. (eds), Lifelong Learning in Europe. National Patterns and Challenges. Cheltenham, Northhampton, Edward Elgar, pp. 46-81. Sabri, A. 2007. Country Profile commissioned for the EFA Global Monitoring Report 2008, Education for All by 2015: will we make it? Schuetze, H. G. 2006. International concepts and agendas of Lifelong Learning. In: Compare: A Journal of Comparative and International Education. Vol. 36/3, pp. 289-306. Torres, M. R. 2009. From literacy to lifelong learning: Trends, issues and challenges in youth and adult education in Latin America and the Caribbean: Regional Synthesis Report. Hamburg: UNESCO Institute for Lifelong Learning. [online] Available at: http://www.unesco.org/fileadmin/MULTIMEDIA/INSTITUTES/UIL/confintea/pdf/GRALE/confinteavi_grale_lac_synthesis_en.pdf UNESCO. 2015a. Education 2030. Incheon Declaration and Framework for Action: Towards inclusive and equitable quality education and lifelong learning for all. [online] Available at: http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0023/002338/233813M.pdf UNESCO. 2015b. Rethinking Education. [online] Available at: http://www.unesco.org/new/fileadmin/MULTIMEDIA/FIELD/Cairo/images/RethinkingEducation.pdf UNESCO. 2015c. Education for all 2000-2015: achievements and challenges. Paris, EFA Global Monitoring Report. [online] Available at: http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0023/002322/232205e.pdf UNESCO Institute for Lifelong Learning. 2012. UNESCO Guidelines for the Recognition, Validation and Accreditation of the Outcomes of Non-formal and Informal Learning. [online] Available at: http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0021/002163/216360e.pdf Usher, R. and Edwards, R. 2007. Lifelong Learning – Signs, Discourses, Practices. Dordrecht, Springer. Valdes-Cotera, R., Longworth, N., Lunardon, K., Wang, M., Jo, S., and Crowe, S. (Eds.). 2015. Unlocking the Potential of Urban Communities: Case Studies of Twelve Learning Cities. Hamburg, UIL. Yang, J., Valdes-Cotera, R. 2011. Introduction. Conceptual Evolution and Policy Developments in Lifelong Learning. Hamburg: UNESCO Institute for Lifelong Learning, pp. 24-39. [online] Available at: http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0019/001920/192081e.pdf Yang, J. 2015. Recognition, validation and accreditation of non-formal and informal learning in UNESCO Member States. Hamburg: UNESCO Institute for Lifelong Learning. [online] Available at: http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0023/002326/232656e.pdf Yousif, A. A. 2009. The State and Development of Adult learning and education in the Arab States. Regional Synthesis Report. Hamburg: UNESCO Institute for Lifelong Learning. [online] Available at: http://www.unesco.org/fileadmin/MULTIMEDIA/INSTITUTES/UIL/confintea/pdf/GRALE/confinteavi_grale_arab_synthesis_en.pdf

     

   

22  

Appendix: Table of policies across countries Policy Documents titled “Lifelong Learning”

Country/Region Year Type1 Title of Document

Europe 2000 Strategy A Memorandum on Lifelong Learning UK/Scotland 2003 Strategy Life Through Learning – Learning Through Life: The

Lifelong Learning Strategy for Scotland Germany 2004 Strategy Strategie für Lebenslanges Lernen in der Bundesrepublik

Deutschland (Strategy for Lifelong Learning in the Federal Republic of Germany)

Estonia 2005 Strategy Lifelong Learning Strategy 2005-2008 Hungary 2005 Strategy Strategy of the Government of the Republic of Hungary for

Lifelong Learning Hungary 2006 Strategy The Strategy for Lifelong Learning in Hungary Norway 2006 Strategy Strategy for Lifelong Learning in Norway Turkey 2006 Policy Driving Force for the Success of Turkey: Lifelong Learning

Policy Paper Czech Republic 2007 Strategy The Strategy of Lifelong Learning in the Czech Republic Denmark 2007 Strategy Denmark’s strategy for lifelong learning: Education and

lifelong skills upgrading for all Korea 2007 Plan Second National Lifelong Learning Promotion Plan 2008-

2012 Latvia 2007 Policy Lifelong Learning Policy 2007-2013 Slovakia 2007 Strategy Strategy of Lifelong Learning and Lifelong Guidance Slovenia 2007 Strategy Strategija Vseživljenjskosti Učenja v Sloveniji (Lifelong

Learning Strategy in Slovenia) Sweden 2007 Strategy The Swedish strategy for lifelong learning Bulgaria 2008 Strategy National Strategy for Lifelong Learning for the Period

2008-2013 Lithuania 2008 Strategy Strategy of Securing Lifelong Learning Turkey 2009 Strategy Lifelong Learning Strategy Paper Trinidad and Tobago

2010 Policy Policy on Tertiary Education, Technical Vocational Education and Training, and Lifelong Learning in Trinidad and Tobago

Austria 2011 Strategy Strategie zum lebensbegleitenden Lernen in Österreich (Strategy on lifelong learning in Austria)

Malaysia 2011 Other Blueprint on Enculturation of Lifelong Learning for Malaysia 2011-2020

Spain 2011 Other El aprendizaje permanente en España (Lifelong Learning in Spain)

                                                                                                                         1   The  document   type   “Other”   includes   “Documento  base”,   “Concept  Paper”   (Konzeptpapier),   “Initiative”,   “White  Paper”,   “Programa  sectorial”,  “Framework”  and  “Blueprint”.

