using maslow's theory to examine adult learners

47

Using Maslow's Theory to Examine Adult Learners' Motivation for

Continuing Education Programs

Chwan-Yi, Chiang Yaw-Bin, Wang

Department of Business Administration,National Chen Kung University

Abstract

Higher education is facing profound challenges in the twenty-first century. Recently, more and more continuing education programs have been developed in universities and colleges in Taiwan. Schools are increasingly in competition with one another. Each school would benefit by adapting its resources to develop comparative advantages of continuing education programs and design some practical curricula to meet students' needs. It is important that colleges and universities cater to the needs of today's adult population, through continuing education programs.

The purpose of this study was based on Maslow’s theory in determining and comparing adult learners' motivations for enrolling in continuing education programs at an institution of higher education. Furthermore, this study explored the relationship between continuing education learners and Maslow's hierarchy of needs.

This research was conducted among those who have graduated or who are currently enrolled in continuing education programs in the Department of Business Administration at National Cheng Kung University in Tainan, Taiwan. The examined research was comprised of 462 randomly selected students, along with 176 (38.1%) completed surveys that were received. The data were analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistics, including means, standard deviations, reliability of the research constructs, and one-way analysis of variance.

The study results indicated that the self-actualization need produced the greatest motivation for those who applied for admission in the continuing education programs. This was followed, in turn, by esteem needs, social needs, and safety needs; physiological needs provided the least motivation.

The results of this study immensely support Maslow's theory. Universities could benefit by taking active steps and to consider the best activity course program for adult learners to satisfy their needs--especially the social, esteem, and self-actualization needs of students.

Keywords: Maslow's need hierarchy theory, adult learner, continuing education, hygiene factors,

motivator factors.

國立臺南師範學院「南師學報」第 38 卷第一期教育類（民國 93 年）：47∼68

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Introduction

In today's Information Age, adults ages 23 to 70 and beyond are flocking back to school--either to enhance new or old careers or to better understand the rapid changes occurring around them. To meet the needs of these returning adults, nearly every college and university in the United States, or in Taiwan, has established a continuing education division or program to address the adult market, which is much larger than the 19-to-23-year-old traditional college market (Shoemaker, 1998). The field of continuing education has great potential for improving the growth, development, and scholarship of adults. However, since creativity and flexibility are the greatest strengths of continuing education, they can also be its greatest weaknesses (Grissom, 1996).

Krestas (1995) indicated that the role of technical communicators increasingly requires leadership and management ability. They call for an innovative, flexible, and advanced continuing education curriculum to support these needs. Zusman (1999) stated that higher education is facing profound challenges in the twenty-first century. Changes both within and without the academy are altering the nature and makeup of higher education--its students, faculty, governance, curriculum, functions, administration, accountabilities, and its very place in society.

Continuing education has been sought by people of various walks of life in Taiwan. Personal communication with continuing education program applicants (from 1996-1999), and consequently, universities have provided opportunities to those who could not further their education in traditional settings. The main reasons people enroll in continuing education programs at a university are the following:

1. To pursue advanced knowledge 2. To enhance job opportunities 3. To satisfy their basic needs There are at least five levels of needs that can be called basic needs: physiological, safety,

social, esteem, and self-actualization. In addition, people are motivated by the desire to achieve or maintain the various conditions upon which these basic needs rest and show certain intellectual desires. Added to the ordinary multiple motivations for usual behavior, there are many determinants other than motivators (Maslow, cited in Shafritz & Ott, 1996). Accordingly, it is important that colleges and universities cater to the needs of today's adult population through continuing education programs. The value of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs was to provide an explanation of people’s behavior and motivation. Because people want to satisfy their basic needs, many universities have developed continuing education programs. A study to determine what motivates people to apply for admission to continuing education programs in universities was essential for program development and/or improvement to meet the needs of the adult learner.

The purpose of this investigation was to determine and compare adult learners'motivations for enrolling in continuing education programs at an institution of higher education based upon Maslow’s theory. Specifically, the research questions to be answered were the following:

1. To what extent are applicants for admission to continuing education programs motivated by physiological needs, safety needs, social needs, esteem needs, and self-actualization needs?

2. What differences in motivation exist among the five levels of need for those who apply for admission to continuing education programs?

3. What is the relationship among each of the five levels of need based upon monthly income and age?

以馬斯洛需求理論探討成人學員參加推廣教育班的動機 49

Relevant Literature Review

Over the past few decades, a plethora of motivation theories has been published. Herzberg’s “satisfiers-dissatifiers” theory of motivation concluded that some factors (pay, working condition, supervision, interpersonal relationships, company policy, and administration) can cause employee dissatisfaction, but even when the conditions complained about are corrected by the management, they contribute very little to job satisfaction. Conversely, while the presence of other factors (achievement, recognition for achievement, intrinsic interest in the work, responsibility, and advancement) produces satisfaction, their absence causes very little dissatisfaction. According to Herzberg, characteristics that lead to job dissatisfaction are called “hygiene factors,” because they are contextual and always in need of replenishment. Contrasted with hygiene factors are “motivators,” which satisfy the individual’s need for self-actualization (Herzberg, 1988).

