Word FormationThe formation of longer, more complex words from shorter, simpler WORDS. In the West, the analysis of word form began in classical Greece and passed in due course to Rome. Philosophers including Plato and Aristotle and grammarians such as Dionysius Thrax and Terentius Varro developed the study of the ways in which words were formed as a part of GRAMMAR, founding a long and subtle tradition that was inherited and extended by 19c comparative philology and 20c linguistics. The classical study was based only on GREEK and LATIN words, and contrasted simple word and complex word. The simple word was discussed either in terms of its ROOT (a basic element without adaptations or inflections), such as Greek log, whose core meaning was speech, or as a root word, consisting of a root, stem, and inflection (in most cases cited in standard forms, such as the nominative singular for nouns), such as Greek lgos (speech, word) and Latin verbum (word, verb). The complex word was discussed in terms of two processes or categories: (1) Derivation, in which AFFIXES and inflections could be added to a root, as with logiks, an adjective formed from lgos, and verbalis, and adjective formed from verbum. (2) Composition, in which two or more roots could be combined, with appropriate affixes and inflections added, as with the nouns biologa and biologists formed from bos (life) and lgos, and agricultura, formed from ager (field) and cultura (cultivation).In linguistics, word formation is the creation of a new word. Word formation is sometimes contrasted with semantic change, which is a change in a single word's meaning. The boundary between word formation and semantic change can be difficult to define: a new use of an old word can be seen as a new word derived from an old one and identical to it in form (see conversion). Word formation can also be contrasted with the formation of idiomatic expressions, although words can be formed from multi-word phrasesA. DerivationDerivation is probably the most common word formation process in the English language. It is achieved by adding affixes: prefixes are added at the beginning of a word, suffixes added to the end of a word, or infixes which are inserted inside a word, but infixes are unusual in English.Derivational affixes can change the word class of the item they are added to. If both inflectional and derivational affixes are used, then the derivational affixes are inner, closer to the stem, and inflectional affixes are outer, furthest from the stem.E.g. fright + en + ed = frightenedresign + ation + s = resignations

Derivational affixesThey are usually divided into class-changing and class-maintaining derivation affixes. Class-changing derivational affixes change the word class of the word to which they are added. In English, they are usually suffixes. resign (verb) + ation = resignation active (adjective) + ist = activist.

Class-changing derivation affixes NOMINALIZERS (noun derivational affixes, nominal affixes) VERBALIZERS (verb derivational affixes, verbal affixes) ADJECTIVIZERS (adjective derivational affixes, adjectival affixes) ADVERBIALIZERS (adverb derivational affixes, adverbial affixes)

Class-maintaining derivation affixesClass-maintaining derivational affixes do not change the word class of the word to which they are added. They are mainly prefixes: anti+malaria anti-malaria dis+agree disagree scholar + ship scholarship un + tie untie ex + wife ex-wife green + ish greenish re + open reopen Mis-, be-, ex-, mal-, re-, un-, dis-, in-,

