Classical Mediterranean Civilizations

Chapter 4 – Classical Mediterranean The Persian Tradition: • By 550 B.C.E. Cyrus the Great established a massive Persian Empire across the Northern Middle East. • Tolerant of local customs; developed their own religion— Zoroastrianism – a religion named after the prophet that founded it – Zoroaster. The religion had a concept of heaven and hell. He received his relevations from a deity called Ahura Mazda. • The empire tried several times to Conquer Greece (Darius, Xerxes); but it was a Greek, Alexander of Macedonia that conquered them. Fortunately for Persia, Alexander liked Persian culture. He married a Persian; ordered his army to marry Persian women. The resultant culture became known as Hellenistic. • The Sassanid Empire emerged in the region during the Times of imperial Rome. --

Zoroaster

Persian Empire, circa 529 B.C.E.

Patterns of Greek and Roman History

Greece: • Many features of early Greek culture are from the island of Crete; which was heavily influenced by the ancient Egyptians. Namely, its mythology and architecture. • The Greek people themselves were Indo-Europeans that took over the Greek peninsula around 1700 B.C.E. and formed an early civilization around the town of Mycenae around 1400 B.C.E.

• The most famous Mycenaean story is the Trojan War as told by by the blind bard Homer in the Iliad and the Odyssey.

Greek History in a nutshell• Greece’s rise between 800-600 B.C.E. occurred around

city-states that each had its own form of government; usually one ruled by a tyrant or a council of aristocrats.

• City-states served them well because of Greece’s mountainous terrain made a unified Greece difficult.

• Greeks were unified in that they spoke and wrote in a common language. They adopted their alphabet from the Phoenicians. Greek unity can also be shown in their participation in the Olympic games.

• Two dominant city-states that emerged were Sparta and Athens. Between 500 and 449 B.C.E. they cooperated to defeat two Persian invasions; but later were rivals over

control of Greece in what became known as the Peloponnesian War. Sparta won; although both sides suffered great losses which led to the rise of the Macedonians from Northern Greece.

The Parthenon in Athens - Athena’s Temple

The Acropolis: Acro - edge

and polis - city

Pericles • Greek aristocrat and Athenian political leader • Promoter of the democratic political structure • Restrained the more aggressive Athenians who wanted to expand the empire. • Unfortunate that he could not prevent a war with Sparta that weakened both sides.

Athens compared to Sparta• Athens developed a

democracy • Developed diverse

commercial markets along with extensive use of slaves

• Proud of their intellectual and artistic achievements

• Patriarchal: free women had less freedom than slaves

• Sparta’s government is a military aristocracy

• The Helots, their slaves did all of the work. Spartans culled them

• Austere lifestyles and a culture that resembled Communism

• Women enjoyed many more rights that their Athenian counterparts

Enter Alexander…

The declining power of Athens and Sparta encouraged kings from Macedonia to conquer the Greek Peninsula. Philip of Macedonia won a crucial battle in 338 B.C.E. His son, Alexander continued to conquer for 13 years prior to his death at age 33. For interesting reading, look into biographies of Alexander.

• It is not clear what exactly killed Alexander – poison, typhoid fever, malaria, consumption (drinking); but it was a messy affair as to who would take over. Eventually, his generals fought each other over control of the empire. • Culturally, however, the region of Alexander’s empire and the time period in history became known as “Hellenistic.” • The Hellenes-the Greeks-were known for their art, their trade, and their scientific achievement (Alexandria in Egypt); but little for its political activity, as the Hellenistic kings were autocratic.

Exit Alexander…

Alexander’s Empire

The Rise of Rome

• By the 1st Century B.C.E., Rome had subjugated all the Greek and Hellenistic kingdoms alike.

• Rome started out as a humble monarchy in Central Italy around 800 B.C.E.

• Circa 509 B.C.E., Roman aristocrats drove out the monarchy – thus begins the Roman Republic.

• Rome appeared to have a strong military orientation; probably more to hold on to their own territory rather than conquests…but

• Rome had its rivals. They fought three wars against Carthage, known as the Punic Wars from 264-146 B.C.E. These wars include the famous trek across the Alps by the Carthaginian general Hannibal with pack-laden elephants.

• Carthage, a Phoenician city was eventually totally destroyed by Rome, which spread salt around Carthage to prevent future agriculture.

Julius Caesar and the end of the Roman Republic

• There were many civil wars before and after Caesar - the Roman Republic was at its end.

• Caesar versus Pompey - Caesar won in 45 BCE; Pompey lost his head as a gift to Julius from the Egyptians.

• “Beware of the Ides of March” was the omen given to Caesar. March 15, 44 BCE, Caesar is assassinated by members of the Roman Senate, including his friend Brutus.