Expectancy theories, developed by Vroom (1964), explain work motivation in terms of a rational choice process in which a person decides how much effort to devote to the job at a given point of time. In choosing between a maximal effort and a minimal (or moderate) effort, a person considers the likelihood that a given level of effort will lead to successful completion of the task and the likelihood that task completion will lead in turn to desirable outcomes (e.g., higher pay, recognition, promotion, sense of achievement, having fun) while avoiding undesirable outcomes (e.g., layoffs, accidents, reprimand, rejection by co-workers, excessive stress). Perceived probability of an outcome is called an expectancy, and the desirability of an outcome is called valence. Motivation, according to Hoy & Miskel (1987), is an internal set of drives that leads an individual to initiate and continue voluntary action, in order to achieve personal goals.

By synthesizing Herzberg’s, Vroom’s, and Hoy and Miskel’s motivation theories, Glatthorn (1990) presented a general picture of a highly motivated individual:

In a supportive environment, a teacher doing meaningful work has certain energizing beliefs or expectations about self, about his or her behavior, and about the rewards. That teacher sets a goal and takes actions that enable the teacher to achieve the goal with effort; those actions bring about results that enable the teacher to earn the rewards anticipated. The teacher receives feedback about the performance. (p. 110)

Maslow’s Need Hierarchy

In the late 1960s, Abraham Maslow developed a hierarchical theory of human needs. Perhaps Maslow is the greatest humanistic psychologist believing that people are not controlled by mechanical forces (the stimuli and reinforcement forces of behaviorism) or the unconscious instinctual impulses of psychoanalysis. Maslow focused on human potential, believing that humans strive to reach the highest levels of their capabilities (Maslow, 1970).

Maslow (1970) stressed that an individual’s state of motivation is not as static as is sometimes assumed. According to Maslow, there is a hierarchy of human needs, each of which must be satisfied, although not completely, before the next level asserts itself. In ascending order, these needs are identified as physiological, safety, belongingness and love, esteem, and self-actualization.

1. Physiological needs are usually taken as the starting point for motivation theory. They are the so-called physiological drives. They include food and rest, water, oxygen, and anything the physical organism needs to survive. There are very fundamental life or death needs (Maslow, cited in Shafritz & Ott, 1996).

2. Safety needs include protection from danger and fear, stability, and an ordered environment.

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If the physiological needs are relatively well gratified, there then emerges a new set of needs, which we may categorize roughly as the safety needs (security, stability, dependency, protection, freedom from fear, anxiety, and chaos; need for structure, order, law, and limits; strength in the protector) (Maslow, cited in Shafritz & Ott, 1996).

3. Belongingness and love needs include friendships and affectionate relations and the need to overcome feelings of aloneness and alienation. If both the physiological and the safety needs are fairly well gratified, there will emerge love and affection and belongingness needs, and the whole cycle already described will repeat itself with this new center. The love needs involve giving and receiving affection (Maslow, cited in Shafritz & Ott, 1996).

4. Esteem needs include self-confidence, independence, freedom, status, recognition, and appreciation by others. All people in our society (with a few pathological exceptions) have a need or desire for a stable, firmly based, usually high evaluation of themselves, for self-respect or self-esteem, and for the esteem of others (Maslow, cited in Shafritz & Ott, 1996).

5. Self-actualization needs include what one wants to be. Even if all these needs are satisfied, we may still often (if not always) expect that a new discontent and restlessness will develop, unless the individual is doing what he or she, individually, is fitted for. Musicians must make music, artists must paint, and poets must write if they are to be at ultimate peace with themselves. What humans can be, they must be. They must be true to their own natures. Maslow called this need self-actualization (Maslow, cited in Shafritz & Ott, 1996).

Maslow (1970) posited that the needs of human beings could be distinguished and prioritized into five levels in which all the basic lowest needs are at the bottom, and the needs concerned with human being's highest potential are at the top. The hierarchic theory is often represented as a pyramid as in Figure 1, with the larger, lower levels representing the lower needs, and the upper point representing the need for self-actualization (Maslow, cited in Villa, Thousand, Stainback, W., & Stainback, S., 1992).

Figure 1 Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs. From Maslow, A. H. (1970). Motivation and personality (2nd ed.). New York: Harper & Row. Reprinted by permission of Harper Collins Publishers.

SELF- ACTUALIZATION Pursue Inner Talent

Creativity Fulfillment

SELF-ESTEEM Achievement Mastery Recognition Respect

BELONGING-LOVE Friends Family Spouse Lover

SAFETY Security Stability Freedom from Fear

PHYSIOLOGICAL Food Water Shelter Warmth


According to Maslow, there are some exceptions to the theory. For instance, there are people for whom self-esteem is more important than being loved. However, Maslow's emphasis is upon the need for self-actualization. He estimated that the average person is satisfied in perhaps 85 percent of his belonging-love needs, 40 percent of his self-esteem needs, and ten percent of his self-actualization needs. Although he made his estimate arbitrarily for purposes of illustration, it probably indicated the degree to which he believed society satisfied these various needs. In spite of the fact that Maslow never validated his theory, he presented it as a framework for future research (Nigro & Nigro, 1973).

