advantages and disadvantages of techniques used for
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Advantages and disadvantages of techniques used forwastewater treatmentGrégorio Crini, Eric Lichtfouse
To cite this version:Grégorio Crini, Eric Lichtfouse. Advantages and disadvantages of techniques used for wastew-ater treatment. Environmental Chemistry Letters, Springer Verlag, 2019, 17 (1), pp.145-155.�10.1007/s10311-018-0785-9�. �hal-02082890�
Environmental Chemistry Letters (2019) 17:145–155 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10311-018-0785-9Revised version
Advantages and disadvantages of techniques used for wastewater
treatmentGrégorio Crini1 · Eric Lichtfouse2
AbstractDuring the last 30 years, environmental issues about the chemical and biological contaminations of water have become a major concern for society, public authorities and the industry. Most domestic and industrial activities produce wastewaters containing undesirable toxic contaminants. In this context, a constant effort must be made to protect water resources. Cur-rent wastewater treatment methods involve a combination of physical, chemical and biological processes, and operations to remove insoluble particles and soluble contaminants from effluents. This article provides an overview of methods for wastewater treatment, and describes the advantages and disadvantages of available technologies.
Keywords Wastewater treatment · Contaminants · Pollutants · Effluents · Technologies available
Introduction
Actually, water pollution by chemicals has become a major source of concern and a priority for both society and public authorities, but more importantly, for the whole industrial world (Sonune and Ghate 2004; Crini 2005; Cox et al. 2007; Sharma 2015; Rathoure and Dhatwalia 2016). What is water pollution? Water pollution can be defined in many ways. Pollution of water occurs when one or more substances that will modify the water in negative fashion are discharged in it. These substances can cause problems for people, animals and their habitats and also for the environment. There are various classifications of water pollution (Morin-Crini and Crini 2017). The two chief sources can be seen as point and non-point. The first refers to the pollutants that belong to a single source such as emissions from industries into the water, and the second on the other hand means pollutants emitted from multiple sources.
The causes of water pollution are multiple: industrial wastes, mining activities, sewage and waste water, pesti-cides and chemical fertilizers, energy use, radioactive waste, urban development, etc. The very fact that water is used means that it will become polluted: any activities whether domestic or agricultural but also industrial produce effluent containing undesirable pollutants which can also be toxic. In this context, a constant effort must be made to protect water resources (Khalaf 2016; Rathoure and Dhatwalia 2016; Morin-Crini and Crini 2017).
The legislation covering liquid industrial effluent is becoming stricter, especially in the more developed coun-tries, and imposes the treatment of any wastewater before it is released into the environment. Since the end of the 1970s, in Europe, the directives are increasingly severe and zero rejection is being sought by 2020. Currently, the European policy on water results from the Water Framework Direc-tive of 2000 which establishes guidelines for the protection of surface water, underground water and coastal water in Europe (Morin-Crini and Crini 2017).
The Water Framework Directive also classified chemi-cals into two main lists of priority substances. The first, the “Black List,” involves dangerous priority substances considered to be persistent, highly toxic or to lead to bio-accumulation. The second list, the “Grey List”, gathers priority substances presenting a significant risk for the environment. The selection of these substances can either be based on individual substances of families of substances
* Grégorio [email protected]
Eric [email protected]; [email protected]
1 Laboratoire Chrono-environnement, UMR 6249, UFR Sciences et Techniques, Université Bourgogne Franche-Comté, 16 Route de Gray, 25000 Besançon, France
2 Aix Marseille Univ, CNRS, IRD, INRA, Coll France, CEREGE, Aix-en-Provence, France
(e.g., metals, chlorobenzenes, alkylphenols) or on the basis of the industrial sector (e.g., agro-food industry, chemicals industry, metal finishing sector). Currently, Europe is now asking industrials to innovate, to reduce and/or eliminate the release of dangerous priority substances and priority sub-stances in their wastewaters. Moreover, recycling wastewater is starting to receive active attention from industry in the context of sustainable development (e.g., protection of the environment, developing concepts of “green chemistry,” use of renewable resources), improved water management (recy-cling of waste water) and also health concerns (Kentish and Stevens 2001; Cox et al. 2007; Sharma and Sanghi 2012; Khalaf 2016; Rathoure and Dhatwalia 2016; Morin-Crini and Crini 2017). Thus, for the industrial world, the treatment of effluents has become a priority.
During the past three decades, several physical, chemi-cal and biological technologies have been reported such as flotation, precipitation, oxidation, solvent extraction, evaporation, carbon adsorption, ion exchange, membrane filtration, electrochemistry, biodegradation and phytoreme-diation (Berefield et al. 1982; Liu and Liptak 2000; Henze 2001; Harvey et al. 2002; Chen 2004; Forgacs et al. 2004; Anjaneyulu et al. 2005; Crini and Badot 2007; Cox et al. 2007; Hai et al. 2007; Barakat 2011; Rathoure and Dhat-walia 2016; Morin-Crini and Crini 2017). Which is the best method? There is no direct answer to this question because each treatment has its own advantages and constraints not only in terms of cost but also in terms of efficiency, feasibil-ity and environmental impact. In general, elimination of pol-lutants is done by physical, chemical and biological means. At the present time, there is no single method capable of adequate treatment, mainly due to the complex nature of industrial effluents. In practice, a combination of different methods is often used to achieve the desired water quality in the most economical way.
This short review proposes a general scheme of wastewa-ter treatment and summarizes the advantages and disadvan-tages of different individual techniques used. This article is an abridged version of the chapter published by Crini and Lichtfouse (2018) in the series Environmental Chemistry for a Sustainable World.
