កកកកកកកវិ �ទ្យា�ស្ថា� នសហប្�តិ ប្តិ� ការអន�រជាតិ កម្ពុ��ជាCambodia International Cooperation InstituteFaculty of Arts, Humanities, and Languages

កកកកកកកវិ �ទ្យា�ស្ថា� នសហប្�តិ ប្តិ� ការអន�រជាតិ កម្ពុ��ជាCambodia International Cooperation InstituteFaculty of Arts, Humanities, and Languages

Applied Linguistics Topic: “Word & Word-Formation Processes”

Members of Groups 01:1)Miss. Ly Chenda2)Miss. Long Savna3)Mr. Sem Sopanha4)Mr. Kong Piseth5)Mr. Kann Saoda6)Mr. Um Sothea

Batch 06, Year 04, Semester 01Academic Year 2015 - 2016

Submitted to Lecturer: Kak Sovanna

Content

Etymology ( សិ�ក្សា�ពី�ប្រភពីនៃ�ពាក្សា�)

Coinage (ពាក្សា�ង្កើ���តថ្មី��)

Blending (ការផ្គុំ���ពាក្សា�ង្កើ���តជាពាក្សា�ថ្មី��)

Clipping (ការ�ប្រពី�ញពាក្សា�)

Backformation (ទប្រ!�"ពាក្សា�ង្កើ#�!)

Conversion (ម្លែ!%�ថ្នា' ក្សា"ពាក្សា�)

Derivation (ពាក្សា�ម្លែ�(!ង្កើ#�! ម្លែ�(!ចុ��)

Borrowing (ក្សា!*�)

Compounding (ការផ្គុំ���ពាក្សា�)

Acronyms (អក្សា,រកាត")

Prefixes (ម្លែ�(!ង្កើ#�!)

and suffixes (ម្លែ�(!ចុ��)

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Etymology

The study of the origin and history of a word is

known as its etymology, a term which, like

many of our technical words, comes to us

through Latin, but has its origins in Greek (e

´tymon “original form” + logia “study of”), and

is not to be confused with entomology, also

from Greek (e´ntomon “insect”).

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1. Coinage (neologism)

= a completely new word is made up from scratch to suit certain purposes. These are often invented by companies with new products or processes, or taken from names.

•Google•Kleenex •Nylon•Skype •Vaseline•Yahoo

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1. Coinage (2)

The most salient contemporary example of coinage

is the word google. Originally a misspelling for the

word googol (= the number 1 followed by 100

zeros), in the creation of the word Googleplex,

which later became the name of a company

(Google), the term google (without a capital letter)

has become a widely used expression meaning “to

use the internet to find information.”

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1. Coinage (3)

New products and concepts (ebay) and new

activities (“Have you tried ebaying it?”) are

the usual sources of coinage. New words based

on the name of a person or a place are called

eponyms. When we talked about a hoover (or

even a spangler), we were using an eponym.

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1. Coinage (4)

Other common eponyms are sandwich (from

the eighteenth-century Earl of Sandwich who

first insisted on having his bread and meat

together while gambling) and jeans (from the

Italian city of Genoa where the type of cloth

was first made).

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1. Coinage (5)

Some eponyms are technical terms, based on

the names of those who first discovered or

invented things, such as fahrenheit (from the

German, Gabriel Fahrenheit), volt (from the

Italian, Alessandro Volta) and watt (from the

Scottish inventor, James Watt).

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2. Borrowing (loan words)

Words are created by borrowing from another

language and incorporating into English.

Sometimes the original meaning is altered,

and the pronunciation may change. Since

some words were borrowed long ago, it may

be hard to recognize that they were ever not

part of English.

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2. Borrowing (2)

Examples Tortilla * nuance coup de grace *chaos kowtow alchemy espresso

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2. Borrowing (3)

As Bill Bryson observed in the quotation

presented earlier, one of the most common

sources of new words in English is the process

simply labeled borrowing, that is, the taking

over of words from other languages.

(Technically, it’s more than just borrow- ing

because English doesn’t give them back.)

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2. Borrowing (4)

Throughout its history, the English language

has adopted a vast number of words from

other languages, including croissant

(French), dope (Dutch), lilac (Persian), piano

(Italian), pretzel (German), sofa (Arabic),

tattoo (Tahitian), tycoon (Japanese), yogurt

(Turkish) and zebra (Bantu).

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2. Borrowing (5)

Other languages, of course, borrow terms

from English, as in the Japanese use of

suupaa or suupaamaaketto (“supermarket”)

and taipuraitaa (“typewriter”), Hungarians

talking about sport, klub and futbal, or the

French discussing problems of le stress, over

a glass of le whisky, during le weekend.

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2. Borrowing (6)

A special type of borrowing is described as

loan-translation or calque (/kælk/). In this

process, there is a direct translation of the

elements of a word into the borrowing

language. Interesting examples are the French

term gratte-ciel,.