Derivation Suffixes

1. Nominal suffixesNominal suffixes are often employed to derive abstract nouns from verbs, adjectives, and nouns. Such abstract nouns can denote actions, results of actions, or other related concepts, but also properties, qualities, and the like.-ageThis suffix derives nouns that express an activity (or its result) as in coverage, leakage, spillage, and nouns denoting a collective entity or quantity, as in acreage, voltage, yardage. Due to inherent ambiguities of certain coinages, the meaning can be extended to include locations, as in orphanage. Base words may be verbal or nominal and are often monosyllabic.-alA number of verbs take -al to form abstract nouns denoting an action or the result of an action, such as arrival, overthrowal, recital, referral, renewal. Base words for nominal -al all have their main stress on the last syllable.-ance (with its variants -ence/-ancy/-ency)Attaching mostly to verbs, -ance creates action nouns such as absorbance, riddance, retardance. -antThis suffix forms count nouns referring to persons (often in technical orlegal discourse, cf. applicant, defendant, disclaimant) or to substances involved inbiological, chemical, or physical processes (attractant, dispersant, etchant, suppressant).Most bases are verbs of Latinate origin.-domThe native suffix -dom is semantically closely related to -hood and -ship, which express similar concepts. -dom attaches to nouns to form nominals which can be paraphrased as state ofbeing X as in apedom, clerkdom, slumdom, yuppiedom, or which refer to collective entities, such as professordom, studentdom, or denote domains, realms or territories as in kingdom, cameldom, maoridom. -(e)ryFormations in -(e)ry refer to locations which stand in some kind of connection to what is denoted by the base. More specific meanings such as place where a specific activity is carried out or place where a specific article or service is available could be postulated (cf., for example, bakery, brewery, fishery, pottery or cakery, carwashery, eatery), but examples such as mousery, cannery, rabbitry speak for an underspecified meaning, which is then fleshed out for each derivative on the bas is of the meaning of the base.-fulThe nominal suffix -ful derives measure partitive nouns (similar to expressions such as a lot of, a bunch of) from nominal base words that can be construed as containers: bootful, cupful, handful, tumblerful, stickful. . There is also an adjectival suffix - ful. eeThe meaning ofthis suffix can be rather clearly discerned. It derives nouns denoting sentient entities that are involved in an event as nonvolitional participants (socalled episodic ee). Thus, employee denotes someone who is employed, a biographee is someone who is the subject ofa biography, and a standee is someone who is forced to stand (on a bus, for example). (e)ryFormations in (e)ry refer to locations which stand in some kind of connection to what is denoted by the base. More specific meanings such as place where a specific activity is carried out or place where a specific article or service is available could be postulated (cf., for example, bakery, brewery, fishery, pottery or cakery, carwashery, eatery), but examples such as mousery, cannery, rabbitry. Speak for an underspecified meaning, which is then fleshed out for each derivative on the basis of the meaning of the base. In addition to the locations, (e)ry derivatives can also denote collectivities (as in confectionery, cutlery, machinery, pottery), or activities (as in summitry having many political summits, crookery foul deeds).

-er (and its orthographic variant -or)The suffix -er can be seen as closely related to -ee, as its derivatives frequently signify entities that are active or volitional participants in an event (e.g. teacher, singer, writer, etc.). This is, however, only a subclass of -er derivatives, and there is a wide range of forms with quite heterogeneous meanings. Apart from performers of actions we find instrument nouns such as blender, mixer, steamer, toaster, and nouns. Denoting entities associated with an activity such as diner, lounger, trainer, winner (in the sensewinning shot).Furthermore, -er is used to create person nouns indicating place of origin or residence (e.g. Londoner, NewYorker, Highlander, New Englander). This heterogeneity suggests that the semantics of -er should be described as rather underspecified, simply meaning something like person or thing having to do with X. The more specific interpretations of individual formations would then follow from an interaction of the meanings, of base and suffix and further inferences on the basis of world knowledge.-er is often described as a deverbal suffix, but there are numerous forms (not only inhabitant names) that are derived on the basis of nouns (e.g. sealer, whaler, noser, souther), numerals (e.g. fiver, tenner), or even phrases (four-wheeler, fourthgrader). The orthographic variant -or occurs mainly with Latinate bases ending in /s/ or /t/, such as conductor, oscillator, compressor.