Wastewater treatment
There are various sources of water contamination, e.g., households, industry, mines and infiltration, but one of the greatest remains the large-scale use of water by industry (Anjaneyulu et al. 2005; Hai et al. 2007). Four categories of water are generally distinguished: (1) rainwater (runoff from impermeable surfaces), (2) domestic wastewater, (3) agricultural water and (4) industrial wastewaters (Crini and Badot 2007). The last group can be subdivided into cooling
water, washing effluent (of variable composition) and manu-facturing or process water (biodegradable and/or potentially toxic). In general, process waters (i.e., wastewaters or efflu-ents) pose the greatest problems. Wastewaters differ signifi-cantly from drinking water sources (usually rivers, lakes or reservoirs) in one important way: The contaminant levels in most drinking water sources are quite low as compared with contaminant levels in wastewaters derived from indus-trial-type activities (Cooney 1999). However, their toxic-ity depends, of course, on their composition, which in turn depends on their industrial origin. In general, the problems encountered during wastewater treatment are very complex as the effluent contains pollutants of various types depend-ing on its origin. So, there are different types of effluents to treat, each with its own characteristics requiring specific treatment processes.
General scheme of wastewater treatment
When water is polluted and decontamination becomes nec-essary, the best purification approach should be chosen to reach the decontamination objectives (as established by legislation). A purification process generally consists of five successive steps as described in Fig. 1: (1) preliminary treatment or pre-treatment (physical and mechanical); (2) primary treatment (physicochemical and chemical); (3) secondary treatment or purification (chemical and biologi-cal); (4) tertiary or final treatment (physical and chemical); and (5) treatment of the sludge formed (supervised tipping, recycling or incineration). In general, the first two steps are gathered under the notion of pre-treatment or preliminary step, depending on the situation (Anjaneyulu et al. 2005; Crini and Badot 2007, 2010).
Technologies available for contaminant removal
In general, conventional wastewater treatment consists of a combination of physical, chemical and/or biological pro-cesses and operations to remove solids including colloids, organic matter, nutrients, soluble contaminants (metals, organics, etc.) from effluents. A multitude of techniques classified in conventional methods, established recovery pro-cesses and emerging removal methods can be used (Fig. 2). Table 1 lists the advantages and disadvantages of different individual techniques (Berefield et al. 1982; Henze 2001; Sonune and Ghate 2004; Chen 2004; Pokhrel and Virara-ghavan 2004; Parsons 2004; Anjaneyulu et al. 2005; Chuah et al. 2005; Crini 2005, 2006; Bratby 2006; Crini and Badot 2007, 2010; Cox et al. 2007; Mohan and Pittman 2007; Hai et al. 2007; Wojnárovits and Takács 2008; Barakat 2011; Sharma and Sanghi 2012; Rathoure and Dhatwalia 2016; Morin-Crini and Crini 2017).
Selection of the method to be used will thus depend on the wastewater characteristics (Anjaneyulu et al. 2005; Crini 2005; Crini and Badot 2007; Cox et al. 2007). Each treatment has its own constraints not only in terms of cost, but also in terms of feasibility, efficiency, practica-bility, reliability, environmental impact, sludge produc-tion, operation difficulty, pre-treatment requirements and the formation of potentially toxic by-products. However,
among the various treatment processes currently cited for wastewater treatment, only a few are commonly employed by the industrial sector for technological and economic reasons. In general, removal of pollutants from effluents is done by physicochemical and/or biological means, with research concentrating on cheaper effective combinations of systems or new alternatives.
pretreated effluent
water dischargewastewater
1. PRETREATMENT(sedimentation, coagulation…)
step 1
Chemical methods
Physical techniques
4. TERTIARYTREATMENT
(oxidation, membrane filtration…)
(step 4)
Physical-chemical methods
Biological treatment
3. SECONDARY TREATMENT
(biodegradation, filtration, adsorption…)
step 3
2. PRIMARY TREATMENT(coagulation, precipitation,
flocculation…)
step 2
treated effluent
post-treated effluent
step 5
TREATMENT of the SLUDGE(supervised tipping, recycling, incineration…)
Mechanical methods
Physical-chemical methods
Chemical methods
Physical-chemical methods
Fig. 1 Main processes for the decontamination of industrial wastewaters
Technologies available for pollutant removal
Emerging removal methods
Established recovery process
Conventional methods
- advanced oxidation- adsorption onto non-
conventional solids- biosorption- biomass- nanofiltration
- solvent extraction- evaporation- oxidation- electrochemical treatment- membrane separation- membrane bioreactors- ion-exchange- incineration
- coagulation/flocculation- precipitation- biodegradation- filtration (sand)- adsorption using AC
Fig. 2 Classification of technologies available for pollutant removal and examples of techniques
Tabl
e 1
Adv
anta
ges a
nd d
isad
vant
ages
of t
he m
ain
conv
entio
nal m
etho
ds u
sed
for t
he tr
eatm
ent o
f pol
lute
d in
dustr
ial w
aste
wat
er
Proc
ess
Mai
n ch
arac
teris
tic(s
)A
dvan
tage
sD
isad
vant
ages
Che
mic
al p
reci
pita
tion
Upt
ake
of th
e po
lluta
nts a
nd se
para
tion
of th
e pr
oduc
ts fo
rmed
Tech
nolo
gica
lly si
mpl
e (s
impl
e eq
uipm
ent)
Inte
grat
ed p
hysi
coch
emic
al p
roce
ssB
oth
econ
omic
ally
adv
anta
geou
s and
effi
cien
tA
dapt
ed to
hig
h po
lluta
nt lo
ads
Very
effi
cien
t for
met
als a
nd fl
uorid
e el
imin
a-tio
nN
ot m
etal
sele
ctiv
eSi
gnifi
cant
redu
ctio
n in
the
chem
ical
oxy
gen
dem
and
Che
mic
al c
onsu
mpt
ion
(lim
e, o
xida
nts,
H2S
, et
c.)