     

   

23  

Slovakia 2012 Strategy Lifelong Learning Strategy Luxembourg 2013 Strategy Stratégie nationale du Lifelong Learning (National Strategy

of Lifelong Learning) Spain/Basque Country

2013 Law LEY 1/2013, de 10 de octubre, de Aprendizaje a lo Largo de la Vida (Law on Lifelong Learning)

Estonia 2014 Strategy The Estonian Lifelong Learning Strategy 2020 Education Policy Documents oriented towards Lifelong Learning Country/Region Year Type Title of Document South Africa 1995 Other White Paper on Education and Training El Salvador 1996 Law Ley General de Educación (General Education Law) Tanzania 1996 Policy Education and Training Policy United States 1998 Law Workforce Investment Act 1998 Swaziland 1999 Policy National Policy Statement On Education Thailand 1999 Law National Education Act of B.E. 2542 Ireland 2000 Other Learning for Life: White Paper on Adult Education Saint Lucia 2000 Plan Education Sector Development Plan 2000-2005 and beyond Seychelles 2000 Policy Education for a Learning Society Japan 2001 Policy Educational Reform for the 21st Century Mexico 2001 Other Programa Nacional de Educación 2001-2006 (National

Education Programme) Canada/Quebec 2002 Plan Action Plan for Adult Education and Continuing

Education and Training Canada/Quebec 2002 Policy Government Policy on Adult Education and Continuing

Education and Training Finland 2003 Strategy Ministry of Education Strategy 2015 Lithuania 2003 Strategy RE. Provision of the National Education Strategy 2003-

2012 Peru 2003 Law Ley General de Educación (General Education Law) Gambia 2004 Policy Education Policy 2004-2015 Tonga 2004 Policy Tonga Education Policy Framework Belize 2005 Plan Action Plan 2005-2010 Vietnam 2005 Law The Education Law Zimbabwe 2005 Plan Education for All towards 2015 Argentina 2006 Law Ley de Educación National (National Education Law) Japan 2006 Law Basic Act on Education No. 120 Cook Islands 2007 Plan Learning for Life Cook Islands Education Master Plan

2008–2023 Croatia 2007 Strategy A Strategy for Adult Education Finland 2007 Plan Education and Research 2007-2012 Mexico 2007 Other Programa Sectorial de Educación 2007-2012 (Education

Sector Programme) Canada 2008 Other Learn Canada 2020 Estonia 2008 Plan Tark ja Tegus Rahvas, 2009-2014 (Smart and Active People) Germany 2008 Other Konzeption der Bundesregierung zum Lernen im

     

   

24  

Lebenslauf (Concept of the Federal Government for Learning through the Life-Course)

Ghana 2008 Law Education Act UK/Wales 2008 Strategy Skills that Work for Wales: A Skills and Employment

Strategy and Action Plan Uruguay 2008 Law Ley N° 18437 (Law N° 18437) Bahamas 2009 Plan 10 Year Education Plan Chile 2009 Law Ley Nº 20.370 D.O. (Law Nº 20.370 D.O.) Europe 2009 Other Council Conclusions of 12 May 2009 on a Strategic

Framework for European Cooperation in Education and Training

India 2009 Other National Skill Development Initiative in India Korea 2009 Law Lifelong Education Act Mauritius 2009 Plan Education & Human Resources Strategy Plan 2008-2020 Norway 2009 Strategy Education Strategy Venezuela 2009 Law Ley Orgánica de Educación (Education Law) Argentina 2010 Other Educación Permanente de Jóvenes y Adultos (Continuing

Education for Youth and Adults) Belize 2010 Law Education and Training Act Bolivia 2010 Law Ley de la Educación N°70 (Education Law) China 2010 Plan Outline of China’s National Plan for Medium and Long-

term Education Reform and Development 2010-2020 Vietnam 2010 Other Phê duyệt Đề án “Xây dựng xã hội học tập giai đoạn 2012-

2020 (Framework on Building a Learning Society in the period 2012-2020)

Swaziland 2011 Policy The Swaziland Education and Training Sector Policy Kenya 2012 Policy A Policy Framework for Education Tanzania 2012 Plan Adult and Non-Formal Education Development Plan,

2012/13-2016/17 Cambodia 2014 Plan Education Strategic Plan 2014-2018 Other Policy Documents with references to Lifelong Learning Country Year Type Title of Document Barbados 2007 Plan The National Strategic Plan of Barbados 2006-2025 Brunei 2007 Plan Strategic Plan 2007-2011 Bhutan 2009 Plan Tenth Five Year Plan 2008-2013. Volume I: Main

Document Bhutan 2012 Plan Eleventh Five Year Plan 2013-2018. Volume II:

Programme Profile Brunei 2012 Plan Strategic Plan 2012-2017