Memory:

Information Processing

Information Processing ModelInformation Processing Model

1. Encoding - getting information into the memory system

2. Storage - retaining the information over time

3. Retrieval - getting information out of memory storage

Encoding

Two Types of Encoding

Automatic Processing

Effortful Processing

Automatic Processing

unconscious encoding info; without effort

Place information (example: remembering where a piece of info is in your textbook, but not remembering what the info is)

Effortful Processing

requires attention & a conscious, deliberate effort

example: studying for a test

Processing Trends & Strategies

How can you use effortful processing to encode school-related information?

Rehearsal

repeating information to encode it

one of the most important processing strategies

Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850-1909) did memory studies w/ three-

letter nonsense syllables (gnh, auk, loi)

conclusion: the more you rehearse, the more you retain

developed the forgetting curve (a.k.a. “retention curve” or “Ebbinghaus curve”)

Rehearsal and Retention(From Baddeley, 1982)

Poodle Tree Dance House Airport Sugar Child Ground Watch Squirrel Truck Building Hospital Pencil Terrace Lamp

Serial Position Effect

primacy effect – ability to recall info near the beginning of a list

recency effect – the ability to recall info near the end of a list

Primacy/Recency Effect(From Craik & Watkins, 1973)

Spacing Effect

distributed practice - spread rehearsal out in several sessions separated by a period of time

massed practice - putting all rehearsal together in one long session (cramming)

distributed practice helps you retain info better than massed practice

Mnemonic Device

memory trick or technique for remembering specific facts

Example:Peg-word System

Peg-Word System

the person associates items to remember with a list of peg words already memorized

goal: visualize the items to remember with the items on the pegs

Peg Word System

Storage

Three Storage Systems

three distinct storage systems :sensory memory

working memory

long-term memory

Sensory Memory

brief, initial coding of sensory info in the memory system

iconic store – visual info (less than ½ second)

echoic store – sound info (3 – 4 seconds)

info held just long enough to make a decision on its importance

Working Memory holds info briefly before it is stored or

forgotten (conscious, activated)

holds about seven (+ or – 2) chunks of info at one time (example: phone numbers)

can retain info as long as it is rehearsed

Long-Term Memory

relatively permanent & limitless storehouse of the memory system

holds memories w/out conscious effort

Memory and the Brain:

How do we get information into long-term memory?

How are memories constructed?

memory research says we build memories from bits & pieces of info.

when pieces are missing, we invent new ones to fill the spaces

How are memories stored? each memory activates a

specific pattern of firing in brain cells (neurons)

long-term potentiation: as the neurons for a particular memory fire over & over, the synapses become more efficient (release neurotransmitter serotonin)

The Brain Documentary: Memory

Retrieval

Retrieval two forms of retrieval

recall - retrieve information learned earlierexamples: essay, fill-in-the-blank, short

answer test questions

recognition - identify items learned earlierexamples: multiple choice & matching

test questions

How do we get to memories we need to retrieve?

memories are primed (triggered) by retrieval cues

the more you know about a subject, the easier it is to learn more about it

End Class Notes – Fall 2015

Overlearning

continuing to rehearse after the info has been learned

rehearsing past the point of mastery

helps ensure info will be available even under stress

examples: playing musical pieces, sports

Semantic Encoding making the material meaningful

encoding info that is meaningful enhances recall

make info meaningful by making it relevant to your life

How do you make material meaningful?

Self-Reference Effect

Encoding Research (From Craik & Tulving, 1975)

Mnemonic: Method of Loci

person associates items to be remembered with familiar places

Storage:Explicit & Implicit Memories

Explicit Memory memory of facts & experiences

examples:At what temperature does water freeze?What is your mother’s middle name?What did you eat for dinner last night?

must consciously retrieve and declare

processed through the hippocampus

Implicit Memory

memory of skills & procedures examples:

how to walk how to read how to button your shirt

retrieved without conscious recollection

processed through the cerebellum

Memory and the Hippocampus

damage to the hippocampus results in the inability to form new explicit memories

the ability to remember the skills of implicit memories remains

Memory and the Hippocampus

Think about this…

What would happen if a man who experienced damage to his hippocampus went to play golf on the same course every day?

Answer:

He would have no explicit memory of the course – it would seem like a brand new place every time.

But his scores would gradually improve over time, because his implicit memories would allow him to get better with practice.

Context Effect

enhanced ability to retrieve info when you are in an environment similar to the one in which you encoded the info

State Dependent Memory

retrieval is best when the person is in the same physical & emotional state as when they encoded the info.

physical examples: tired, under the influence of caffeine

mood examples: happy, depressed