Phys
icoc
hem
ical
mon
itorin
g of
the
efflue
nt
(pH
)In
effec
tive
in re
mov
al o
f the
met
al io
ns a
t low
co
ncen
tratio
nRe
quire
s an
oxid
atio
n ste
p if
the
met
als a
re
com
plex
edH
igh
slud
ge p
rodu
ctio
n, h
andl
ing
and
disp
osal
pr
oble
ms (
man
agem
ent,
treat
men
t, co
st)C
oagu
latio
n/flo
ccul
atio
nU
ptak
e of
the
pollu
tant
s and
sepa
ratio
n of
the
prod
ucts
form
edPr
oces
s sim
plic
ityIn
tegr
ated
phy
sico
chem
ical
pro
cess
A w
ide
rang
e of
che
mic
als a
re av
aila
ble
com
-m
erci
ally
Inex
pens
ive
capi
tal c
ost
Very
effi
cien
t for
SS
and
collo
idal
par
ticle
sG
ood
slud
ge se
ttlin
g an
d de
wat
erin
g ch
arac
-te
ristic
sSi
gnifi
cant
redu
ctio
n in
the
chem
ical
oxy
gen
dem
and
and
bioc
hem
ical
oxy
gen
dem
and
Inte
resti
ng re
duct
ion
in to
tal o
rgan
ic c
arbo
n an
d ad
sorb
able
org
anic
hal
ogen
(pul
p an
d pa
per i
ndus
try)
Bac
teria
l ina
ctiv
atio
n ca
pabi
lity
Rap
id a
nd e
ffici
ent f
or in
solu
ble
cont
amin
ants
(p
igm
ents
, etc
.) re
mov
al
Requ
ires a
djun
ctio
n of
non
-reu
sabl
e ch
emic
als
(coa
gula
nts,
flocc
ulan
ts, a
id c
hem
ical
s)Ph
ysic
oche
mic
al m
onito
ring
of th
e effl
uent
(p
H)
Incr
ease
d sl
udge
vol
ume
gene
ratio
n (m
anag
e-m
ent,
treat
men
t, co
st)Lo
w re
mov
al o
f ars
enic
Flot
atio
nFr
oth
flota
tion
Sepa
ratio
n pr
oces
sIn
tegr
ated
phy
sico
chem
ical
pro
cess
Diff
eren
t typ
es o
f col
lect
ors (
noni
onic
or
ioni
c)Effi
cien
t for
rem
oval
of s
mal
l par
ticle
s and
ca
n re
mov
e lo
w-d
ensi
ty p
artic
les w
hich
w
ould
requ
ire lo
ng se
ttlin
g pe
riods
Use
ful f
or p
rimar
y cl
arifi
catio
nM
etal
sele
ctiv
eLo
w re
tent
ion
time
Use
d as
an
effici
ent t
ertia
ry tr
eatm
ent i
n th
e pu
lp a
nd p
aper
indu
stry
Mec
hani
sms:
true
flot
atio
n, e
ntra
inm
ent a
nd
aggr
egat
ion
Hig
h in
itial
cap
ital c
ost
Ener
gy c
osts
Mai
nten
ance
and
ope
ratio
n co
sts n
o ne
glig
ible
Che
mic
als r
equi
red
(to c
ontro
l the
rela
tive
hydr
opho
bici
ties b
etw
een
the
parti
cles
and
to
mai
ntai
n pr
oper
frot
h ch
arac
teris
tics)
Sele
ctiv
ity is
pH
dep
ende
nt
Tabl
e 1
(con
tinue
d)
Proc
ess
Mai
n ch
arac
teris
tic(s
)A
dvan
tage
sD
isad
vant
ages
Che
mic
al o
xida
tion
Sim
ple
oxid
atio
nO
zone
Hyp
ochl
orite
trea
tmen
tH
ydro
gen
pero
xide
Use
of a
n ox
idan
t (e.