• Caesar’s grandnephew Augustus Caesar(Octavian) seizes power in 27 BCE; establishing the basic structure of the Roman Empire

• The next 200 years there is peace and prosperity in the Roman Empire - called the “Pax Romana.”

The Slow, Painful Death of the Roman Empire

• The empire fell into decline after 200 C.E. • The empire finally was overturned in 476 C.E.

when Germanic invaders and Huns toppled the Roman government

• The decline was due to a failing economy and population loss; trade levels and birth rates both fell

• Government had a bad string of emperors • Roman army increasingly had to use foreign

recruits whose loyalty to Rome was suspect

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Greek and Roman Political Institutions

• Both Greece and Rome had a variety of political forms, yet mainly emphasized aristocratic rule. However, we also find democracy and autocracy in the Mediterranean societies

• Politics important to the Greeks and Romans. Politics comes from the Greek word for city-state

• Even the Roman Empire allowed a large degree of autonomy for city-states within their empire

• Monarchy was NOT a preferred form; rule by tyrants - individual strongman was more common

Greek Political Institutions !• The word democracy is derived from the Greek word, demos for “the people.” • In 5th-century Athens, major decisions were made by general assemblies in which all citizens could participate; this was a direct democracy • The assemblies met every 10 days; executive officers and judges were chosen by lots, not elected - all citizens should be able to serve • Who was a Greek citizen? NOT women, NOT half the adult males, who were slaves or foreigners • However, the most common political form was the aristocracy or “rule of the best.” Sparta was ruled by a militaristic aristocracy, determined to maintain rule over a large slave population

Roman Political Institutions during the Republic !• Roman citizens could meet in general assemblies; not to pass laws, but to elect local magistrates !

• The most important elected assembly was the Roman Senate - made up of aristocrats who held all of the important jobs !

• Two consuls shared executive power; in a time of crises the Senate could elect a dictator to hold emergency power until the crisis was over !

• Like the Greeks, the Romans felt strongly about the importance of political participation. Cicero, a senator is known today for his speeches(orations) on politics. • •Roman writing on politics is similar to Confucianism; but with less emphasis on hierarchy and bureaucratic virtues - more on law-making and judging political actions. Mediterranean political writers were concerned about the structure of the state itself - the various types of political forms

The Roman Senate

Roman Political Institutions during the Empire !• The empire maintained some of its older institutions like the Senate; but it became a meaningless forum for debate • The empire relied more on its generals for control of the empire • Most regions under the empire’s control were allowed self-rule. Exceptions - forced dissolution of a Jewish state after a rebellion in 63 C.E. • Romans had tolerance for local customs and religions • Romans felt that good laws could hold the empire together; a concept developed from the republic days - the Twelve Tables(450 B.C.E.) • Rome built roads and harbors to transport its huge army - it placed huge importance on military conquest • To distract the citizens, Roman state built stadiums and public baths: “bread and circuses” were designed to prevent popular disorder

Greek and Roman Religion and Culture

Greco- Roman Religion !• The Greeks and Romans did not create a world-class religion; in this they differ from India and China. • Christianity did arise during the Roman Empire, but it was not a product of Greek or Roman culture. • Greco-Roman religion is belief in the spirits of nature elevated into a complex set of gods and goddesses regulating human life. • Ceremonies to the gods did have a significant political importance. • The gods were usually depicted as having human traits(love, hate, pride, jealousy, sorrow, etc.) and the stories about them read like a soap opera. Good storytelling = a literary tradition. • Like the Indians, stories about the gods illustrated human passions and served as a way to examine human nature. • Unlike the Indians, the Greeks and Romans were more interested in what the gods could do and how they could help man on earth. Hindu Indians wanted to learn how to elevate their spiritual plane closer to the gods. • The Greco-Roman religion did not satisfy the people spiritually and mystery religions periodically swept into Greece and Rome, usually from the Middle East. • A division arose between upper-class and popular belief

Greco-Roman Philosophy !• While the dominant religion promoted political loyalty, it did not provide a basis for ethical thought. • Hence, a separate model for ethical behavior was developed • Aristotle and Cicero stressed moderation and balance in human behavior(compare with Confucius). • The Stoics emphasized an inner moral independence; practiced strict discipline of the body and personal bravery. • Socrates encouraged people to question what everyone else took as truth. Socrates’ forced suicide was a result of his questioning the existence of the Greek gods • Plato, Socrates’ student stressed knowledge of the three perfect forms: the absolute Truth, Good, and Beautiful • Thus a philosophical tradition got started in Greece that de-emphasized spirituality but concentrated on understanding Man and Nature

Death of Socrates by Jacques Louis David

Plato and Aristotle

Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian - Classical Architecture