treatment jewish themes slovak schools

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Treatment of Jewish Themes in Slovak Schools

by Peter Salner and Eva Salnerova

The third in a series of reports available in English and Slovak,prepared for the American Jewish Committee's Central and East

European Curriculum Review Project. The first two reports dealt with

Poland and the Czech Republic.

Bio & ForewordDr. Peter Salner is a researcher at the Institute of Ethnology of the Slovak Academy ofSciences. He is president of the Bratislava Jewish Religious Community.

Dr. Eva Salnerova works as a political specialist. She is a board member of the BratislavaJewish Religious Community.

Dr. Peter Salner and Dr. Eva Salnerova's The Treatment of Jewish Themes in Slovak

Schools, which is being published simultaneously in English and Slovak, is the third in a

series of reports prepared for the American Jewish Committee's Central and EastEuropean Curriculum Review Project. The first two reports dealt with Poland and the

Czech Republic.

This project focuses on countries that have recently emerged from Communist rule. How

are Jews likely to fare in these postcommunist societies? A key determinant, most

certainly, will be the educational system, which crucially shapes the outlook of the

younger generation. What do children in the postcommunist countries of Central and EastEurope learn in the classroom about Judaism, Jewish history, the Holocaust, and Israel?

Does an exposure to the school curriculum enhance their understanding of Jews and

Jewish life, or does it reinforce negative perceptions of Jews? Do students gain some

sense of the richness of Jewish history, especially as it relates to their own history? Dothey come to appreciate Judaism as a religious phenomenon spanning the ages? Is both

the enormity and uniqueness of the Nazi genocide of the Jews made clear to them? Dostudents become acquainted with the history of modern Israel and contemporary world

Jewry in an objective manner?

Dr. Salner and Dr. Salnerov consider these questions in the context of the Slovak schoolsystem. Future publications in the series will deal with educational curricula in Hungary,


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In general, the words Jew and Jewish appear very infrequently in Slovak textbooks. Forexample, a newly published literature textbook designed for grade 8 of elementary

schools, provides the following synopsis of Rudolf Jasik's novel about the tragic love of a

Jewish girl and Christian boy during the Holocaust: "The novel entitled Saint Elisabeth's

Square describes the problems arising in the life of young people in the fascist Slovakstate controlled by clergy." In general, Slovak textbooks fail to identify many Jewish

writers and artists as such.

Some part of the "anonymity" of Jewish personalities in Slovak textbooks is due to the

fact that it is not customary in Slovakia to mention an individual's religion; instead, the

focus is on ethnicity or citizenship. Thus, a history textbook for grade 8 of elementaryschools emphasizes the significance of the theory of relativity, which "influenced almost

all areas of human activity in the 20th centuryscience, philosophy, culture, and arts."

Its originator, Albert Einstein, is described as follows: "German mathematician and

physicist, who is a symbol of science and human knowledge of the 20th century. In 1933,

upon the rise of Hitler to power, he emigrated to the USA, where he served as auniversity professor. In 1939 Einstein warned President Roosevelt about the danger of

Nazi nuclear research for military use."

The State of Israel is rarely touched upon in Slovak textbooks, and some of the references

are negative.

Elementary SchoolsStudents encounter subject matter about Jews in grade 5 history and geography classes. Amore concrete picture of Judaism is offered in grade 6 civic education. According to the

curriculum, the Holocaust is treated in grade 8, particularly in history classes. Israel istaught in geography. From grade 5 on, students encounter various aspects of these

subjects. However, because of the nature of the teaching materials, the knowledge

acquired lacks coherence and is decidedly fragmentary.

Geography

The textbook Man on the Earth: Geography for Grade 5 (Bratislava, 1996) indicates that"the most significant religions on earth are Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, and

Buddhism," making no mention of Judaism.

Students in grade 6 learn about Israel in the chapter on Southwest Asia in the textbook

Geography 6 (Bratislava, 1993). In addition to describing the natural conditions in the

region, the chapter provides some information about population: "The population ofIsrael is rather small, but it is increasing quite rapidly. Apart from the Arabs, there are

Turks and Persians [in Southwest Asia] too. A common trait of almost all inhabitants is

their Muslim religion. The only exception is the Jewish state of Israel." Other details

about Israel are offered in the chapter "Survey of Other States," where Israel is rankedamong the "economically developed states of Southwest Asia." The authors add that

Israel "is a very attractive country for tourists. Not only because of the beautiful sights,


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but also due to its religious history."