g., O
3, C
l 2, C
lO2,
H2O
2, K
MnO
4)In
tegr
ated
phy
sico
chem
ical
pro
cess
Sim
ple,
rapi
d an
d effi
cien
t pro
cess
Gen
erat
ion
of o
zone
on-site
(no
stora
ge-a
sso-
ciat
ed d
ange
rs)
Qua
lity
of th
e ou
tflow
(effe
ctiv
e de
struc
tion
of th
e po
lluta
nts a
nd e
ffici
ent r
educ
tion
in
colo
r)G
ood
elim
inat
ion
of c
olor
and
odo
r (oz
one)
Effici
ent t
reat
men
t for
cya
nide
and
sulfi
de
rem
oval
Initi
ates
and
acc
eler
ates
azo
bon
d cl
eava
ge
(hyp
ochl
orite
trea
tmen
t)In
crea
ses b
iode
grad
abili
ty o
f pro
duct
Hig
h th
roug
hput
No
slud
ge p
rodu
ctio
nPo
ssib
ility
of w
ater
recy
cle
Dis
infe
ctio
n (b
acte
ria a
nd v
iruse
s)
Che
mic
als r
equi
red
Prod
uctio
n, tr
ansp
ort a
nd m
anag
emen
t of t
he
oxid
ants
(oth
er th
an o
zone
)Pr
e-tre
atm
ent i
ndis
pens
able
Effici
ency
stro
ngly
influ
ence
d by
the
type
of
oxid
ant
Shor
t hal
f-lif
e (o
zone
)A
few
dye
s are
mor
e re
sist
ant t
o tre
atm
ent a
nd
nece
ssita
te h
igh
ozon
e do
ses
Form
atio
n of
(unk
now
n) in
term
edia
tes
No
dim
inut
ion
of c
hem
ical
oxy
gen
dem
and
valu
es o
r lim
ited
effec
t (oz
one)
No
effec
t on
salin
ity (o
zone
)Re
leas
e of
vol
atile
com
poun
ds a
nd a
rom
atic
am
ines
(hyp
ochl
orite
trea
tmen
t)G
ener
ates
slud
ge
Bio
logi
cal m
etho
dsB
iore
acto
rsB
iolo
gica
l act
ivat
ed sl
udge
(BA
S)M
icro
biol
ogic
al tr
eatm
ents
Enzy
mat
ic d
ecom
posi
tion
Lago
on
Use
of b
iolo
gica
l (pu
re o
r mix
ed) c
ultu
res
The
appl
icat
ion
of m
icro
orga
nism
s for
the
biod
egra
datio
n of
org
anic
con
tam
inan
ts is
si
mpl
e, e
cono
mic
ally
attr
activ
e an
d w
ell
acce
pted
by
the
publ
icLa
rge
num
ber o
f spe
cies
use
d in
mix
ed
cultu
res (
cons
ortiu
ms)
or p
ure
cultu
res
(whi
te-ro
t fun
gus)
Whi
te-ro
t fun
gi p
rodu
ce a
wid
e va
riety
of
extra
cellu
lar e
nzym
es w
ith h
igh
biod
egra
da-
bilit
y ca
paci
tyEffi
cien
tly e
limin
ates
bio
degr
adab
le o
rgan
ic
mat
ter,
NH
3, N
H4+
, iro
nA
ttenu
ates
col
or w
ell
Hig
h re
mov
al o
f bio
chem
ical
oxy
gen
dem
and
and
susp
ende
d so
lids (
BAS)
Dec
isiv
e ro
le o
f mic
robi
olog
ical
pro
cess
es in
th
e fu
ture
tech
nolo
gies
use
d fo
r the
rem
oval
of
em
erge
nt c
onta
min
ants
from
wat
ers
Nec
essa
ry to
cre
ate
an o
ptim
ally
favo
rabl
e en
viro
nmen
tRe
quire
s man
agem
ent a
nd m
aint
enan
ce o
f th
e m
icro
orga
nism
s and
/or p
hysi
coch
emic
al
pre-
treat
men
t (in
effici
ent o
n no
n-de
grad
able
co
mpo
unds
or w
hen
toxi
c co
mpo
unds
are
pr
esen
t)Sl
ow p
roce
ss (p
robl
ems o
f kin
etic
s)Lo
w b
iode
grad
abili
ty o
f cer
tain
mol
ecul
es
(dye
s)Po
or d
ecol
oriz
atio
n (B
AS)
Poss
ible
slud
ge b
ulki
ng a
nd fo
amin
g (B
AS)
Gen
erat
ion
of b
iolo
gica
l slu
dge
and
unco
n-tro
lled
degr
adat
ion
prod
ucts
The
com
posi
tion
of m
ixed
cul
ture
s may
cha
nge
durin
g th
e de
com
posi
tion
proc
ess
Com
plex
ity o
f the
mic
robi
olog
ical
mec
hani
sms
Nec
essi
ty to
hav
e a
good
kno
wle
dge
of th
e en
zym
atic
pro
cess
es g
over
ning
the
deco
mpo
-si
tion
of th
e su
bsta
nces
Tabl
e 1
(con
tinue
d)
Proc
ess
Mai
n ch
arac
teris
tic(s
)A
dvan
tage
sD
isad
vant
ages
Ads
orpt
ion/
filtra
tion
Com
mer
cial
act
ivat
ed c
arbo
ns (C
AC
)C
omm
erci
al a
ctiv
ated
alu
min
a (C
AA
)Sa
ndM
ixed
mat
eria
lsSi
lica
gel
Non
destr
uctiv
e pr
oces
sU
se o
f a so
lid m
ater
ial
Tech
nolo
gica
lly si
mpl
e (s
impl
e eq
uipm
ent)
and
adap
tabl
e to
man
y tre
atm
ent f
orm
ats
Wid
e ra
nge
of c
omm
erci
al p
rodu
cts
Wid
e va
riety
of t
arge
t con
tam
inan
ts (a
dsor
p-tio
n)H
ighl
y eff
ectiv
e pr
oces
s (ad
sorp
tion)
with
fast
kine
tics
Exce
llent
qua
lity
of th
e tre
ated
effl
uent
Glo
bal e
limin
atio
n (C
AC
) but
pos
sibl
y se
lec-
tive
depe
ndin
g on
ads
orbe
ntEx
celle
nt a
bilit
y to
sepa
rate
a w
ide
rang
e of
po
lluta
nts,
in p
artic
ular
refr
acto
ry m
olec
ules
(C
AC
is th
e m
ost e
ffect
ive
mat
eria
l)CA
C: e
ffici
ent f
or c
hem
ical
oxy
gen
dem
and
rem
oval
; hig
hly
effici
ent t
reat
men
t whe
n co
uple
d to
coa
gula
tion
to re
duce
susp
ende
d so
lids,
chem
ical
oxy
gen
dem
and
and
colo
rSa
nd: e
ffici
ent f
or tu
rbid
ity a
nd su
spen
ded
solid
s rem
oval
Alu
min
a: e
ffici
ent f
or fl
uorid
e re
mov
al
Rela
tivel
y hi
gh in
vestm
ent (
CAC
)C
ost o
f mat
eria
ls (C
AC
, CA
A)
Non
destr
uctiv
e pr
oces
ses
Non
-sel
ectiv
e m
etho
dsPe
rform
ance
dep
ends
on
the
type
of m
ater
ial
(CA
C)
Requ
irem
ent f
or se
vera
l typ
es o
f ads
orbe
nts
Che
mic
al d
eriv
atiz
atio
n to
impr
ove
thei
r ad
sorp
tion
capa
city
Rap
id sa
tura
tion
and
clog
ging
of t
he re
acto
rs
(reg
ener
atio
n co
stly)
Not
effi
cien
t with
cer
tain
type
s of d
yestu
ffs a
nd
som
e m
etal
s (CA
C)
Elim
inat
ion
of th
e ad
sorb
ent (
requ
ires i
ncin
-er
atio
n, re
gene
ratio
n or
repl
acem
ent o
f the
m
ater
ial)
Rege
nera
tion
is e
xpen
sive
and
resu
lts in
loss
of
mat
eria
l (CA
C)
Econ
omic
ally
non
-via
ble
for c
erta
in in
dustr
ies
(pul
p an
d pa
per,
text
ile, e
tc.)