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2. Borrowing (7)

which literally translates as “scrape-sky,” the

Dutch wolkenkrabber (“cloud scratcher”) or

the German Wolkenkratzer (“cloud scraper”),

all of which were calques for the English

skyscraper.

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2. Borrowing (8)

The English word superman is thought to be

a loan-translation of the German U ¨

bermensch, and the termloan-word itself is

believed to have come from the German

Lehnwort.

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2. Borrowing (9)

The English expression moment of truth is

believed to be a calque from the Spanish

phrase el momento de la verdad, though not

restricted to the original use as the final thrust

of the sword to end a bullfight.

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2. Borrowing (10)

Nowadays, some Spanish speakers eat perros calientes (literally “dogs hot”) or hot dogs.

The American concept of “boyfriend” was a borrowing, with sound modification, into Japanese as boyifurendo, but as a calque into Chinese as “male friend” or nan pengyu.

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3. Compounding

In some of the examples we have just

considered, there is a joining of two

separate words to produce a single form.

Thus, Lehn and Wort are combined to

produce Lehnwort in German.

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3. Compounding (2)

This combining process, technically known as

compounding, is very common in languages such

as German and English, but much less common in

languages such as French and Spanish. Common

English compounds are bookcase, doorknob,

fingerprint, sunburn, textbook, wallpaper,

wastebasket and waterbed.

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3. Compounding (3)

All these examples are nouns, but we can also

create compound adjectives (good-looking, low-

paid) and compounds of adjective (fast) plus

noun (food) as in a fast-food restaurant or a

full-time job.

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3. Compounding (4)

. This very productive source of new terms has

been well documented in English and German,

but can also be found in totally unrelated

languages, such as Hmong (spoken in South

East Asia),which combines hwj (“pot”)

andkais (“spout”) to produce hwjkais

(“kettle”).

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3. Compounding (5)

Recent creations are paj (“flower”) plus kws

(“corn”) for pajkws (“pop- corn”) and hnab

(“bag”) + rau (“put”) + ntawv (“paper” or

“book”) for hnabraun- tawv (“schoolbag”).

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4. Blending

The combination of two separate forms to

produce a single new term is also present in

the process called blending . However,

blending is typically accomplished by taking

only the beginning of one word and joining it to

the end of the other word.

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4. Blending (1)

Smurk (smoke + murk)

telecast (television/broadcast)

Brunch (breakfast/lunch),

motel (motor/hotel)

bit (binary/digit)

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4. Blending(2)

Infotainment (information/entertainment)

and simulcast (simulta- neous/broadcast) are

other new blends from life with television.

To describe the mixing of languages, some

people talk about Franglais (French/Anglais)

and Spanglish (Spanish/English).

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4. Blending (3)

In a few blends, we combine the beginnings

of both words, as in terms from information

technology, such as telex

(teleprinter/exchange) or modem

(modulator/demodulator).

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5. Clipping (4)

The element of reduction that is noticeable in

blending is even more apparent in the

process described as clipping. This occurs

when a word of more than one syllable

(facsimile) is reduced to a shorter form (fax),

usually beginning in casual speech.

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5. Clipping (5)

Other common examples are ad

(advertisement), bra (brassiere), cab

(cabriolet), condo (condominium), fan

(fanatic), flu (influenza), perm (permanent

wave), phone, plane and pub (public house).

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5. Clipping (6)

There must be something about

educational environments that encourages

clipping because so many words get

reduced, as in chem, exam, gym, lab,

math, phys-ed, poly- sci, prof and typo.

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6. Backformation

A very specialized type of reduction process is

known as backformation. Typically, a word of

one type (usually a noun) is reduced to form a

word of another type (usually adverb).

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6. Backformation (1)

donate (from “donation”), emote (from

“emotion”), enthuse (from “enthusiasm”), liaise

(from “liaison”) and babysit (from

“babysitter”). Indeed, when we use the verb

backform (Did you know

that“opt”wasbackformed from “option”?),

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6. Backformation (2)

The assumption seems to have been that if

there is a noun ending in -er (or something

close in sound), then we can create a verb for

what that noun -er does. Hence, an editor will

edit, a sculptor will sculpt and burglars,

peddlers and swindlers will burgle, peddle and

swindle.

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7. Conversion

Conversion is the word formation

 process in which a word of one

grammatical form becomes a word of

another grammatical form without any

changes to spelling or pronunciation.

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7. Conversion (2)

For example, the noun email appeared

in English before the verb: a decade

ago I would have sent you an email

(noun) whereas now I can either send

you an email (noun) or simply email

(verb) you.