Based on Maslow’s theory, Longstreet & Shaue (1993) gave the following explanation: In Maslow’s terminology, human beings are their own determinants, certainly an idea in

distinct contrast to the behaviorists’ conception of external stimuli shaping the individual. Psychologically healthy people, that is, people whose needs have been satisfied, are motivated, according to Maslow, "by trends to self- actualization". In other words, they want to fulfill their own capacities and talents, and they will be self-motivated toward the acceptance and empowerment of their intrinsic nature. (p. 134)

Since Maslow's unveiling of his hierarchy of needs theory in 1954, his critics have been vocal. The theory has been challenged on its lack of scientificity, lack of integrated conceptual structure, lack of supportive research evidence, and lack of validity of the concept (Heylighten, 1992). According to Maslow (1954), self-actualization is a process and does not end. Kiel (1999) wondered why the triangle is closed if this is so. Perhaps the closed triangle should be open now. Self-actualization is an evolving process; enclosing it does not allow for full expression. It is today, and not fifty years ago, that people are engaged in "lifelong learning." It is predicted that college graduates in the future will average several career tracks and will have multiple employment opportunities. The open triangle mirrors the reality of what is occurring in the modern age. This reality is better represented through an open triangle, which is boundless. As people embark on self-actualization, we need to encourage them to be promoters of the open triangle to make their dreams come true.

Principles of Adult Learning

In examining adults’ motivations to learn, most experts begin with a very influential study by Houle in 1961. Through a profound study of 22 adult learners, he was able to identify three distinct groups of learners in terms of their motivation to learn.

1.Goal-oriented learners use learning to achieve very specific objectives, such as learning how to deal with stress or planning for retirement. They tend to be practical in outlook, turning to any readily available source for the information and instruction they need.

2. Activity-oriented learners value the activity itself. They pursue learning in order to escape boredom or to make social contacts.

3. Learning-oriented learners value learning for its own sake; they see learning as a way of staying mentally alert and tend to learn throughout most of their lives (Houle, 1961).

Cross (1981) mentioned that most adults tend to be goal-oriented in their learning, responding to the pressures to acquire job-related skills or to prepare themselves for better jobs. She also pointed out that activity orientation continues to be strong. Many older adults see workshops and seminars as a means of making new friends and finding some escape from the perceived drabness of their lives.

Despite their different orientations, the majority of adult learners share the following similarities:

1. They prefer a learning structure that emphasizes flexibility of time and pacing,

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heterogeneity of group membership, individualization with self-pacing, self-selection of learning activities, and interaction with a teacher.

2. They prefer to learn from each other, even from those with divergent views. They are seemingly unwilling to assume risks. They do better in a climate of trust where differences are accepted. They tend to be critical of instructors who insist that there is only one right way to think or perform. They come to class with very definite expectations, and they value an instructor who responds to those expectations. Adults value learning experiences that have a rather immediate pay-off.

3. Adults want to be participative learners. They do not want to sit through long lectures; they want to play an active role and have constructive feedback about their performance. They tend to be receptive to cooperative learning that has a problem-solving orientation (Glatthorn, 1990).

These findings have clear implications for adult learning. It is quite likely that the educational programs that reflect these preferred structures and practices will be much better received than those that ignore what is known about adults’ learning preferences. Such practices and structures can be the incentive that will enhance adult learners’ motivation to pursue programs. Gabor and Yerkes (1999) noted that workshop participants demonstrated not only an urgency to become more involved in post-baccalaureate programs for workforce professionals, but also a strong desire to pursue networking opportunities among themselves and in other academic institutions and educational enterprises. This is to further their effective participation and success in this new academic frontier that combines the traditional and nontraditional in lifelong-learning.

The Virtues of Continuing Education to Adult Learners

Studies over the past few decades have identified diverse reasons for universities’ provision of continuing education. Some look at continuing education as another avenue for less qualified students from the perspective of educational equality; some regard continuing education as an end to enhance national productivity; others look at it in terms of job enrichment; others regard it as a means to face future challenges.

Myers and Schmid (1994), for instance, regarded continuing education as a good way of increasing job skills to keep pace with the growth in business. The American Business Women’s Association (ABWA) is one such organization. It developed the ABWA Business Skill-Builder program, a self-paced program that helps women earn continuing education credit. Gibb (1995) also mentioned that continuing education is vital to salespeople for staying competitive, as competitors and customers become more sophisticated. He further identified nine types of continuing education that can help salespeople grow and succeed. Capko (1994) suggested that continuing education is one way in which physicians can meet the challenges of change in private practice through investments in their staff. Ironside (1995) pointed out that continuing education that will help people (adults) adapt to change and live fuller lives, understand interdependence and the value of a shared commitment to society, and find community that makes people responsible for one another should be developed. As far as professionals are concerned, continuing education is vital to their development. Continuing professional education, which provides lifelong updating and learning for practitioners across a broad range of professions and occupations, has become an increasingly major portion of continuing higher education’s mission (Queeney, 1997).

Furthermore, as the twenty-first century arrives, the importance of the context of individual practice is increasing. As a result, description of competency only in terms of individuals’ technical capabilities is fast becoming inadequate (Queeney, 1997).

In view of the increasing consumerization of higher education, continuing education divisions allow easier access and less restrictive admissions procedures than traditional preparatory


education programs for young, full-time students in the remainder of the institution (Knox, 1995). The evening division of Taiwanese universities is a case in point. Over the past four decades, the evening division has played a secondary role in higher education. It admits students who either do not pass the joint college entrance exam or cannot afford to attend regular full-time study. Despite its less prestigious status, its graduates are awarded a baccalaureate and are qualified to pursue advanced degrees.

Rohfeld (1996) suggested that the search for greater access to continuing education be continued. He wondered if academic institutions can help build bridges between themselves and unreached populations. Incorporating the ability to address students’ situational and developmental needs as a criterion of quality higher education programs eased access for many adults during the last forty years. Now, at the beginning of the twenty-first century, accredited higher education offers a broad array of undergraduate and graduate programs for working and non-working students of all ages. Perhaps new ways of focusing on students can continue the expansion of access to higher education in the future.