Ion
exch
ange
Che
latin
g re
sins
Sele
ctiv
e re
sins
Mac
ropo
rous
resi
nsPo
lym
eric
ads
orbe
nts
Poly
mer
-bas
ed h
ybrid
ads
orbe
nts
Non
destr
uctiv
e pr
oces
sW
ide
rang
e of
com
mer
cial
pro
duct
s ava
ilabl
e fro
m se
vera
l man
ufac
ture
rsTe
chno
logi
cally
sim
ple
(sim
ple
equi
pmen
t)W
ell-e
stab
lishe
d an
d te
sted
proc
edur
es; e
asy
cont
rol a
nd m
aint
enan
ceEa
sy to
use
with
oth
er te
chni
ques
(e.g
., pr
ecip
itatio
n an
d fil
tratio
n in
an
inte
grat
ed
was
tew
ater
pro
cess
)C
an b
e ap
plie
d to
diff
eren
t flow
regi
mes
(con
-tin
uous
and
bat
ch)
Hig
h re
gene
ratio
n w
ith p
ossi
bilit
y of
ext
erna
l re
gene
ratio
n of
resi
nR
apid
and
effi
cien
t pro
cess
Prod
uce
a hi
gh-q
ualit
y tre
ated
effl
uent
Con
cent
rate
s all
type
s of p
ollu
tant
s, pa
rticu
-la
rly m
iner
als
Rela
tivel
y in
expe
nsiv
e an
d effi
cien
t for
met
al
rem
oval
; cle
anup
to p
pb le
vels
(to
ppt l
evel
s fo
r sel
ectiv
e re
sins
)C
an b
e se
lect
ive
for c
erta
in m
etal
s (w
ith su
it-ab
le re
sins
)In
tere
sting
and
effi
cien
t tec
hnol
ogy
for t
he
reco
very
of v
alua
ble
met
als
Econ
omic
con
strai
nts (
initi
al c
ost o
f the
sele
c-tiv
e re
sin,
mai
nten
ance
cos
ts, r
egen
erat
ion
time-
cons
umin
g, e
tc.)
Larg
e vo
lum
e re
quire
s lar
ge c
olum
nsR
apid
satu
ratio
n an
d cl
oggi
ng o
f the
reac
tors
Satu
ratio
n of
the
catio
nic
exch
ange
r bef
ore
the
anio
nic
resi
n (p
reci
pita
tion
of m
etal
s and
bl
ocki
ng o
f rea
ctor
)B
eads
eas
ily fo
uled
by
parti
cula
tes a
nd o
rgan
ic
mat
ter (
orga
nics
and
oils
); re
quire
s a p
hysi
co-
chem
ical
pre
-trea
tmen
t (e.
g., s
and
filtra
tion
or
carb
on a
dsor
ptio
n) to
rem
ove
thes
e co
ntam
i-na
nts
Mat
rix d
egra
des w
ith ti
me
and
with
cer
tain
w
aste
mat
eria
ls (r
adio
activ
e, st
rong
oxi
dant
s, et
c.)
Perfo
rman
ce se
nsiti
ve to
pH
of e
fflue
ntC
onve
ntio
nal r
esin
s not
sele
ctiv
eSe
lect
ive
resi
ns h
ave
limite
d co
mm
erci
al u
seN
ot e
ffect
ive
for c
erta
in ta
rget
pol
luta
nts (
dis-
pers
e dy
es, d
rugs
, etc
.)El
imin
atio
n of
the
resi
n
Tabl
e 1
(con
tinue
d)
Proc
ess
Mai
n ch
arac
teris
tic(s
)A
dvan
tage
sD
isad
vant
ages
Inci
nera
tion
Ther
mal
oxi
datio
nC
atal
ytic
oxi
datio
nPh
otoc
atal
ytic
des
truct
ion
Des
truct
ion
by c
ombu
stion
Sim
ple
proc
ess
Use
ful f
or c
once
ntra
ted
efflue
nts o
r slu
dges
Hig
hly
effici
ent
Elim
inat
es a
ll ty
pes o
f org
anic
sPr
oduc
tion
of e
nerg
y
Initi
al in
vestm
ent c
osts
Tran
spor
t and
stor
age
of th
e effl
uent
sH
igh
runn
ing
costs
Form
atio
n of
dio
xins
and
oth
ers p
ollu
tant
s (m
etal
s, et
c.)