There is also a description of a kibbutz: "One of the types of rural settlements in Israel is

called a kibbutz. Its inhabitants run farms jointly, work in gardens. They also process

many agricultural products. For their work they get a small salary, but they do not have to

pay for food and services on the kibbutz." The chapter concludes: "The majority of thepopulation consists of Jews. Their religious distinction, but also the political conditions

(the Israeli occupation of Arab territoriesfig. 66) are sources of conflict between Israel

and Arab countries, but also within Israel itself. One part of the capital, Jerusalem, issituated on occupied territory. Abroad, Tel Aviv has been recognized more frequently as

the capital of Israel." Figure 66, just mentioned, shows a colored map of Israel with the

following legend: "Yelloworiginal territory of Israel; brownterritory occupied orcontrolled by Israel; greenterritory controlled by UN units." Relations with the

Palestinians are described as follows: "During almost 50 years of its existence, Israel has

considerably extended its territory to the detriment of its neighbors. For some time, Israel

occupied even the Sinai Peninsula."

The chapter ends with five questions, two of which relate to Israel. The second asks

students to locate the two largest Israeli cities. The first question characterizes Israel innegative terms: "What countries are Israel's neighbors? Which of them do not have any of

its territories occupied by Israel?"

Literature

Some literature textbooks now in use were published before 1989, so it is not surprisingthat they fail to mention Jewish themes or authors. Literature for Grade 5 (Bratislava,

1997), in a section called "Legends," pre-sents the biblical account of creation. In theirintroduction, the authors inform students that "The books of the Old Testament were

originally written in Hebrew." At the same time, however, they encourage students to

read "how the holy book of Christians, the Old Testament, describes the creation of

world." The authors identify Jesus as a Jew, but then continue: "By his teaching he upsetthe Jewish religious officials, who asked the Roman prosecutor Pontius Pilate to sentence

Jesus to death. However, Pilate found him innocent and wanted to release him. The

crowd requested his death yet and thus had him crucified."

Civic Education

In grade 7 of elementary schools students are taught about the principal world religions

and emphasis is placed on "the need for tolerance among people with different world

outlooks." A new textbook, entitled Civic Education for Grade 7 of Elementary Schools(Bratislava, 1997), provides objective information about Judaism, which is listed first

among other religions. There is a definition of the Torah and explanations of God's

covenant with Abraham, the 613 commandments, the chosenness of the Jewish people,

and the expectation of the messiah. The role of the synagogue is described in these terms:"The synagogue, in which Jewish services take place, is the center of religious life.

Marriages are entered there and also a ceremonial acceptance of Jewish boys among the


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adults. Jews consider a family and family relations to be very important; thus many

Jewish holidays are at the same time family holidays." The text also includes informationabout the most significant holidaysRosh Hashanah, Yom Kippur, Pesach, Shavuot,

Sukkot, Hanukkah, Purim.

History

After November 1989 it was necessary to replace the old Communist history textbooks.

The first new books, issued in 1990, were intended for temporary use, while more recentones are marked by attractive layouts, and graphics. These new textbooks, in contrast to

those of the Communist period, pay varying degrees of attention to Jewish history and the

Holocaust.

Particularly after the breakup of Czechoslovakia in 1993 the record of the wartime

Slovak state began to be discussed. The critical issue dividing the country was not the

Holocaust, but the Slovak national uprising of 1944. While most individuals and political

parties view the uprising as an act that joined Slovakia to Western democratic forces inWorld War II, others consider it a treasonous attack against Slovak statehood. August 29,

the anniversary of the uprising, was a national holiday in former Czechoslovakia and stillis in Slovakia. Most political parties support this legacy. However, the Slovak National

Party, which was a member of the government coalition from 1994 to 1998, views the

wartime Slovak state in positive terms and has condemned the uprising. Since the SlovakNational Party controlled the Ministry of Education, it consistently attempted to inject its

view into the history curriculum. The party worked to prevent the introduction of a

textbook entitled History 4: Slovakia in the New Century, despite its positive evaluationby reviewers, and sought to put in its place a controversial book with an anti-Jewish

orientation, Milan S. Durica's The History of Slovakia and the Slovaks. The secondedition of Durica's work was published by the Ministry of Education with the aim of

having it serve as a mandatory textbook in both elementary and secondary schools.