Moreover, contemporary societal pressures on higher education are encouraging traditional programs to consider student needs as well as current demands. The decision of some institutions to develop special programs for adults reflected acceptance of the idea that higher education could legitimately serve a particular student population, namely adults, by designing programs to meet their developmental needs. Encouragement for such programs came as the social and economic phenomena of the 1960s and 1970s and sent more adults to campuses. Workers sought training and credentials. Minorities looked for educational equity. Women who had been homemakers wanted education and career preparation (Rohfeld, 1996).

There are graduate certificate programs in graduate schools, in schools of continuing education, and in colleges of administration engineering, education, agriculture, arts and sciences, and medicine. Patterson (1999) notes that some universities have used the acronyms COGS (Certificate of Graduate Study) and CAGS (Certificate of Advanced Graduate Study).

Why are graduate certificate programs of interest to universities and colleges? Schools of continuing education normally have a far more advanced understanding of workforce development needs and ways in which those needs may be met. Patterson (1999) further explained:

That potential students, companies, government agencies, and professional societies have indicated the need for shorter-term specialized graduate programs such as graduate certificate programs. One reason for the development of graduate certificate programs is the idea that such programs should be more responsive to the local or regional economy, with a greater sensitivity to needs in the workplace, such as scheduling, curriculum, and delivery mode. (p.72)

Shoemaker (1998) noted that the leadership and management of continuing education in higher education, now and into the twenty-first century, will need to change to meet the challenges of the times to provide traditional, non-traditional, and distance educational opportunities. Change is a likely result of creativity; thus, continuing education benefits and adapts to the fast-changing needs of adult learners in a fast-changing society.

Leslie and Fretwell (1996) stated that leadership in this kind of organization requires continuous reinforcement of the overall direction, provision of information with feedback, and support for the subunits that are making progress. The slogan "Think globally, act locally" captures this idea. It assumes that deans, directors, and department heads will understand the overall picture and can put aside their self-interest. For example, at the University of South Dakota (USD), individual departments are being asked to develop their own strategic plans through the program review process. Departments will be given the autonomy to develop their own plans (Card, 2000).

Change is coming, and based upon what has already been seen, Brody (1998) predicted broader trends. More need for education, more competition, increased cost pressures, increasingly

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sophisticated and price-sensitive consumers, and tremendous opportunities are all trends making risks far greater than at any time in the past. Continuing education divisions must be provided with venture capital to start new innovative programs and take the kinds of risks already common among competitors coming from the proprietary area of the market (Brody, 1998).

Research Design and Methodology

Population and Sample

The research was conducted among those who have graduated or who are currently enrolled in continuing education programs in the Department of Business Administration at National Cheng Kung University (2002) Tainan, Taiwan. Over the past ten years, the department has graduated a total of more than 3,500 students. Of the graduates, 1,500 majored in marketing managing and the others majored in management consulting. Their names and addresses were available at the department graduate file portfolio center.

Participants for the study were obtained by simple random sampling using a table of random numbers. Each member of the designated population was assigned a number and 462 were selected in the order prescribed by a random number table (Wiersma, 1995).

Instrumentation

The survey instrument was developed by the researcher. Instrument statements were developed through a review of related literature and research. Some of the statements were adopted and modified from Maslow’s Theory on Hierarchical Needs (Maslow cited in Shafritz & Ott, 1996). The instrument was divided into two parts. The first part of the survey instrument referenced three questions that identified basic demographic information about the respondents. The second part included twenty-five statements that identified factors that influenced the participants’ decision to enroll in the continuing education program at National Cheng Kung University.

A jury of three educators evaluated the effectiveness and clarity of the survey instrument. To be selected for the jury, jurors were required to meet one or more of the following criteria:

1. The person is a recognized authority in the design of survey instruments, having either published in a respected journal requiring acceptable research design techniques or by being established as a recognized expert as a college or university faculty member.

2. The person is an authority in the design of instruments to be used for statistical analysis. The person is an authority in the field of community education.

3. The instrument was pilot tested by administering it to six students currently enrolled in the continuing education programs at National Cheng Kung University who were excluded from the survey population. The instrument was refined based on feedback provided on an accompanying critique sheet by jurors and individuals in the pilot.


Data Collection

A total of 462 survey packets were mailed to all subjects randomly chosen to participate in the study. Each packet contained a survey instrument and a letter in Chinese stating the purpose of the study. To allow for identification of unreturned surveys, a numeric code was printed on each self-addressed, stamped return envelope. In order to ensure confidentiality, all codes were destroyed upon receipt of the completed surveys. Two weeks after the initial mailing, follow-up letters and additional surveys were mailed to those who failed to return the first survey.

Data Analysis

Responses to research questions were made using descriptive and inferential statistics. Following information regarding response rates, frequencies and percentages were computed to identify demographic characteristics of respondents. Means and standard deviations were computed to respond to research questions one through five. For each research question, individual item response means and standard deviations were computed, as well as a composite mean and standard deviation for each research question corresponding to each of the five levels of Maslow’s needs hierarchy.

To verify the dimensionality and reliability of the research constructs, a purification process including factor analysis, item-to-total correlation analysis, and Cronbach’s alpha analysis was conducted in this study. Research questions was answered using a one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA). The independent variables were Maslow’s levels of needs, and the dependent variables were the composite response means for the five levels of needs. All significant ANOVAs for researchs were followed by Tukey’s Honestly Significant Difference (HSD) procedure to determine which groups differed significantly from the others. All ANOVAs, and Tukey’s analyses were conducted at the .05 level of significance. The Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) was used for all data analysis.