Loca
l com
mun
ities
alw
ays h
ave
oppo
sed
the
pres
ence
of i
ncin
erat
ing
plan
t in
the
loca
lity
Elec
troch
emist
ryEl
ectro
depo
sitio
nEl
ectro
-coa
gula
tion
(EC
)El
ectro
-floc
cula
tion
(EF)
Elec
tro-fl
otat
ion
Elec
tro-o
xida
tion
Elec
troch
emic
al o
xida
tion
Elec
troch
emic
al re
duct
ion
Cem
enta
tion
Indi
rect
ele
ctro
-oxi
datio
n w
ith st
rong
oxi
dant
sPh
oto-
assi
sted
elec
troch
emic
al m
etho
ds
Elec
troly
sis (
E)Effi
cien
t tec
hnol
ogy
for t
he re
cove
ry/re
cycl
ing
of v
alua
ble
met
als (
E); i
nter
estin
g m
etho
d fo
r the
reco
very
of g
old
and
silv
er fr
om ri
nse
bath
sA
dapt
atio
n to
diff
eren
t pol
luta
nt lo
ads a
nd
diffe
rent
flow
rate
s (E)
Incr
ease
s bio
degr
adab
ility
(E)
Mor
e eff
ectiv
e an
d ra
pid
orga
nic
mat
ter s
epa-
ratio
n th
an in
trad
ition
al c
oagu
latio
n (E
C);
pH c
ontro
l is n
ot n
eces
sary
; gen
erat
ion
of
coag
ulan
ts in
situ
; eco
nom
ical
ly fe
asib
le a
nd
very
effe
ctiv
e in
rem
ovin
g su
spen
ded
solid
s, di
ssol
ved
met
als,
tann
ins a
nd d
yes (
efflue
nts
from
text
ile, c
ater
ing,
pet
role
um, m
unic
ipal
se
wag
e, o
il–w
ater
em
ulsi
on, d
yestu
ff, c
lay
susp
ensi
on, e
tc.)
Effici
ent e
limin
atio
n of
SS,
oils
, gre
ases
, col
or
and
met
als (
EC, E
F)EF
: wid
ely
used
in th
e m
imin
g in
dustr
ies
Effec
tive
in tr
eatm
ent o
f drin
king
wat
er su
p-pl
ies f
or sm
all-
or m
ediu
m-s
ized
com
mun
i-tie
s (EC
)Ve
ry e
ffect
ive
treat
men
t for
the
redu
ctio
n,
coag
ulat
ion
and
sepa
ratio
n of
cop
per (
EC)
Cem
enta
tion:
effi
cien
t for
cop
per r
emov
al
Hig
h in
itial
cos
t of t
he e
quip
men
tC
ost o
f the
mai
nten
ance
(sac
rifici
al a
node
s, et
c.)
Requ
ires a
dditi
on o
f che
mic
als (
coag
ulan
ts,
flocc
ulan
ts, s
alts
)A
node
pas
siva
tion
and
slud
ge d
epos
ition
on
the
elec
trode
s tha
t can
inhi
bit t
he e
lect
roly
tic
proc
ess i
n co
ntin
uous
ope
ratio
nRe
quire
s pos
t-tre
atm
ent t
o re
mov
e hi
gh c
once
n-tra
tions
of i
ron
and
alum
inum
ions
EF: s
epar
atio
n effi
cien
cy d
epen
ds st
rong
ly o
n bu
bble
size
sFi
ltrat
ion
proc
ess f
or fl
ocs
Form
atio
n of
slud
ge (fi
lterin
g pr
oble
ms)
Cos
t of s
ludg
e tre
atm
ent (
elec
tro-c
oagu
latio
n)
Tabl
e 1
(con
tinue
d)
Proc
ess
Mai
n ch
arac
teris
tic(s
)A
dvan
tage
sD
isad
vant
ages
Mem
bran
e fil
tratio
nM
icro
filtra
tion
(MF)
Ultr
afiltr
atio
n (U
F)N
anofi
ltrat
ion
(NF)
Reve
rse
osm
osis
Dia
lysi
sEl
ectro
dial
ysis
(ED
)El
ectro
-ele
ctro
dial
ysis
(EED
)Em
ulsi
on li
quid
mem
bran
es (E
LM)
Supp
orte
d liq
uid
mem
bran
es
Non
destr
uctiv
e se
para
tion
Sem
iper
mea
ble
barr
ier
Wid
e ra
nge
of c
omm
erci
al m
embr
ane
avai
l-ab
le fr
om se
vera
l man
ufac
ture
rs; l
arge
nu
mbe
r of a
pplic
atio
ns a
nd m
odul
e co
nfigu
-ra
tions
Smal
l spa
ce re
quire
men
tSi
mpl
e, ra
pid
and
effici
ent,
even
at h
igh
conc
entra
tions
Prod
uces
a h
igh-
qual
ity-tr
eate
d effl
uent
No
chem
ical
s req
uire
dLo
w so
lid w
aste
gen
erat
ion
Elim
inat
es a
ll ty
pes o
f dye
s, sa
lts a
nd m
iner
al
deriv
ativ
esEffi
cien
t elim
inat
ion
of p
artic
les,
susp
ende
d so
lids a
nd m
icro
orga
nism
s (M
F, U
F, N
F,
reve
rse
osm
osis
), vo
latil
e an
d no
nvol
atile
or
gani
cs (N
F, re
vers
e os
mos
is),
diss
olve
d in
orga
nic
mat
ter (
ED, E
ED),
and
phen
ols,
cyan
ide
and
zinc
(ELM
)Po
ssib
le to
be
met
al se
lect
ive
A w
ide
rang
e of
real
app
licat
ions
: cla
rifica
tion
or st
erile
filtr
atio
n (M
F), s
epar
atio
n of
pol
y-m
ers (
UF)
, mul
tival
ent i
ons (
NF)
, sal
ts fr
om
poly
mer
solu
tions
(dia
lysi
s) a
nd n
onio
nic
solu
tes (
ED),
desa
linat
