Week 3

Memory& Information Processing

The Nature of Memory What is Memory?    Memory    The retention of information over timeWhat is involved in Memory?    Encoding How information gets into memoryStorage    The retention of information over time    Retrieval    Bringing information out of memory storage

Memory & Information Processing

In order to remember something, we must:

• EncodeEncode (get info into our brain)

• StoreStore (keep the info somewhere safe)

• RetrieveRetrieve (get the info back out later)

(Kohn & Kohn, 1998)

Memory Encoding

    Rehearsal

    The conscious repetition of information that increases the length of time that information stays in memory

    Depth of processing

    Deep processing of stimuli produces better memory of them

    Elaboration

    The extensiveness of processing at any given depth of memory

Information is stored in:

• Long Term Memory

• Short Term Memory

• Sensory Memory

ExternalEvents

SensoryMemory

Short-TermMemory

Long-TermMemory

SensoryInput

Attention &Attention &EncodingEncoding

EncodingEncodingRetrievalRetrieval

(Richarson, 1999)

Memory Storage

    Atkinson-Shiffrin theory

Memory involves a sequence of three stages

    Sensory memory

    Short-term (working) memory

    Long-term memory

Sensory Memory

    Sensory memory

    A form of memory storage that hold information from the world in its original sensory form for only an instant, not much longer than the brief time it is exposed to the visual, auditory, and other senses

    Echoic memory

    Auditory sensory memory in which information is retained for up to several seconds

    Iconic memory

    Visual sensory memory in which information is retained for only about 1/4 second

Working (Short-Term) Memory

    Working memory

    A limited-capacity storage system in which information is retained for as long as 30 seconds, unless it is rehearsed, in which case it can be retained longer

    Memory span

    The number of digits an individual can report back in order after a single presentation of them

Long Term Memory

    Long-term memory

    A relatively permanent type of memory that holds huge amounts of information for a long period of time

(Kohn & Kohn, 1998)

Memory’s Contents

    Declarative memory

    The conscious recollection of information, such as specific facts or events

    Can be verbally communicated

    Nondeclarative memory

    Memory that is affected by prior experience without that experience being consciously recollected

    Cannot be verbally communicated

Declarative Memory

    Episodic memory

    The retention of information about the where and when of life’s happenings

    Semantic memory

    A person’s knowledge about the world

    General academic knowledge, meanings of words, important places/dates, etc.

Representing Memory

    Network theories

    Our memories can be envisioned as a complex network of nodes that stand for labels or concepts

    Schema theories

    When we reconstruct information,we use existing concepts (schemas) to organize and interpret information

How Is Information Encoded?

Encoding

Automatic ProcessingAutomatic Processing

Effortful ProcessingEffortful Processing

Automatic Processing“CAT”

Effortful Processing“464-7765”

(Richardson, 1999)

Automatic Processing

Requires Little Or No EffortRequires Little Or No Effortand

Is Very Difficult To Shut OffIs Very Difficult To Shut Off

Effortful Processing

Requires Extra EffortRequires Extra Effortand

Is Very Complex Encoding Is Very Complex Encoding

•Meaning

•Visualization

•Organization

Key Ways of Processing Info:

Emotional Memories

    Flashbulb memories

    Memories of emotionally significant events that people often recall with more accuracy and vivid imagery than everyday events

    Personal trauma

    Repressed memories

    Mood-congruent memories

Encoding MeaningSemantic Encoding Is Best For Verbal Information

SemanticSemantic

VisualVisual

AcousticAcoustic

Levels of ProcessingLevels of ProcessingVerbal InfoVerbal Info

SemanticSemanticAcousticAcoustic

VisualVisual

(Richardson, 1999)

We Encode Meaning

MEANING

of verbal information is encoded, rather

than the exact word, wording or sound

Encoding Imagery

Earliest memoriesEarliest memories involve mental imagery

It’s easier to recall concrete wordsconcrete words than abstract words

Flashbulb MemoriesFlashbulb Memories“Do you remember that time….?

Organizing Info & Encoding

Meaningful Info is Easier to Encode

ChunkingMagical Number 7±2“ciacnnabccbsnbc”

ROYGBIV

HierarchiesBroad Concepts First

Details NextClass Notes

(Richardson, 1999)

Storage: Sensory Memory

How do we know it exists? Sperling (1960)

Immediate Recall of All 9 LettersOnly about 50% recall

Cued Recall of Specific Row (tone)Almost 100% recall

K Z RQ B TS G F

Iconic Memory~ 250 msecs

Echoic Memory~ 3-4 seconds

(Richardson, 1999) 50 msec display

Storage: Short Term Memory

TaskRemember CHJ(no rehearsal)

100806040200

3 6 9 12 15 18Time (sec) between presentation

and recall

Per

cen

t of

Ss

wh

ore

call

ed c

onso

nan

ts

Limited Time (rehearsal)Limited Capacity (7 ± 2)

STM(Richardson, 1999)

Storage: Long Term Memory

Ave adult brain has ~ 1 billion bits of info storedCapacity may be 1000 - 100,000,000 times greater

How precise and durableare our memories?