Response Rate

With the pilot study having been administered, the initial 462 survey packets were mailed to all subjects who were randomly chosen for participation. A total of 151 were returned for an initial response rate of 32.68 percent. A follow-up reminder which was sent resulted in the return of another 25 completed surveys for an overall response rate of 38.1 percent. This data is shown in Table 1.

Table 1

Response Rate of Study

Response Date Number of Returns Cumulative Percentage Return I 151 32.68 Return II 25 38.10 Total 176 38.10

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Demographics

All respondents in this study were identified as having graduated or were currently enrolled in continuing education programs in the Department of Business Administration, National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan. Seven items of demographic information pertaining to students' gender, educational status, occupation, years of service, monthly income, age, and program of study were included in the first section of the questionnaire. Frequencies of non-respondents are shown in the total returns, but are not included in the percentages.

Data regarding the demographics of adult learners are summarized in Table 2.

Table 2

Summary of Adult Learners’ Demographic Data

Characteristic Frequency Percent

Gender Male 132 75.9

Female 42 24.1 Educational status

High school 59 33.7 College 78 44.6 University 33 18.9 Graduate 5 2.8

Occupation 0 Business owners 60 34.3 Managers 52 29.7 Clerks 28 16.0 General managers 23 13.1 Other 12 6.9

Year(s) of service 0-1 8 4.5 2-3 20 11.3 4-6 32 18.2 7-10 39 22.2 >10 77 43.8

Monthly income <45,000 41 23.5 45,000-60,000 49 28.2 >60,000 84 48.3

Age <31 21 12.1 31-40 63 36.4 41-50 61 35.3 >50 28 16.2

Program Management consulting 107 62.2 Marketing managing 65 37.8


The data provided in Table 3 describe the demographic characteristics of respondents as follows:

1. The majority (75.9%) of respondents were male. 2. Regarding respondents’ educational status, college graduates were the highest ranked group (78, 44.6%), followed by high school graduates (59, 33.7%), university

graduates (33, 18.9%), and by graduate school graduates (5, 2.9%). 3. The majority (34.1%) of respondents were business owners, followed by managers (29.7%),

general managers (13.1%), clerks (16.0%), and others (6.8%). 4. Most (43.8%) respondents had worked for more than 10 years, with only eight of them

being beginners in their jobs (4.5%). 5. Almost half (84, 48.3%) of the respondents belonged to a high-income group who earned

more than 60,000 NT dollars per month, followed by the second group (49, 28.2%) with a monthly income between 45,001 and 60,000 NT dollars per month. Only 41 (23.5%) of the respondents earned less than 45,000 NT dollars per month.

6. The largest number (63, 36.4%) of respondents were 31-40 years old, followed by those who were 41-50 years old (61, 35.3%), those above 50 years old (28, 16.2%), and those below 31 (21, 12.1%).

7. The largest group (62.2%) of respondents' programs was the managerial consulting program.

Research Results

In this section, data is presented in response to each of the research questions. The second part includes 25 statements which identify factors that have influenced the participants’ decision to enroll in the continuing education program at National Cheng Kung University.

Factor Analysis and Reliability Validation

To verify the dimensionality and reliability of the research constructs, a purification process including factor analysis, item to total correlation analysis, and Cronbach’s alpha analysis was conducted in this study. The results of these analyses were shown in Table3. The eigenvalues were greater than 1.0 and the absolute values of factor-loading were greater than 0.6 in the factor analysis. All coefficients of item-to-total correlation were significant and greater than 0.4, and all coefficients of Cronbach’s a were greater than 0.6. From these results, it could be concluded that the factors for each construct extracted were reliable and could be used for further analysis.

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Table 3 Factor Analysis and Reliability of Research Variables

Construct Factor & Variables Eigen value

cumulative explained variance

Factor- loading Cronbachsα Item-to-total Correlation

physiological Needs 2.92 58.32 0.89

1. To increase my income 0.60 0.69 6. To obtain the opportunity to buy more food and

clothing 0.61 0.74

11. To have a better living environment 0.69 0.80 16. To buy a better vehicle for efficient

transportation 0.68 0.83

21. To have better physical strength 0.62 0.75 Safety Needs 2.76 55.28 0.88

2. To make my job more secure 0.60 0.70 7. To improve my job condition 0.61 0.69 12. To be safe from injury 0.69 0.81 17. To be free from anxiety, tension, and fear 0.68 0.74 22. To prevent being harmed by others 0.63 0.77 Social Needs

2.45 49.00 0.85

3. To make more friends in my learning environment 0.61 0.67

8. To participate in a variety of activities and clubs 0.65 0.66

13. To be a member of the university community 0.70 0.74 18. To be cared for by teachers and other students 0.76 0.75 23. To enhance my social skills 0.66 0.71 Esteem Needs

2.26 45.26 0.81

4. To develop self-acceptance 0.72 0.46 9. To perform my job and duty satisfactorily 0.61 0.42 14. To be appreciated by others 0.63 0.80 19. To be respected 0.81 0.83 24. To attain social status 0.69 0.76 Self-Actualization Needs

2.55 51.06 0.86

5. To develop my potential 0.65 0.60 10. To fulfill my personal and professional

objectives 0.63 0.66

15. To appreciate and promote higher quality and temperature of life 0.74 0.80

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

20. To enrich my life 0.61 0.76

25. To appreciate the good, the true, and the beautiful 0.60 0.77

The mean score for each item was computed as a numerical score from question one. Response scores, at or above the midpoint of 3.00, indicated some extent of agreement with the factor, while scores below 3.00 indicated some extent of disagreement with the factor. Means and standard deviations were computed to respond to research questions. Individual item response means and standard deviations were also computed, as well as a composite mean and standard deviation for each research question.