ion
and
prod
uctio
n of
pu
re w
ater
(rev
erse
osm
osis
)W
ell-k
now
n se
para
tion
mec
hani
sms:
size
-ex
clus
ion
(NF,
UF,
MF)
, sol
ubili
ty/d
iffus
iv-
ity (r
ever
se o
smos
is, p
erva
pora
tion)
, cha
rge
(ele
ctro
dial
ysis
)
Inve
stmen
t cos
ts a
re o
ften
too
high
for s
mal
l an
d m
ediu
m in
dustr
ies
Hig
h en
ergy
requ
irem
ents
The
desi
gn o
f mem
bran
e fil
tratio
n sy
stem
s can
di
ffer s
igni
fican
tlyH
igh
mai
nten
ance
and
ope
ratio
n co
stsR
apid
mem
bran
e cl
oggi
ng (f
oulin
g w
ith h
igh
conc
entra
tions
)Lo
w th
roug
hput
Lim
ited
flow
rate
sN
ot in
tere
sting
at l
ow so
lute
feed
con
cent
ra-
tions
The
choi
ce o
f the
mem
bran
e is
det
erm
ined
by
the
spec
ific
appl
icat
ion
(har
dnes
s red
uctio
n,
parti
cula
te o
r tot
al o
rgan
ic c
arbo
n re
mov
al,
pota
ble
wat
er p
rodu
ctio
n, e
tc.)
Spec
ific
proc
esse
sEl
imin
atio
n of
the
conc
entra
te
Tabl
e 1
(con
tinue
d)
Proc
ess
Mai
n ch
arac
teris
tic(s
)A
dvan
tage
sD
isad
vant
ages
Evap
orat
ion
Mem
bran
e pe
rvap
orat
ion
Con
cent
ratio
n te
chni
que
Ther
mal
pro
cess
Sepa
ratio
n pr
oces
s
Seve
ral t
ypes
of e
vapo
rato
rs e
xist
on th
e m
arke
tVe
rsat
ile te
chni
que
(the
num
ber o
f cel
ls c
an
be a
dapt
ed to
the
requ
ired
evap
orat
ion
capa
city
)Th
e en
ergy
cos
ts a
re w
ell k
now
n fo
r the
dif-
fere
nt c
onfig
urat
ions
Effici
ent p
roce
sses
Inte
resti
ng fo
r the
pro
duct
ion
of w
ater
for
rinsi
ng o
pera
tions
(rec
yclin
g of
dist
illat
es),
the
conc
entra
tion
of ri
nsin
g effl
uent
s for
re
-intro
duct
ion
into
the
proc
ess a
nd fo
r the
pu
rifica
tion
of tr
eatm
ent b
aths
(to
mai
ntai
n th
eir n
omin
al c
once
ntra
tion)
Als
o in
tere
sting
for t
he se
para
tion
of p
heno
l by
stea
m d
istill
atio
nM
embr
ane
perv
apor
atio
n: a
qui
te re
cent
tech
-no
logy
app
lied
to th
e re
mov
al o
f org
anic
s fro
m w
ater
Expe
nsiv
e co
sts fo
r hig
h vo
lum
es o
f was
tew
ater
(e
nerg
y co
nsum
ptio
n, v
olum
e of
the
conc
en-
trate
and
cos
ts o
f dis
posa
l)In
vestm
ent c
osts
are
ofte
n to
o hi
gh fo
r sm
all
and
med
ium
indu
strie
sH
igh
pollu
tion
load
in th
e co
ncen
trate
sC
ryst
alliz
atio
n du
e to
the
conc
entra
tion
of th
e w
aste
wat
er a
nd c
orro
sion
of t
he h
eatin
g el
e-m
ents
in th
e ev
apor
ator
due
to th
e ch
emic
al
aggr
essi
vene
ss o
f the
con
cent
rate
d effl
uent
Prob
lem
with
the
evap
orat
ion
of e
fflue
nts c
on-
tain
ing
free
cya
nide
Requ
ires t
he in
stal
latio
n of
a c
lean
ing
circ
uit
(to p
reve
nt a
tmos
pher
ic p
ollu
tion)
Pote
ntia
l con
tam
inat
ion
of th
e di
stilla
te p
re-
vent
ing
reus
e (d
ue to
the
pres
ence
of s
ome
vola
tile
orga
nic
com
poun
ds o
r hyd
roca
rbon
s in
the
efflue
nt)
Liqu
id–l
iqui
d (s
olve
nt) e
xtra
ctio
nM
embr
ane-
base
d so
lven
t ext
ract
ion
Sepa
ratio
n te
chno
logy
Solv
ent e
xtra
ctio
nA
wel
l-kno
wn
esta
blis
hed
sepa
ratio
n te
chno
l-og
y fo
r was
tew
ater
recy
clin
gPr
inci
pally
use
d fo
r lar
ge-s
cale
ope
ratio
ns
whe
re th
e lo
ad o
f con
tam
inan
ts a
re h
igh
Extra
ctio
n/str
ippi
ng o
pera
tions
eas
y to
pe
rform
Sim
ple
cont
rol a
nd m
onito
ring
of p
roce
ssEc
onom
ical
ly v
iabl
e w
hen
both
solu
te c
on-
cent
ratio
ns a
nd w
aste
wat
er fl
ow ra
tes a
re
high
Rela
tivel
y lo
w o
pera
ting
costs
Recy
clab
ility
of e
xtra
ctan
tsSe
lect
ivity
of t
he e
xcha
nger
s for
met
als
effici
ent f
or m
etal
rem
oval
(cat
ions
, ani
ons,
ion
pairs
)Effi
cien
t for
the
sepa
ratio
n of
phe
nol
A g
ood
alte
rnat
ive
to c
lass
ical
lim
e pr
ecip
ita-
tion
for p
hosp
horic
aci
d re
cupe
ratio
n
Hig
h in
vestm
ent (
equi
pmen
t)U
neco
nom