The following ten history textbooks for elementary schools are analyzed here: (l) P.Dvok, I. Mrva, and V. Kratochvl, Slovakia in the Middle Ages and in the New Age

(1997); (2) D. Kov, V. Kopan, and V. Kratochvl, Slovakia at the Turn of the New Age

(1995); (3) D. Kov and L. Liptk, Teaching Texts from History, 1939-1945 (1990); (4)D. Kov, I. Kamenec, and V. Kratochvl, History 4: Slovakia in the New Century

(1997); (5) R. Letz, Slovakia in the Twentieth Century (1997); (6) H. Tkadlekov and V.

Kratochvl, History 4: The World in the New Century (1995); (7) H. Tkadlekov, M.Skladan, and V. Kratochvl, At the Threshold of the Modern World (1995); (8) V.

Michovsk, History: Prehistory and Ancient Times (1997); (9) V. Mcska, M. Skladan,

and V. Kratochvl, Europe in the Middle Ages (1996); (10) V. Kratochvl, J. Cangr, andD. Kov, Methodical Handbook to History for Elementary Schools (1994).

Jewish History

In Slovakia, the teaching of ancient history focuses on Egypt, Greece, and Rome. In

textbook 10, the chapter on ancient states of the Near East and Mediterranean briefly


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describes the origin of an independent Jewish state threatened by both Egypt and

Mesopotamia. Further on, the Bible is mentioned as containing "tales from Jewish historyand Jewish religious rules." According to the authors, "it became a holy book of both the

Jewish and Christian religions. Until now it has been considered a noteworthy work of art

as well as a significant source for Jewish history."

Textbooks that deal with the early periods of both Slovak and world history mention

Jews, at best, only in passing. For example, in textbook l, designed for grade 6 of

elementary schools, the chapter "Slovaks, Neighbors, Foreigners" indicates that in thesixteenth and seventeenth centuries the territory of old Hungary was inhabited by

Magyars, Croats, Slovaks, Ruthenians, Serbs, Greeks, Armenians, and Jews. The

following is noted about Jews: "In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries the number ofJews increased too. They earned their living mainly by trading and handling money."

Textbook 2, designed for grade 7 of elementary schools, notes with regard to the Edict of

Toleration of 1782: "Joseph II realized that tolerance is useful for the state. Therefore, he

issued the Toleration Edict which granted religious freedom to all Christians. It alsoallowed the Jews to enter the monarchy freely, which was reflected in economic revival."

Slovak textbooks fail to mention Jews in connection with significant historical events,

thus depriving students of a significant learning opportunity. For some students, the

absence of classroom information can be compensated for, in part, by visits to theMuseum of Jewish Culture in Bratislava and a smaller museum in the eastern Slovak

town of Presov. For most students, however, Jewish historical experience prior to the

Holocaust remains largely a blank.

The Holocaust

The Holocaustthe systematic extermination of European Jewrywas not mentioned in

Czechoslovak textbooks written under Communist auspices. At most, Jewish victims of

the Nazis were included in the overall number of people killed in the various countries inWorld War II. The concentration camps were described as places where antifascist

fighters, particularly Communists, suffered. In addition, history textbooks avoided any

general assessment of the Slovak Republic (1939-45), presenting only a one-sidedcriticism of its clerical and anti-Communist character.

Slovak students encounter the Holocaust for the first time in grade 8 of elementary school(ages 14-15). Textbook 3 was published in 1990 shortly after the fall of Communism and

prior to the breakup of Czechoslovakia. A second revised edition, published in 1992, was

used until 1997. The text is divided into seven chapters: (1) "The Second World War";(2) "The Slovak Republic"; (3) "Occupied Slovak Territories"; (4) "The Wartime Czech

Republic and Moravia"; (5) "Antifascist Resistance"; (6) "The Slovak National

Uprising"; (7) and "The Liberation of Slovakia."