Physiological Needs

As illustrated in Table 4, results showed that the composite mean for the extent of physiological needs were 2.25 with a standard deviation of 0.85. All of the average scores of the five items about physiological needs were below 3.00. Of the physiological needs items, "To have a better living environment" (M = 2.78) was ranked number one, and "To obtain the opportunity to buy more food and clothing" (M = 1.68) was ranked number five, which strongly disagrees with the motivating factor.

Table 4

Extent of Physiological Needs

Item Mean SD Rank 11. To have a better living environment 2.78 1.18 1 21. To have better physical strength 2.57 1.14 2 1. To increase my income 2.23 1.13 3 16. To buy a better vehicle for efficient transportation 1.92 1.03 4 6. To obtain the opportunity to buy more food and clothing 1.68 .91 5 Composite extent of physiological needs 2.25 .85

Note. N = 176 Safety Needs As illustrated in Table 5, results showed that the composite mean for the extent of safety

needs was 2.81, with a standard deviation of 0.84. Most of the average scores of the five items about safety needs were below 3.00, except item 7, "To improve my job condition" (M = 3.36). Of the safety needs items, rank number one was "To improve my job condition" (M = 3.36), and rank number five was "To prevent being harmed by others" (M = 2.49) that was a disagreement motivating factor.

Table 5

Extent of Safety Needs

Item Mean SD Rank 7. To improve my job condition 3.36 1.09 1 12. To be safe from injury 2.94 1.11 2 17. To be free from anxiety, tension, and fear 2.66 1.19 3 2. To make my job more secure 2.58 1.20 4 22. To prevent being harmed by others 2.49 1.07 5 Composite extent of safety needs 2.81 .84

Note. N = 175

Social Needs

As illustrated in Table 6, results revealed that the composite mean for the extent of social needs was 3.64 with a standard deviation of 0.63. All of the average scores of the five items about social needs were above 3.00. Of the social needs items, the desire "To make more friends in my learning environment" (M = 4.13) was the highest ranked motivator, and "To be cared for by

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teachers and other students" (M = 3.02) was ranked number five.

Table 6

Extent of Social Needs

Item Mean SD Rank 3. To make more friends in my learning environment 4.13 .65 1 23. To enhance my social skills 3.93 .82 2 8. To participate in a variety of activities and clubs 3.67 .92 3 13. To be a member of the university community 3.44 .96 4 18. To be cared for by teachers and other students 3.02 1.05 5 Composite extent of social needs 3.64 .63

Note. N = 176

Esteem Needs

As illustrated in Table 7, results showed that the composite mean for the extent of esteem needs was 3.72, with a standard deviation of 0.57. All of the average scores of the five items about esteem needs were also above 3.00. Of the esteem needs items, the desire "To develop self-acceptance" (M = 4.34) was the highest ranked motivator, and "To attain social status" (M = 3.12) was ranked the lowest.

Table 7

Extent of Esteem Needs

Item Mean SD Rank 4. To develop self-acceptance 4.34 .61 1 9. To perform my job and duty satisfactorily 4.25 .57 2 14. To be appreciated by others 3.62 .91 3 19. To be respected 3.26 .99 4 24. To attain social status 3.12 .99 5 Composite extent of esteem needs 3.72 .57

Note. N = 175

Self-Actualization Needs

As illustrated in Table 8, results showed that the composite mean for the extent of self-actualization needs was 3.93, with a standard deviation of 0.59. All of the average scores of the five items about self-actualization needs were above 3.00. Of the self-actualization needs items, the desire "To develop my potential" (M = 4.25) was the number one motivator, and "To appreciate the good, the true, and the beautiful" (M = 3.68) had the lowest ranking.


Table 8

Extent of Self-Actualization Needs

Item Mean SD Rank 5. To develop my potential 4.25 .70 1 10. To fulfill my personal and professional objectives 4.16 .73 2 20. To enrich my life 3.88 .82 3 15. To appreciate and promote higher quality and temperature of

life 3.69 .95 4

25. To appreciate the good, the true, and the beautiful 3.68 .85 5 Composite extent of self-actualization needs 3.93 .59

Note. N = 176

Differences in Motivation Based on Five Levels of Needs

Research question two was answered using a one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA). The independent variables were Maslow’s levels of needs, while the dependent variables were the composite response means for the five levels of needs.

This significant ANOVA for research question two was followed by Tukey’s Honestly Significant Difference (HSD) procedure to determine which group differed significantly from the others. The ANOVA and Tukey’s analyses were conducted at the .05 level of significance. The Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) was used for all data analyses.

As shown in Table 9, using one-way analysis of variance (ANOVAs) indicates that there were significant differences in motivation among the five levels of needs for those who applied for admission to continuing education programs. Tukey’s Honestly Significant Difference (HSD) analysis was utilized to further determine which group differed significantly from the others. With the exception of esteem needs (M = 3.72) and social needs (M = 3.65), all other needs had significant differences from each other. The self-actualization needs (M = 3.93) produced the greatest motivation for those who applied for admission to continuing the education programs. This was followed, in turn, by esteem needs (M = 3.72), social needs (M = 3.65), and safety needs (M = 2.81); the least motivating factor was physiological needs (M = 2.25).