2. Verbal suffixes -ateForms ending in this suffix represent a rather heterogeneous group. There is a class of derivatives with chemical substances as bases, which systematically exhibit so-called ornative and resultative meanings. These can be paraphrased as provide with X (ornative), as in fluorinate, or make into X (resultative), as in methanate. However, a large proportion off orms in -ate do not conform to thispattern, but show various kinds of idiosyncrasies, with -ate being apparently no more than an indicator of verbal status. Phonologically, -ate is largely restricted to attachment to words that end in one or two unstressed syllables.-enThe Germanic suffix -en attaches to monosyllables that end in a plosive, fricative or affricate. Most bases are adjectives (e.g. blacken, broaden, quicken, ripen), but a few nouns can also be found (e.g. strengthen, lengthen). The meaning of -en formations can be described as causative make (more) X.-ifyThis suffix attaches to three kinds of base word: to monosyllabic words, to words stressed on the final syllable, and to words stressed on the penult followed by a final syllable ending in unstressed /i /. Neologisms usually do not show stress shift, but some older forms do (humidhumdify, solidsoldify). These restrictions have the effect that -ify is in (almost) complementary distribution with the suffix ize. Semantically, -ify shows the same range of meanings as -ize and thetwo suffixes could therefore be considered phonologically conditioned allomorphs. -izeBoth -ize and -ify are polysemous suffixes, which can express a whole range of related concepts such as locative, ornative, causative/factitive, resultative, inchoative, performative, similative. Locatives can be paraphrased as put into X, as in computerize, hospitalize, tubify. Patinatize, fluoridize, youthify are ornative examples (provide with X), randomize, functionalize, humidify are causative (make (more) X), carbonize, itemize, trustify and nazify are resultative (make into X), aerosolize and mucify are inchoative (become X), anthropologize and speechify are performative (perform X), cannibalize, vampirize can be analyzed as similative (act like X). The suffix -ize attaches primarily to bases ending in an unstressed syllable and the derivatives show rather complex patterns of base allomorphy.

3. Adjectival suffixesThe adjectival suffixes of English can be subdivided into two major groups. A large proportion of derived adjectives are relational adjectives, whose role is simply to relate the noun the adjective qualifies to the base word of the derived adjective. For example, algebraic mind means a mind having to do with algebra, referring to algebra, characterized by algebra, colonial officer means officer having to do with the colonies, and so on.On the other hand, there is a large group of derived adjectives that express more specific concepts, and which are often called qualitative adjectives. Sometimes, relational adjectives can adopt qualitative meanings, as can be seen with the derivative grammatical, which has a meaning having to do with grammar in the sentence she is a grammatical genius, but which also has a qualitative sense conforming to the rules Of grammar , as inThis is a grammatical sentence. Note that relational adjectives usually occur only inattributive position, i.e. as prenominal modifiers (as in a lexical problem). If we find them in predicative position in a clause (as in This sentence is grammatical), they usually have adopted a qualitative sense. -able/-ibleThis suffix chiefly combines with transitive and intransitive verbal bases, as in deterrable and perishable, respectively, as well as with nouns, as in serviceable, fashionable.The semantics of deverbal -able forms seem to involve two different cases, which have been described as capable of being Xed (cf. breakable, deterrable, readable), and liable or disposed to X (cf. agreeable, perishable, variable; changeable can have both meanings). What unites the two patterns is that in both cases the referent of the noun modified by the -able adjective is describedas a potential non-volitional participant in an event. In this respect, -able closely resembles episodic -ee. Denominal forms can convey the same meaning, as e.g. marriageable, jeepable, kitchenable, roadable.-alThis relational suffix attaches almost exclusively to Latinate bases (accidental, colonial, cultural, federal, institutional, modal). All derivatives have stress either on their penultimate or antepenultimate syllable. If the base does not have its stress on one of the two syllables preceding the suffix, stress is shifted to the antepenultimate syllable ofthe derivative (e.g. colonycolonial).Apart from the allomorphy already discussed in section 2.2 (-ar after bases ending in [l], -al elsewhere), there are the two variants -ial (as in confidential, labial, racial, substantial) and -ual (as in contextual, gradual, spiritual, visual).With bases ending in [s] or [t], -ial triggers assimilation of the base-final sound to[] (e.g. facial, presidential). The distribution of -ial and -ual is not entirely clear, but it seems that bases ending in -ant/ance (and their variants) and -or obligatorily take -ial (e.g. circumstantial, professorial).-aryAgain a relational adjective-forming suffix, -ary usually attaches to nouns, as in complementary, evolutionary, fragmentary, legendary, precautionary. We find stress-shifts only with polysyllabic base nouns ending in -ment (cf. Complimentary vs. momentary).-edThis suffix derives adjectives with the general meaning having X, being provided with X, as in broad-minded, pig-headed, wooded. The majority of derivatives are based on compounds or phrases (empty-headed, pig-headed, air-minded, fair-minded).-fulAdjectival -ful has the general meaning having X, being characterized by X and is typically attached to abstract nouns, as in beautiful, insightful, purposeful, tactful, but verbal bases are not uncommon (e.g. forgetful, mournful, resentful). -ingThis verbal inflectional suffix primarily forms present participles, which can in general also be used as adjectives in attributive positions (and as nouns, see above). The grammatical status of a verb suffixed by -ing in predicative position is not always clear. In the changing weather the -ing form can be analyzed as an adjective, but in the weather is changing we should classify it as a verb (in particular as a progressive form). In the film was boring, however, we would probably want to argue that boring is an adjective, because the relation to the event denoted by the verb is much less prominent than in the case of changing.-lessSemantically, denominal -less can be seen as antonymic to -ful, with the meaning being paraphrasable as without X: expressionless, hopeless, speechless, thankless.-lyThis suffix is appended to nouns and adjectives.With base nouns denoting persons, -ly usually conveys the notion of in the manner of X or like an X, as in brotherly, daughterly, fatherly, womanly. Other common types of derivative have bases denoting temporal concepts (e.g. half-hourly, daily, monthly) or directions (easterly, southwesterly).-ousThis suffix derives adjectives from nouns and bound roots, the vast majority being of Latinate origin (curious, barbarous, famous, synonymous, tremendous). Like derivatives in -al, -ous formations are stressed either on the penultimate or the antepenultimate syllable with stress being shifted there, if necessary (e.g. platitude platitudinous). There are further variants of the suffix, -eous (e.g. erroneous, homogeneous), -ious (e.g. gracious, prestigious), and -uous (e.g. ambiguous, continuous).