Forgetting Curve

(Ebbinghaus)Much of what we

learnwe quickly forget

605040302010

1 2 3 4 5 10 15 20 25Time (days) since learning

Per

cent

of

list

reta

ined

(Richardson, 1999)

Memory RetrievalSerial position effect

    Recall is superior for the items at the beginning of a list and the end of a list

Primacy effect

    Superior recall for items at the beginning of a list

Recency effect

    Superior recall for items at the end of a list

Where are memories stored?

Lashley’s Rats - Trained rats & then removed specific portions of their brains

Gerard’s Hamsters - Trained hamsters & temporarily “turn off” brain’s electrical activity

ConclusionMemories do not reside in a single, specific

location.

Both the rats & the hamsters still Both the rats & the hamsters still “remembered” their training!“remembered” their training!

(Richardson, 1999)

The Neurobiological Basis of Memory

Memory Retrieval

    Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon

    A type of “effortful retrieval” that occurs when people are confident they know something but just can’t quite seem to pull it out of memory

How are memories stored?Aplysia - during conditioning:

1. More serotonin released at certain synapses2. These synapses became more efficient

Long Term Potentiation - prolongedstrengthening of potential neural firing

SerotoninBlockers

AlcoholBoxingShock

Therapy

SerotoninStimulators

StressEmotions

(Richardson, 1999)

Separate Processing & Storage

SemanticFacts/GeneralKnowledge

EpisodicExperienced

events

ProceduralSkills

Motor/Cognitive

DispositionsClassical/Operant

Conditioning

Explicitknowing you know

Implicitnot knowing you know

Types of Long-TermTypes of Long-TermMemoryMemory

PrimingActivation of aconnected node

(Implicit)

PrimingActivation of aconnected node

(Implicit)

Remembering: Retrieval CuesRecognition

Identification of itemspreviously learned

RecallRetrieval of information

previously learned

Retrieval Cues - help us to remember

Web of Associations “hare”

(Richardson, 1999)

Remembering: Context & Mood

Context EffectMemory increases if recall

occurs in the same context as encoding.

Remembering: Context & Mood

State-Dependent

Memory increases if mood at recall is the

same as retrievalEasier to remember something you

learned in a good mood when you’re in a good mood again

Forgetting is a Retrieval FailureSome info may never

make it to LTMEncoding Failure

Some info may nevermake it to LTM

Encoding Failure

Some info may notmake it out of LTMInterference

Some info may notmake it out of LTMInterference

Proactive vs. RetroactiveInterference

InterferenceInterference - learning some items may interferewith learning other items

(Richardson, 1999)

ForgettingInterference theory

    We forget because other information gets in the way of what we want to remember

Proactive interference

    Material that was learned earlier disrupts the recall of material learned later

Retroactive interference

    Material learned later disrupts retrieval of information learned earlier

Forgetting - Encoding Failure?

ExternalEvents

SensoryMemory

Short-TermMemory

Long-TermMemory

Attention &Encoding

EncodingRetrieval

(Richardson, 1999)

InterferenceProactive InterferenceSomething learned earlier disrupts something learned later.

Retroactive InterferenceSomething learned later disrupts something learned earlier.

PastPast PresentPresent

PastPast PresentPresent(Richardson, 1999)

Retrieval CuesEncoding specificity principle

    Associations formed at the time of encoding or learning tend to be effective retrieval cues

Priming

    Activating particular connections or association in memory

Retrieval CuesRecall

    A memory measure in which the individual must retrieve previously learned information

    Essay test

    Recognition

    A memory measure in which the individual only has to identify (“recognize”) learned items

    Multiple choice test

Amnesia    Anterograde amnesia

    Affects the retention of new information or events

    Doesn’t affect information learned before the onset of the condition

    Retrograde amnesia

    Memory loss for a segment of the past but not for new events

(Feldman, 1999)

Implicit & Explicit Memories

Amnesiacs, incapable of learning new facts,can be conditioned to do new tasks

They know things but don’t remember learning!

Implicit MemoryKnowing how to

do somethingCerebellum

Explicit MemoryKnowing that youknow somethingHippocampus

Mnemonics

Tools for remembering things:

AcronymsAnalogiesStory-telling

(Mind Map, 2002)

Memory and Study Strategies    Effective strategies

    Pay attention and minimize distraction

    Understand the material rather than rotely memorize it

    Organize what you put into memory

(Mind Map, 2002)

More Effective Strategies    Mnemonics

    Specific memory aids for remembering information

    Method of loci

    Acronyms

    Keyword method

(Mind Map, 2002)

More Effective Strategies    Ask yourself questions

    Spread out and consolidate your learning

    Cognitively monitor your progress

    Be a good time manager and planner

(Mind Map, 2002)

Taking Good Notes    Summarizing

    Outlining

    Concept maps

    The Cornell method

    Review notes periodically

(Mind Map, 2002)

The PQ4R Method    Preview

    Question

    Read

    Reflect

    Recite

    Review

(Mind Map, 2002)

ReferencesFeldman, M. (1999). McGraw Hill Company. Retrieved May 2002 from World Wide Web at: http://www.mcgrawhill.com.Kohn, A. J. & Kohn, W. (1998). The Integrator 2.0. CD-Rom. Brooks/Cole Thomson Learning. Mind Map. (2002). Retrieved May 2002 from World Wide Web at: http://www.mindmap.com. Richardson, K. (1999). Retrieved May 2002 from the World Wide Web at:http://www.monmouth.edu.