The authors of textbook 3 are attentive to the place of Jews in the events described. The

introductory chapter includes the following statement: "The Nazis in the occupied


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territory terrorized the local population. They started to implement their evil plan of

wiping out entire peoples, particularly the Slavs. The local population was to be turnedinto slaves with no rights, laboring for the ruling German nation. Jewish citizens

particularly were subjected to a dreadful terror and mass murders in concentration camps

and gas chambers."

Chapter two of textbook 3, "The Slovak Republic," describes the activity of the Slovak

People's Party and concludes: "The character of the political system of the Slovak

Republic was reflected in the most tragic chapter of that periodin the persecution andmurdering of the Jewish population." This dimension is amplified in chapter 5, which

includes a section on "Persecution of Jews." It begins: "German Nazis considered Jews,

like Slavs and blacks, an inferior race. Jewish citizens were persecuted, deprived of theirhuman dignity and property, and finally physically liquidatedmurdered." The authors

add:

At the beginning of 1942 the government in Bratislava accepted the Germans' offer to

deport Jews for labor in occupied Poland. In March 1942 the first railway transportscarrying men, women, small children, the sick and elderly set off for extermination

camps. Most of the deported died in gas chambers or from exhaustion, starvation, orforced labor. Both the highest church officials and the Vatican protested to the Slovak

government about the persecution of Jews and their deportation, calling it inhuman.

When deportations were stopped in October 1942, it was too latemost of the deportedJews were no longer alive. The countries of the anti-Hitler coalition considered the

persecution of the Jews to be a crime against humanity, and its perpetrators were tried

and punished after the war. The persecution and murder of the Jews clearly evidences thefascist character of the political system existing in the Slovak Republic.

Four questions relate to this text: (1) "What reasons were given to justify the anti-Jewish

measures? Why are these views false?" (2) "What is Aryanization?" (3) "What

restrictions on Jewish human rights were introduced in the Slovak Republic after 1939?"

(4) and "When and where were the Jews transported from Slovakia? What fate awaitedthem?"

Textbook 3 is quite short and includes no photographs or maps. Despite its temporarycharacter and poor layout, however, it represents an important step forward in making

students aware of the Jewish dimension of events in Slovakia during World War II. The

authors present an unambiguously negative portrait of the pro-Nazi Slovak state andprovide a clear sense of contemporary attitudes toward Jews.

The authors of textbooks 4 and 6, which replaced textbook 3, rank among the mostprominent Slovak historians. Textbook 4 was ready to go to press in 1994. However, a

new government coalition came to power at that time and the Slovak National Party took

control of the Ministry of Education. It attempted to prevent the publication of this book

because in its view the authors did not sufficiently emphasize the struggle for Slovakstate sovereignty. The Slovak National Party also objected to the authors' approach to the

Slovak Republic and the Holocaust, implying that the Slovak national uprising was


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neither Slovak nor national. The Ministry's views started a controversy among teachers

and historians that was taken up in the media and elsewhere. Finally, after more than twoyears, textbook 4 was approved by the Ministry of Education and distributed to schools in

1997-98.

Textbook 4 differs from previous ones in its attractive layout. The text is richly illustratedwith maps and photographs. Every event discussed gets identical spacea double page.

The left margin includes a "Gallery of Personalities" (profiles of prominent contemporary

figures), while the right margin contains contemporary photographs. The title of eachsubchapter is followed by two or three significant dates. Then the text followsusually

one page. The next page consists of a section providing excerpts from old documents and

photographs or maps. Also included is a brief dictionary of two or three elementaryterms. A section called "Let's Think and Discuss" poses several questions. The authors

encourage the students to express their own views and ideas, something unknown in the

Communist period.

The Holocaust is treated in chapter 3, "Slovakia in the Years 1936-45," which is dividedinto seven subchapters: (1) "Clouds over Czechoslovakia"; (2) "From Autonomy to

Independence"; (3) "Founding of a New State"; (4) "The Slovak Republic on the Map ofEurope"; (5) "Life in the Slovak Republic"; (6) "The Slovak National Uprising"; (7) and

"What Was the Slovak Republic Like?"