4. Adverbial suffixes-lyThe presence of this exclusively de-adjectival suffix is for the most part syntactically triggered and obligatory, and it can therefore be considered inflectional. However, in some formations there is a difference in meaning between the adjective and the adverb derived by -ly attachment: shortly, hardly, and dryly are semantically distinct from their base words and hotly, coldly, and darkly can only have metaphorical senses. Such changes of meaning are unexpected for an inflectional suffix, which speaks against the classification of adverbial -ly as inflectional.-wiseThis suffix derives adverbs from nouns, with two distinguishable subgroups: manner/dimension adverbs, and so-called viewpoint adverbs. The former adverb type has the meaning in the manner of X, like X as in The towel wound sarongwise about his middle, or indicates a spatial arrangement or movement, as in The cone can be sliced lengthwise.

Derivation Prefixes

There are two kinds of the prefix un- in English. The first is attached to adjectives to form new adjectives, and the second is attached to verbs to form new verbs. The two kinds of the prefix un- do not change the part of speech. The prefix un- attached to adjectives means not.Prefix un- PrefixBase(Adjective)Derived Word(Adjective)Meaning

Un-AbleUnable not able

Un-AfraidUnafraidnot afraid

Un-AwareUnawarenot aware

Un-FitUnfitnot fit

Un-Free Unfreenot free

Un-HappyUnhappynot happy

The prefix un- can also be added to the adjectives of the derived words that have been formed by morphological rules. The examples are follows: PrefixBase(Adjective)Derived Word(Adjective)Meaning

Un-acceptableunacceptablenot acceptable

Un-avoidableunavoidablenot avoidable

Un-believableunbelievablenot believable

Un-predictable unpredictable not predictable

Un-reachableunreachablenot reachable

Un-readable unreadable not readable

The second prefix un- joins with verbs to form new verbs. In this case the prefix un- means to do the opposite of . the examples are follows :PrefixBase(Verb)Derived Word(Verb)Meaning

Un-BindUnbindto do the opposite of binding

Un-CoverUncoverto do the opposite of covering

Un-DoUndoto do the opposite of doing

Un-DressUndressto do the opposite of dressing

Un-LoadUnloadto do the opposite of loading

Un-Lock Unlock to do the opposite of locking

Prefix in-The prefix in- is the derivational bound morpheme mostly attached to adjectives. This prefix does not change the part of speech either. The rule of prefix in- attached to adjectives can be stated as: {in-} + ADJECTIVE new ADJECTIVE. This rule says that the prefix in- attached to an adjective creates a new adjective. The new adjective is indicated by the change of meaning not in the derived word. Look at the examples below:

PrefixBase(Adjective)Derived Word(Adjective)Meaning

In- AccurateInaccuratenot accurate

In-TolerantIntolerantnot tolerant

In-EfficientInefficientnot efficient

In- ExpensiveInexpensivenot expensive

In-LegalIllegalnot legal

In- Moral Immoral not moral

The prefix in- attached to nouns are very rare. The following are the examples of the prefix in- attached to nouns.PrefixBase(Noun)Derived Word(Noun)Meaning

In- BalanceImbalanceabsence of balance

In-DecorumIndecorumlack of decorum

In-Decision Indecisionthe state of being unable to decide

The change of phonetic representation because of the meeting of phonemes in morphological process is called morphophonemic change. The morpheme in- which attaches to the bases with bilabial phonemes in initial position will change to im-. In other words, the morpheme in- will be pronounced im- if it meets the bilabial phonemes. The examples are as follows:Prefix Base /bilabial/Derived Word

In-BalanceImbalance

In-PerfectImperfect

In-Moral immoral

The morpheme in- which attaches to the bases with the phoneme /k/ in initial position will change to /i-/. The phone [] is not symbolized by the orthographic symbol but we can hear this sound when it is pronounced rapidly as explained above. The examples are as follows:Prefix Base /k/Derived Word

In-Completeincomplete / ikmpli:t/

In-Correctincorrect /ikrekt/

In-Consistent inconsistent /iknsistnt/

The morpheme in- which attaches to the bases with liquid phonemes in initial position will change to liquid phonemes. The morpheme in- in this case will be pronounced like the phone of the liquid phonemes which follow it. The examples are as follows:Prefix Base /liquids/Derived Word

In-LegalIllegal

In-Rational Irrational

The morpheme in- which attaches to the bases with vowel phonemes in initial position will be pronounced /in-/. The examples are as follows:Prefix Base /liquids/Derived Word

In-Efficient Inefficient

In- Expensive Inexpensive

Prefix re-The prefix re- is the derivational bound morpheme attached to verbs to form new verbs. The meaning of the prefix re- is again. Look at the examples below:PrefixBase(Verb)Derived Word(verb)Meaning

Re- ArrangeRearrangearrange again

Re-ConsiderReconsiderconsider again

Re-Count Recountcount again

Re-PayRepay pay again

Re-PrintReprint print again

Re-Write Rewrite write again

Prefix dis-The prefix dis- is a derivational morpheme which can be attached to verbs to form new verbs. This prefix has several meanings but its basic meaning is notPrefixBase(Verb)Derived Word(Verb)Meaning

Dis-AgreeDisagree not agree

Dis-Appear Disappearbe seen no more

Dis-Like Dislikenot like

Dis-Close Disclose allow to be seen

Dis-ConnectDisconnecttake apart

Dis-Continue Discontinue give up

The prefix dis- can be attached to nouns to form new nouns. The following are the examples :PrefixBase(Noun)Derived Word(Noun)Meaning

Dis-AdvantageDisadvantageunfavorable condition

Dis-ComfortDiscomfortabsence of comfort

Dis-Harmony Disharmonylack of harmony

Dis-Honor Dishonorabsence of honor

The prefix dis- can also be attached to adjectives to form new adjectives. The examples are as follows:PrefixBase(Adjective)Derived Word(Adjective)Meaning

Dis-AbleDisablemake unable to do something

Dis-HonestDishonestnot honest

Dis-Similar Dissimilarnot similar

Prefix mis-The prefix mis- is the derivational bound morpheme attached to verbs to form new verbs. The new meaning created by this prefix is wrong. The following is the list of verbs to which the prefix mis- can be attached.PrefixBase(Verb)Derived Word(Verb)Meaning

Mis-Direct Misdirectdirect wrongly

Mis-Judge Misjudgejudge wrongly

Mis-MatchMismatchmatch wrongly

Mis-QuoteMisquotequote wrongly

Mis-Remember Misrememberremember wrongly

Mis-Understand Misunderstand understand wrongly

Prefix pre-The prefix re- is the derivational bound morpheme attached to verbs to form new verbs. The new meaning created by this prefix is before. The following is the list of verbs to which the prefix pre- can be attached.PrefixBase(Verb)Derived Word(Verb)Meaning

