WORD-FORMATION PROCESS

Previous Chapter:

Discussion of how words are structured

In order to discuss it, already existed words are studied.

However, there are also new constructions, new combinations of words.

This Chapter:DerivationCompundingOnomatopoeiaConversionBorrowingCoinageSemantic changeMetaphorical extensionClippingBlendingAcronymsBackformationMultiple processes

Derivation

Creation of a new lexical item (i.e. word form which would be found in a dictionary)

Sür- : 100Gör- : 70

(Aksan, 1987: 27-30)

Tut- : 65(Aksan, 1996: 45-46)

Derivation

4 Possibilities of derivation (Table 6.1)

● denominal nominal (noun from noun)● deverbal nominal (noun from verb)● denominal verbal (verb from noun)● deverbal verbal (verb from verb)

Derivation

Some prefix examples in Turkish:

anormalantipatikdeformedezavantajdeşifrediskalifiyehipotezotopsiparagrafprovareaksiyon

Reduplication

Copying some part of the underlying stem to various extent

● Partial reduplication: insertion of /p/,/m/,/s/,/r/

● Full reduplication: copying the entire stem

Some formal features● grammatical: hızlı hızlı yürüdü* Hızlı hızlı tren● phonological:Sound alternations: Sıkı fıkıInternal vowel alternation: çar çurExtenders: fır fır, zırıl zırılDoublets: with /m/Arı marı, sarı marı● semantically:Synonymous words: sorgu sualNear synonyms: delik deşikAntonymous words: ileri geri● morphologically: bilmiş bilmiş konuştu

Compounding

Two free morphemes from different or same word classes to express a single meaning

Types of compounding:● nominal● verbal● adjectival

Compounding

Nominal compounds:

● Noun noun pairings

noun noun + 3rd poss: çocuk sandalyesinoun noun (bare): taş binanoun + case noun (1 bare+1 cased):

şekerden evadjective + noun: karaağaç, palabıyıknoun + verb: imambayıldı

Compounding

Verbal compounds:N/Adj + VStem

Ex: kitap okumak, banyo yapmak

V + V (double verb construction)

subordinative coordinative(converb of the no verb is subordinatedlexical verb (yapa) to another (ağladı durdu)followed by a post verb (dur)

Compounding

Adjectival compounds:

Nouns with 3rd person singular possessive marking followed by an adjective

Ex: gözü pek, karnı tok

Onomatopoeia

Sounds of the nature inspire creation of new words

Ex: hırıldamak, cıvıldamak

Others: çat, fır, pat, tık, güm, şır etc.

Conversion

Shift from one word class to another without any other addition or reduction in the word

Ex: acı: verb & adj ağrı: verb & noun

Borrowing

Taking words from other languages

Ex: check-up, sweatshirt

A special type of borrowing:

loan-translation or calque: word-for-word translation

Ex: bilgi toplumu, uzaktan kumandaKapak kızı (cover girl), yuvarlak masa toplantısı (round table meeting)

Coinage

Creating previously non-existent roots in language

Ex: selpak, aygaz

Semantic changeBroadening, narrowing or a complete change of the word’s meaning

Ex: alan / dirilmek

Reversals: from positive to negative (semantic degradation) or vice versa (semantic elevation)

Ex: alçak / çocuk

A special case: Eponymy: Conversion of the proper nouns into common nouns

Metaphorical extension

Using an existing word to refer to an object with similar properties of its referent

Ex: çeşme● using nature for colours: camgöbeği, vişneçürüğü● idioms: öküz altında buzağı aramak, içine kurt düşmek● human features: sinir küpü, yapışkan, pişkin● appearance: fındıkkurdu, çam yarması

Clipping

Reduction process that shortens a long word

Ex: otomobil => oto

Blending

compounding + clipping

Ex: Avrupa & Asya => Avrasya

Acronyms

Forming a new construction by using the first letters of the words

Ex: BBC: British Broadcasting CorporationNASA: National Aeronautics and Space AdministrationASAP: As Soon As PossibleP.S: Post ScriptKISS: Keep It Simple, Stupid (advice often given to speakers and writers)

Backformation

It is not a productive word formation process in Turkish

Ex: Expected is simple from complex as below:ilet- > iletiş- > iletişim

However,iletişim > iletiş

Multiple processes

Using more than one word formation to form new words

Ex: düşe kalka bitirdik => derivation & reduplicationlaser: light amplification by stimulated emission of

radiationradarfax...