In subchapter 4, in a section entitled "What Do the Old Documents Tell Us?," there is an

excerpt from a diplomatic note from the Vatican to the Slovak government on the

implementation of the so-called Jewish Codex: "The Holy See has learned with anguishthat in Slovakia too the country, whose people enjoy the best Catholic tradition, issued a

government edict on September 9, 1941 that implements a detailed racial legislation,comprising various measures which seem to be in contradiction with Catholic principles."

In subchapter 7 two of the three dates refer to the Holocaust: "1941, government edict

No. 198/1941, the so-called Jewish Codex, was issued containing anti-Jewish

legislation"; "1942, deportations of Jewish citizens took place from March to October."

The authors provide the following general statement about the fate of the Jews:

Violation of civil and human rights was most noticeably displayed in the so-called

solution of the Jewish question. Jews were gradually deprived of property, stripped of

their elementary political, civil and finally human rights. They were excluded fromschools, lost their jobs and displaced from their residences. They were concentrated in

numerous labor camps and were obliged to wear a degrading labela yellow star.

Although thousands of Jewish citizens received various working, religious, andpresidential exceptions, these could not prevent the tragedy. In 1942 the Slovak

government forcibly deported 58,000 Slovak Jews to "death camps." Another 13,000

were deported by the Germans after they seized Slovakia in the fall of 1944. Even

sympathy and assistance to Jews by some of the Slovak population could not change theimpact of the inhuman anti-Jewish government legislation.


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Also included in the section "What Do Old Documents Tell Us?" are two other Jewish-

related items. The first is a warning in a Hlinka Guard leaflet of 1940: "We will not becheated by a silly phrase that Jews are also human. The Jews are representatives and

agents of the devil. Jews are not created by God, but by the devil and therefore Jews are

not human, even if they look human. Those who offer protection or support to Jews in

any way will not escape God's punishment." The second item is a letter from Slovakrabbis to the president in March 1942: "A large number of Jewish citizens in Slovakia are

threatened by deportations to a foreign country. Wartime deportation equals

extermination. In this last crucial hour we appeal to your Christian and human conscienceand turn to you with a desperate request: Use your influence to prevent this mode of a

people's annihilation."

The photographic supplement to this material includes an anti-Jewish cartoon headed

"Jews Are Our Enemies," a copy of the constitutional law of May 15, 1942 displacing

Jews, a photo made in a labor camp, another of a deportation, and a picture of the yellow

star. In the section "Let's Think and Discuss" two of four questions refer to the Holocaust:

(3) "When and where were the Jews deported from Slovakia and what was their fate?" (4)"From whom did Tiso have to protect his own citizens when granting exceptions?"

Textbook 5 was approved by the Slovak National Party-controlled Ministry of Education

as an alternative to textbook 4. In discussing the Slovak state the author makes clear his

sympathies for President Tiso, who is contrasted to radicals such as Prime Minister Tukaand Interior Minister Mach. It is the latter who are held responsible for the destruction of

Slovak Jewry: "After a secret agreement with Germany, without informing the president

and other cabinet members, Tuka and Mach launched deportation of the Jews fromSlovakia to German camps in Polish territory."

The section entitled "Let's Think and Discuss" includes question 4: "What was the status

of Slovak Jews during the Slovak Republic? What was their fate? Could it have been

avoided?" The section labeled "Let's Update Our Vocabulary" defines "Aryanization" as

the "transfer of Jewish property into the hands of non-Jews'Aryans'"; and "deportation"as "the forced displacement or dislocation from certain territory." There is a photograph

showing the deportation of Slovak Jews, while the recommended literature includes Jozef

Lanik's What Dante Did Not See, the testimony of a Slovak Jew who managed to escapefrom Auschwitz.

The author of textbook 5 points out positive aspects of the Slovak state, stressing "thehigh degree of the courts' independence," presidential and ministerial exemptions for

Jews, and assistance provided to Jews by the Slovak population and church.

In textbook 6, chapters 2 and 3 relate to the issues at hand. Chapter 2, "Europe Between

Two Wars," includes two subchapters ("Mussolini and His Black Shirts" and "Hitler

against Europe") which trace the origins of Italian Fascism and German Nazism and their

paths to power. The section dealing with Italian Fascism does not mention Jews at all. In"Hitler against Europe," it is stated:


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Hitler proceeded as Lenin did in Russia and Mussolini in Italy. He prohibited all political

parties, associations, organizations, and clubs. The state bodies, education, science,culture, and courts Hitler put under his party control. Secret police flooded the whole

country. Opponents of the regime were put in jail and in concentration camps. That was

his way of government, which is common to all dictators.