Pre- ArrangePrearrange arrange before

Pre- Cook Precookcook before

Pre- DeterminePredeterminedetermine before

Pre- SelectPreselectselect before

Pre- Wash Prewash wash before

Prefix a-The prefix a- is a derivational morpheme which can be attached to adjectives to form new adjectives. This prefix has several meanings but its basic meaning is not.PrefixBase(Verb)Derived Word(Verb)Meaning

a-MoralAmoralnot concerned in morals

a-PoliticalApoliticalunninvolved in politics

a-Typical Atypicalnot typical

a-SexualAsexual without sex

B. CompoundCompounding is the word formation process in which two or more lexemes combine into a single new word. Compound words may be written as one word or as two words joined with a hyphen. There are three forms of compound words: the closed form, in which the words are melded together, such as firefly, secondhand, softball, childlike, crosstown, redhead, keyboard, makeup, notebook; the hyphenated form, such as daughter-in-law, master-at-arms, over-the-counter, six-pack, six-year-old, mass-produced; and the open form, such as post office, real estate, middle class, full moon, half sister, attorney general.Compound Words are the most part Nouns, Adjectives and Verbs

Compound Words-Nouns may be formed:

i. Noun + Noun:Examples: Moonlight Armchair Postman Railway Shoemaker Horse-power Screwdriver Tax-payer Airman Manservant Fire-escape Chess-board

ii. Adjective + Noun:Examples: Sweetheart Nobleman Shorthand Blackboard Quicksilver Stronghold Halfpenny

iii. Verb + Noun:Examples: Spendthrift Makeshift Breakfast Telltale Pick-packet Cut-throat Daredevil Hangman Scarecrow

The Formation of Words has few rules which determine the nature of the words formed thus.iv. Gerund + Noun:Examples: Drawing-room Writing-desk Looking-glass Walking-stick Blotting-paper Stepping-stone Spelling-book

v. Adverb (or Preposition)+ Noun:Examples: Outlaw Afternoon Forethought Foresight Overcoat Downfall Afternoon Bypass Inmate Inside

vi. Verb + Adverb:Examples: Drawback Lock-up Go-between Die-hard Send-off

vii. Adverb + Verb:Examples: Outset Upkeep Outcry Income Outcome

Compound Words-Adjectives:

i. Noun + Adjectives (or Participle):Examples: Blood-red Sky-blue Snow-white Skin-deep Lifelong World-wide Headstrong Homesick Stone-blind Seasick Love-lorn Hand-made Heart-broken Moth-eaten Note-worthy

ii. Adjective + Adjective:Examples: Red-hot Blue-black White-hot Dull-grey Lukewarm

ii. Adverb + Participle:Examples: Longsuffering Everlasting Never-ending Thorough-bred Well-deserved Outspoken Down-hearted Inborn Far-seen

iii. Noun + Verb:Examples: Waylay Backbite Typewrite Browbeat Earmark

iv. Adjective + Verb:Examples: Safeguard Whitewash Fulfill

v. Adverb + Verb:Examples: Overthrow Overtake Foretell Undertake Undergo Overhear Overdo Outbid Outdo Upset Ill-use

C. BlendingA blend is a word that is made up of parts of other words that are combined to form a new word. Blends can also be called portmanteau words. The beginning of one word is added to the end of the other. For example, brunch is a blend of breakfast and lunch. simultaneous + broadcast simulcast smoke + fog smog spoon + fork spork cellulose + diaphane cellophane haggle + tussle hassle telephone + marathon telethon twist + fiddle twiddle pain + sting pang clap + crash clash blow + spurt blurt The beginnings of two words are combined. For example, cyborg is a blend of cybernetic and organism. internal + communication intercom modulator + demodulator modem slovenly + language slang bold + rash brash blankout + beep bleep Two words are blended around a common sequence of sounds. For example, the word Californication, from a song by the Red Hot Chili Peppers, is a blend of California and fornication, and the word motel is a blend of motor and hotel Multiple sounds from two component words are blended, while mostly preserving the sounds' order. Poet Lewis Carroll was well known for these kinds of blends. An example of this is the word slithy, a blend of lithe and slimy. This method is difficult to achieve and is considered a sign of Carroll's verbal wit.