Table 9

Different Motivations among Five Levels of Needs

Factor

Physiological Needs (A)

(N=176)

Safety Needs (B)

(N=175)

Social Needs

(C) (N=176)

Esteem Needs

(D) (N=175)

Self- actualization

(E) (N=176)

F-ratio

P Levels of Needs

2.25 (BCDE)

2.81 (ACDE)

3.64 (ABE)

3.72 (ABE)

3.93 (ABCD)

179.73 .000*

* p < .05

Monthly Income and Levels of Needs

Using one-way analysis of variance (ANOVAs), significant differences were found among monthly income for physiological needs and social needs (see Table 10). Tukey’s Honestly Significant Difference (HSD) analysis was utilized to further determine which group differed

62 南師學報

significantly from the others. At the level of physiological needs, higher-income students (more than NT$ 60,000 per month) (M = 2.08) were significantly less motivated than lower-income students (less than NT$ 45,000 per month) (M = 2.54) who applied for admission in continuing education programs at universities, F (2, 171) = 4.15, p = .017. At the level of social needs, lower-income students (M = 3.84) were significantly more motivated than higher-income students (M = 3.57) who applied for admission in continuing education programs at universities, F (2, 171) = 3.25, p = .041.

Table 10

Monthly Income and Five Levels of Needs

Levels of Needs

Less than 45,000

(A) (N=41)

45,000- 60,000

(B) (N=49)

More than 60,000

(C) (N=84)

F-ratio

P Physiological 2.54

(C) 2.24 2.08

(A) 4.15 .017*

Safety 3.03 2.80 2.68 2.41 .092 Social 3.85

(C) 3.57 3.56

(A) 3.25 .041*

Esteem 3.81 3.72 3.67 0.92 .400 Self-actualization 4.04 3.93 3.88 1.01 .368

* p < .05 Note. The sample of less than NT$ 30,000 had only three people. They were merged into the

group of less then NT$ 45,000 per month.

Age and Levels of Needs

Using one-way analysis of variance (ANOVAs), significant differences across age groups were found in social needs (See Table 11). Tukey’s Honestly Significant Difference (HSD) analysis was utilized to further determine which group differed significantly from the others. At the level of social needs, young students (below 30 years old) (M = 4.07) were significantly more motivated than those 31-40 years of age (M = 3.57) and 41-50 years of age (M = 3.53) who applied for admission in continuing education programs at universities, F (3, 169) = 4.55, p = .004. Table 11 Age and Five Levels of Needs

Levels of Needs

Below 30 (A)

(N=21)

31-40 (B)

(N=63)

41-50 (C)

(N=61)

Above 50 (D)

(N=28)

F-ratio

P Physiological 2.50 2.32 2.09 2.27 1.45 .229 Safety 3.02 2.84 2.68 2.85 .96 .412 Social 4.07

(B,C) 3.57 (A)

3.53 (A)

3.73 4.55 .004*

Esteem 3.92 3.69 3.64 3.81 1.58 .196 Self-actualization 4.03 3.92 3.90 3.96 .27 .844

* p < .05 Note. The sample of below 25 years old had less than five students. They were merged into the group of below 30 years old.


Conclusion and Recommendations

Summary

The following summary is based upon the data obtained from the study and results from the statistical analyses of the data.

1. The majority of these respondents are male and are business owners or managers. 2. The most common respondent program is the managerial consulting program. 3. Most respondents have worked for more than ten years and have graduated from college

or high school. 4. Almost half of the respondents belong to a high-income group and earn more than 60,000

NT dollars. 5. Most respondents are 31-40 or 41-50. 6. The composite means for the extent of physiological and safety needs are below 3.00. This

indicate that there is a lack of motivation by physiological and safety needs for applicants in attending continuing education programs.

7. The composite means for the extent of social needs and esteem needs are above 3.00. This indicates that there is more motivation by social and esteem needs for applicants in attending continuing education programs.

8. The composite mean (3.93) for the extent of self-actualization needs is the highest score among the five levels of Maslow's needs. This indicates that the greatest motivation for applicants in attending continuing education programs is self-actualization needs.

9. Self-actualization needs produce the greatest motivation for those who applied for admission in continuing education programs. This is followed, in turn, by esteem needs, social needs, and safety needs; the least motivating factor is the factor of physiological needs.

10. At the level of social needs, lower-income students are more motivated than the higher-income students who applied for admission in continuing education programs at universities.

11. At the level of social needs, young students are more motivated than those 31- 40 years of age and 41-50 years of age who applied for admission in continuing education programs at universities.

Discussion

Some of the results from this study support Maslow's theory. According to the data analyses, there are significant differences in motivation existing among the five levels of need for those who applied for admission in continuing education programs. The composite means that the extent of physiological needs and safety needs are below 3.00. This indicates that there is a lack of motivation related to physiological and safety needs for applicants in attending continuing education programs. Those who represent most continuing education students did not care about physiological needs (more food, more clothing, and better vehicles) or safety needs (being harmed by others or increased job security).