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7. Conversion (3)

Phrasal verbs (to print out, to take over) also

become nouns (a print out , a takeover). One

complex verb combination (want to be) has

become a new noun, as in He isn’t in the group,

he’s just a wanna be. Verbs (see through,

stand up) also become adjectives, as in see-

through material or a stand-up comedian.

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7. Conversion (4)

Or adjectives, as in a dirty floor, an

empty room, some crazy ideas and

those nasty people, can become the

verbs to dirty and to empty, or the

nouns a crazy and the nasty.

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8. Acronym

Acronyms are new words formed from the initial letters of a set of other words. These can be forms such as CD (“compact disk”) or VCR (“video cassette recorder”) More typically, acronyms are pronounced as new single words, as in NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization), NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration)or UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization).

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9. Acronym(1)

ATM (“automatic teller machine”)

PIN (“personal identification number”)

(WAR) (“women against rape” )

(MADD) (“mothers against drunk driving”)

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10. Derivation

In our list so far, we have not dealt with what is by far the most common word- formation process to be found in the production of new English words. This process is called derivation and it is accomplished by means of a large number of small “bits” of the English language which are not usually given separate listings in dictionaries.

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10. Derivation (2)

These small “bits” are generally described

as affixes. Some familiar examples are the

elements un-, mis-, pre-, -ful, -less, -ish, -

ism and -ness which appear in words like

unhappy, misrepresent, prejudge, joyful,

careless, boyish, terrorism and sadness.

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11. Affixation

= adding an established prefix or a suffix

to the existing base

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A) Suffixation

- is characteristic of noun and adjective formation- a suffix usually changes not only the lexical meaning of a word but also its grammatical meaning or its word class, e.g. to bake – baker, beauty - beautiful

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Noun-forming suffixes:

-or : actor, visitor, director-er/eer : speaker, engineer, opener-ist : scientist, satirist, journalist-ess : hostess, stewardess, actress-ty/ity : cruelty, purity, stupidity-ure/ture : failure, exposure, mixture-dom : freedom, kingdom, -age : passage, marriage, postage-ance/ence : appearance, preference-hood : likelihood, brotherhood,

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Noun-forming suffixes (1)

Ing : reading, opening, beginning-ion/sion/tion/ition/ation: operation,

permission-ness : kindness, goodness, wilingness-y/ery : difficulty, enquiry, robbery, slavery-ship : partnership, membership,

kinship-ment : government, development, movement-t : complaint, restraint

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Adjective-forming suffixes

-able/ible : comfortable, fashionable, sensible

-ic/atic : atomic, heroic, systematic-ful : beautiful, helpful, careful-y : bloody, dirty, sunny-less : useless, homeless, careless-al/ial/tial: personal, influential, preferential-ive/ative/itive: active, creative, sensitive-ant/ent : pleasant, different, excellent

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Adjective-forming suffixes (1)

en: wooden, golden, woollen-like: childlike, ladylike-ing: amusing, interesting, charming-ous: dangerous, famous, mysterious-ish: bookish, childish, foolish-ly: friendly, lovely, manly

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Verb-forming suffixes

-ize/ise: civilize, modernize-ify/fy/efy: simplify, glorify-en, deepen, sharpen, lengthen

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Adverb-forming suffixes

-ly : formally, calmly, easily

-ward/wards : homeward, afterwards,

backwards

-wise/ways : clockwise, otherwise,

sideways

-fold : twofold, threefold04/15/23

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B) Prefixation

a prefix usually changes or concretizes

the lexical meaning of a word and only

rarely parts of speech, e. g. write –

rewrite, smoker – non-smoker

Prefixes are sometimes used to form new

verb: circle – encircle, large – enlarge etc.

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Negation or opposition

• un- : unable, unfair, unpack, unzip• dis- : disagreeable, dislike• a- : amoral, atypical• in- : informal, inexperience• im- : (before b, m, p) impossible, immoral• il- : (before l) illegal, illogical• ir- : (before r) irregular, irrational• non- : non-smoker, non-scientific• de- : decode, defrost, devalue

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Repetition, making it possible

re-: reread, rebuild, reunited, redo

en-/em-: enrich, enlarge, embitter

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Degree, measure or size:

super- : supersonic, superhuman

semi- : semi-final, semidetached

hyper- : hyperactive, hypersensitive

ultra- : ultrahigh, ultraviolet

over- : overtime, overpopulated

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Time and place, order, relation

post- : post-war, postpone, postgraduate

inter- : international, intercontinental

pre- : pre-war, prehistoric, prearrange

ex- : ex-president, ex-husband, ex-

film- star

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References

Yule, G. 1883. The Study of Language. 4th ed. Cambridge: Universities of Edinburgh, Hawai’i, Louisiana State & Minnesota.

Applied Linguistics: Year 04, Semester 01. page 39-46

Mujaddidi, A. Applied Linguistics, Chapter 5Words and Word-formation Processes.

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OrKun..!

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Question and Answer

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