D. ClippingClipping is the word formation process which consists in the reduction of a word to one of its parts. Clipping is also known as "truncation" or "shortening." clippings are not coined as words belonging to the standard vocabulary of a language. They originate as terms of a special group like schools, army, police, the medical profession, etc., in the intimacy of a milieu where a hint is sufficient to indicate the whole. For example, exam(ination), math(ematics), and lab(oratory) originated in school slang; spec(ulation) and tick(et = credit) in stock-exchange slang; and vet(eran) and cap(tain) in army slang. While clipping terms of some influential groups can pass into common usage, becoming part of Standard English, clippings of a socially unimportant class or group will remain group slang.Clipping mainly consists of the following types: Back clippingBack clipping is the most common type, in which the beginning is retained. The unclipped original may be either a simple or a composite. Examples are: ad (advertisement), cable (cablegram), doc (doctor), exam (examination), fax (facsimile), gas (gasoline), gym (gymnastics, gymnasium), memo (memorandum), mutt (muttonhead), pub (public house), pop (popular music). Fore-clippingFore-clipping retains the final part. Examples are : chute (parachute), coon (raccoon), gator (alligator), phone (telephone), pike (turnpike), varsity (university). Middle clippingIn middle clipping, the middle of the word is retained. Examples are: flu (influenza), jams or jammies (pajamas/pyjamas), polly (apollinaris), shrink (head-shrinker), tec (detective). Complex clippingClipped forms are also used in compounds. One part of the original compound most often remains intact. Examples are: cablegram (cable telegram), op art (optical art), org-man (organization man), linocut (linoleum cut). Sometimes both halves of a compound are clipped as in navicert (navigation certificate). In these cases it is difficult to know whether the resultant formation should be treated as a clipping or as a blend, for the border between the two types is not always clear. According to Bauer (1983), the easiest way to draw the distinction is to say that those forms which retain compound stress are clipped compounds, whereas those that take simple word stress are not. By this criterion bodbiz, Chicom, Comsymp, Intelsat, midcult, pro-am, photo op, sci-fi, and sitcom are all compounds made of clippings.

E. AcronymAcronym is the process whereby a new word is formed from the initial letters of the constituent words of a phrase or sentence. For example, from the initial letters of the words of the phrase North Atlantic Treaty Organization, the word NATO \ "neItU\ is formed. Similarly, from the initial letters of the constituent words of the phrase unidentified flying object, the word UFO \ juef "U\ (or\ " jufU\) is formed. In a like manner, from the constituent words of the sentence I owe you, the word IOU \ aIU"ju\ (notice the adaptation in spelling) is formed. And from the Situation normal, all fouled up, snafu \snoe"fu\ (army slang) is formed. The words created by this process are called acronyms; all of them function as nouns.Types of AcronymsThere are two main types of acronyms, namely: Acronyms which are pronounced as a word; e.g., NASA \ "noes\ (= National Aeronautics and Space Administration), radar \ "reIdAr\ radar \ "reIdAr\ (radio detecting and ranging), laser (= light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation), UNESCO \ju"neskU\ (= United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization), BASIC \ "beIsIk\ (= Beginners' All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code), COBOL \ "kUbl\ (Common Business Oriented Language), etc. As can be seen, acronyms of this type often derive from phrasal names. Many of them belong to the jargon (i.e., specialized language) of particular occupations, organizations or fields of study (esp. scientific, administrative, political) and might be completely meaningless to the persons who are not familiarized with them. Notice also that some of these acronyms are of so frequent an occurrence that people often use them without the slightest idea of what the words stand for; e.g., laser, radar. Acronyms which are pronounced as sequences of letters (also called 'alphabetisms'); e.g., C.O.D. \ siU"di\ ( = cash on delivery), MIT \ emaI"ti\ (= Massachusetts Institute of Technology), VIP \ viaI"pi\ (= very important person). In writing, the more institutionalized formations have no periods between their component letters. This tendency is especially more common in British English than in American English; e.g., DIY \ diaI"waI\ (= do-it-yourself), FBI \ efbi"aI\ (= Federal Bureau of Investigations). Note that each constituent letter of these acronyms usually represents a full word or constituent in the compound, or just a part of a word, as in the following examples: TB \ ti"bi\ (= tuberculosis), TV \ti"vi\ (= television), c/o (= (in) care of).6 Likewise, notice that some of these acronyms are given a quasi-phonetic written form; e.g., Emcee for M.C. (= Master of Ceremonies), Deejay for DJ (= disc jockey), etc.