The highest ranking among the five levels of Maslow's needs is in self-actualization. This indicates that the greatest motivator for applicants in attending continuing education programs at

64 南師學報

NCKU is self-actualization needs. In essence, most continuing education students want to develop more of their potential and self-objectives. As Gabor and Yerkes (1999) indicated, the emergence of new post-baccalaureate certificates and degrees has offered adult learners innovative and effective ways to enhance or advance their careers. Subsequently, interdisciplinary curricula, flexible formats, convenient locations, and necessary adjunct faculty are stretching the historical bounds of the academic society in order to satisfy the needs of individuals. For example, traditional schools are joining with continuing and professional-studies units to design and implement certificate and degree programs to compete in a growing market.

Asian nations are adopting a lifelong-learning orientation, and open universities for adult learners are proliferating (Sherritt, 1999). To meet the continuing education demand of high school graduates, universities and colleges in Taiwan are putting more and more emphasis on credit programs at the undergraduate level. The shift from a manufacturing-based economy to one with increasingly sophisticated technical and service sectors highlights a growing vacuum of workers with professional skills.

According to Reid (2000), various factors may motivate adult learners. Personal advancement, self-esteem, and professional development and pleasure are motivators for adults. Social factors, such as making new friends, establishing new relationships, and improving one's ability to serve society can also be strong motivators. Most people have a need for a high evaluation of themselves that is firmly based in reality, recognition, and respect from others. Self-actualization, as found in this study, is the need to maximize one's potential, whatever it may be.

Bakke (1997) pointed out that adult learners have a relatively high rate of esteem-related issues. Accordingly, awareness is critical to growth and development. Adults are pursuing self-development and growth. Results of the data analyses in this study indicate that there is more motivation for applicants to attend continuing education programs based on social and esteem needs than on physiological and safety needs, which supports Bakke's presumption. This study showed that the greatest motivator for applicants in attending continuing education programs is self-actualization needs, which supports Maslow's theory.

This study found that to satisfy social needs, lower-income students are more motivated than the higher-income students who applied for admission to continuing education programs at NCKU. Also, younger students are more motivated by social needs than are older students. The findings in this study indicate that lower income and younger students are more eager to fulfill their social needs than higher income and older students, which is also consistent with Maslow's theory. Maslow's theory of human needs and motivation found that people fulfilled physical, security, social, esteem, and self-actualization needs in an orderly, ascending pattern.

Conclusions

Based upon findings and research results that emerged from this study, the following conclusions are made:

1. It is important to provide administrators, faculty, and staff in the universities and colleges in Taiwan with current information regarding research findings and viable alternatives to improve continuing education courses. They would benefit by taking active steps to consider what is the best activity course program for continuing education students to satisfy their needs--especially social, esteem, and self-actualization needs of students.

2. It is important that colleges and universities cater to the needs of today's adult population, through continuing education programs. Because people want to satisfy their higher needs, many universities develop continuing education programs in order to meet the needs of the adult learner.


A need is evident to let non-traditional, aged students have chances in continuing lifelong learning. 3. Recently, there have been more and more continuing education programs at the universities

and colleges in Taiwan. Schools are constantly in competition with one another. Each school would benefit by adapting its resources to develop its competitive continuing education programs and design some practical curricula to meet students' social, esteem, and self-actualization needs.

4. Students who graduated from Business Administration, Continuing Education Programs still have good relationships with the Department of Business Administration and National Cheng Kung University. There are many activities in their association, such as public welfare, academic seminars, traveling, health seminars, and charity activities. "Cheng Ta Business Administration Association" was established on January 13, 2001. There are currently more than 3,000 members in this association; it is one of the biggest associations in Taiwan. Schools and faculty would benefit themselves if they participated in and coordinated with graduates' activities, meeting and satisfying their higher needs for social interaction, esteem, and self-actualization.

Recommendations for Further Study

The following recommendations are suggested for further research: The study should be replicated by using continuing education programs at other institutions of

higher education. Further research should be done on how to improve continuing education programs. This study was conducted at the National Cheng Kung University in Tainan, which is located

in southern Taiwan. Similar studies should also be conducted in northern and central Taiwan in order to compare the needs of their continuing education students in their areas, respectively.

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投稿日期：92年3月20日修正日期：92年9月15日接受日期：92年9月25日

68 南師學報

以馬斯洛需求理論探討成人學員參加推廣教育班的動機

姜傳益王耀斌國立成功大學企業管理學系

摘要

高等教育在 21世紀，已經面臨更大的挑戰。台灣各大學院校，在最近幾年，成立了許多推廣教育班。為了因應漸增的競爭壓力，各校勢必有效運用資源，發展具有比較優勢之推廣教育班，並設計一些特殊課程，以符合學生的需求。能夠提供推廣教育班以迎合當前成人終身學習之需求，實為各大學院校重要的課題。

本研究的目的在於: 根據馬斯洛的需求層級理論，測定與比較成人學員，參加推廣教育班的動機。本研究是從成功大學企業管理學系舉辦的推廣教育班中，已結業和正在上課的學生，以隨機抽樣發出 462份問卷，得到 176份有效問卷為研究對象。

本研究結果發現，這些申請參加推廣教育班的學生，其最大動機在於自我實現的需求，其次是自尊需求，依次是社會需求、安全需求、最低的是生理需求。而在生理需求方面，高收入的學生較低收入學生的動機來得少。在社會需求方面，低收入和年輕的一族，比高收入與高年紀一族的動機來得多。

這些結果證實了馬斯洛的需求層級理論。大學院校必須採取、考慮最適當的課程計畫，以滿足這些學生真正的需求，特別是在社會的、自尊的、與自我實現的需求。

關鍵詞：馬斯洛需求層級理論、成人學員、推廣教育、維生因素、激勵因素。

using maslow's theory to examine adult learners

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