ic w
hen
cont
amin
ant c
once
ntra
tions
ar
e lo
w (<
0.5
g/L)
Use
of l
arge
vol
umes
of o
rgan
ic e
xtra
ctan
tsU
se o
f pot
entia
l tox
ic so
lven
tsN
ot in
tere
sting
at l
ow so
lute
feed
con
cent
ra-
tions
Hyd
rody
nam
ic c
onstr
aint
s (flo
odin
g an
d en
train
men
t)En
train
men
t of p
hase
s giv
ing
poor
effl
uent
qu
ality
Poss
ible
cro
ss-c
onta
min
atio
n of
the
aque
ous
strea
mEm
ulsi
ficat
ion
of p
hase
with
poo
r sep
arat
ion
Fire
risk
from
use
of o
rgan
ic so
lven
ts a
nd v
ola-
tile
orga
nic
com
poun
ds e
mis
sion
s
Conclusion
The development of cheaper, effective and novel methods of decontamination is currently an active field of research, as shown by the numerous publications appearing each year. Preserving the environment, and in particular the problem of water pollution, has become a major preoccu-pation for everyone—the public, industry, scientists and researchers as well as decision-makers on a national, Euro-pean or international level. The public demand for pol-lutant-free waste discharge to receiving waters has made decontamination of industrial wastewaters a top priority. However, this is a difficult and challenging task (Sonune and Ghate 2004; Anjaneyulu et al. 2005; Crini 2005; Crini and Badot 2007; Barakat 2011; Sharma and Sanghi 2012). It is also difficult to define a universal method that could be used for the elimination of all pollutants from wastewa-ters. This review described the advantages and disadvan-tages of technologies available. A multitude of techniques classified in conventional methods, established recovery processes and emerging removal methods can be used. However, among the numerous and various treatment pro-cesses currently cited for wastewater treatment, only a few are commonly used by the industrial sector for economic and technological reasons. Adsorption onto activated car-bons is nevertheless often cited as the procedure of choice to remove many different types of pollutants because it gives the best results in terms of efficiency and technical feasibility at the industrial scale.
References
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Tabl
e 1
(con
tinue
d)
Proc
ess
Mai
n ch
arac
teris
tic(s
)A
dvan
tage
sD
isad
vant
ages
Adv
ance
d ox
idat
ion
proc
esse
s (A
OP)
Phot
olys
isH
eter
ogen
eous
and
hom
ogen
eous
pho
toca
ta-
lytic
reac
tions
Non
-cat
alyt
ic w
et a
ir ox
idat
ion
(WA
O)
Cat
alyt
ic w
et a
ir ox
idat
ion
(CW
AO
)Su
perc
ritic
al w
ater
gas
ifica
tion
Emer
ging
pro
cess
esD
estru
ctiv
e te
chni
ques
In si
tu p
rodu
ctio
n of
reac
tive
radi
cals
Littl
e or
no
cons
umpt
ion
of c
hem
ical
sM
iner
aliz
atio
n of
the
pollu
tant
sN
o pr
oduc
tion
of sl
udge
Rap
id d
egra
datio
nEffi
cien
t for
reca
lcitr
ant m
olec
ules
(dye
s, dr
ugs,
etc.
)Ve
ry g
ood
abat
emen
t of c
hem
ical
oxy
gen
dem
and
and
tota
l oxy
gen
dem
and
WA
O: t
echn
olog
y su
itabl
e fo
r effl
uent
too
dilu
te fo
r inc
iner
atio
n an
d to
o to
xic
and/
or
conc
entra
ted
for b
iolo
gica
l tre
atm
ent
Des
truct
ion
of p
heno
l in
wat
er so
lutio
n:
WA
O, C
WA
OIn
solu
ble
orga
nic
mat
ter i
s con
verte
d to
sim
-pl
er so
lubl
e co
mpo
unds
with
out e
mis
sion
s of
dan
gero
us su
bsta
nces
(WA
O)
Labo
rato
ry sc
ale
Econ
omic
ally
non
-via
ble
for s
mal
l and
med
ium
in
dustr
ies
Tech
nica
l con
strai
nts
Form
atio
n of
by-
prod
ucts
Low
thro
ughp
utH
igh-
pres
sure
and
ene
rgy-
inte
nsiv
e co
nditi
ons
(WA
O)
pH d
epen
denc
e (in
par
ticul
ar fo
r WA
O)
WA
O: c
ompl
eted
min
eral
izat
ion
not a
chie
ved
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