F. Back FormationBack-formation is the process of creating a new lexeme, usually by removing actual or supposed affixes in which a word changes its form and function. Word of one type, which is usually a noun, is reduced and used as a verb. Sometimes a back-formation arises through the assumption that it must already exist, and that its source word is the derivative term. Such an assumption, while misguided, is altogether reasonable, being based on a summary analysis of the source words morphology. Back-formations are frequently made by dropping -tion or -ion from a noun, and adding -e when appropriate, to form a new verb, such as donate from donation. From evolution we get evolute, which has technical meanings as a noun in mathematics and as an adjective in botany, but as a verb meaning the same as evolve, it is a needless variant. Similarly superfluous are cohabitate for cohabit, interpretate for interpret, and solicitate for solicit. Solicitate has a standard adjectival use; it is only its unnecessary use as a verb that I advise against. Last week I heard someone on the radio say installating, as if he had forgotten all about install. But some of these may eventually become standard, even installate. In most of the examples Ive included so far, the change has occurred at the end of the word, i.e. the removed affix has been a suffix. Back-forming by removing prefixes is less common, except in humorous contexts such as Jack Winters How I met my wife, which boasts a litany of deliberately malformed terms like chalant, ept, and peccable. Regardless of how back-formations are formed, they are often initially considered to be irregular, even ignorant, and suitable only for informal use in slang or jokes. Sometimes, as we have seen, there is no need for them because the semantic niche they purport to inhabit has already been filled. Other back-formations, such as enthuse and liaise, inhabit a grey area of acceptability. And then there are many that serve a useful purpose and have become standard.Examples are : automate from automation beg from beggar diagnose from diagnosis drowse from drowsy edit from editor execute from execution free associate from free association grovel from grovelling (or -l-) (adj.) injure from injury intuit from intuition kidnap from kidnapper orate from oration pea from pease peddle from peddler reminisce from reminiscence resurrect from resurrection scavenge from scavenger self-destruct from self-destruction (from destroy, destruction) sleaze from sleazy statistic from statistics surveil from surveillance televise from television vaccinate from vaccination window-shop (v.) from window-shopping

G. ConversionIn linguistics, conversion, also called zero derivation, is a kind of word formation; specifically, it is the creation of a word from an existing word without any change in form. Conversion is more productive in some languages than in others; in English, it is a fairly productive process.Often a word of one lexical category (part of speech) is converted to a word of another lexical category; for example, the noun green in golf (referring to a putting-green) is derived ultimately from the adjective green. Conversions from adjectives to nouns and vice versa are both very common and unnotable in English; much more remarked upon is verbing, the creation of a verb by converting a noun or other word (e.g., the adjective clean becomes the verb to clean).

H. Neologism Neologism is a completely new word, like quark. a. Loanword is a word borrowed from another language. Ex: clich, from Frenchb. Onomatopoeia is the creation of words that imitate natural sounds. Ex: the bird name cuckoo. c. Phono-semantic matching is matching a foreign word with a phonetically and semantically similar pre-existent native word/root.d. Eponym is creation of a totally new word. This word formation process is not frequent, however large corporations attempt to outdo one another to invent short eye-catching names for their products. Some examples of these could include: aspirin or xerox. Sometimes the products that the companies want to sell simply take over the name of the creator or inventor.25