The German dictatorship had, however, two more specific features. It instituted racial

laws and divided the people into valuable and less valuable groups. Themselves, as the

so-called Nordic race, they put above all. The German nation, so-called Ubermensch intheir view, must turn othersi.e., Slavs, Jews, and Romainto modern slaves or destroy

them.

The section of textbook 6 entitled "Small Gallery of Personalities" mentions Hitler,

Goebbels, and Himmler. "What Do Old Documents Tell Us?" offers excerpts from the

Nuremberg Laws: "Jews cannot be citizens of the Reich. They do not have the right to

vote, cannot hold public positions . . . . Jew is defined as a person at least one of whose

grandparents going down to the third generation is of racially pure Jewish origin." Alsoincluded is an illustration of F. Nussbaum's painting Self-Portrait with a Jewish Passport,

indicating that the artist died in Auschwitz.

The chapter of textbook 6 entitled "The Second World War" contains significant

information about the Holocaust. It is organized into four subchapters: (1) "EuropetheVictim of Dictators"; (2) "Life in Occupied Europe"; (3) "Superpowers against Hitler";

(4) and "Finally Peace".

In subchapter 2, all three introductory dates refer to the Holocaust: "1933, concentration

camps were established in Germany"; "1942, a conference was held in Wannsee whichadopted measures for a systematic annihilation of Jews and following which several

extermination camps or "death factories" were set up, e.g. in Auschwitz, Treblinka,

Majdanek, etc."; "1939-45, about 6 million Jews were exterminated in the course of

World War II."

Nazi plans for the destruction of European Jewry are described as follows:

In every state, whether occupied or a satellite, Nazis singled out two groups of people

destined for death. In 1941 Nazi leaders adopted the decision to launch the deportation of

Jews to concentration camps from all over Europe. Most camps were built in Poland.Here the Jews were allowed to starve to death and were exposed to all kinds of torture.

Moreover, the Nazis invented special death camps designed for the extermination of

Jews, later followed by Roma. Only Denmark, Bulgaria, and Italy refused to accept thisruling. Although Jews were persecuted there too, they were not sent to death. Death

threatened other nations and ethnic groups that openly withstood the Nazi tyranny.

The section entitled "It Will Interest You" explains: "The murdering of Jewish citizens inWorld War II is also called the Holocaust. In ancient Greece this term denoted a burnt

offering (Holokaustumto burn entirely)." The text is supplemented by a table which


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indicates that 800,000 Jews died in the course of deportations and 3 million were

murdered in concentration camps. Photographs show the Warsaw ghetto, deportations,and Auschwitz. The section "What Do Old Documents Tell Us?" provides excerpts from

the memoirs of a German political prisoner in a concentration camp, indicating that the

Germans treated Jews more cruelly than other prisoners.

Textbooks 4 and 6 provide significant coverage of the Holocaust, while allowing students

the opportunity for discussion and personal reflection. The latter element is certainly

welcome from an educational point of view, but it can also lead to problems, sinceopinion in Slovakia is divided about the wartime Slovak state. This is especially the case

since some teachers use auxiliary classroom material that positively evaluates the Slovak

Republic.

Secondary SchoolsAs noted above, it is more difficult to analyze instruction in secondary schools than in

elementary schools. There are new textbooks in some subject areasfor example, social

science and literaturebut hardly any in others, most especially history. Teachers,therefore, are forced to rely on older books or other materials. To get a better sense of

what actually takes place in secondary school classrooms, the authors of this reportconducted interviews with teachers in Bratislava and other Slovak cities.

Geography

The geography textbook for the first year of gymnasium refers to Israel in a number of

chapters, mostly in a positive manner. The references, however, are not sufficient toallow any clear sense of the country to emerge.

Additional information is offered in Geography for the Second Year of Gymnasium, Part

One (Bratislava, 1991). Here Israel serves as a model of religious conflict: "The Jewish

element in the Muslim world is the cause of unrest between Israel and its Arab neighbors.

A conflict between Hindus and Muslims resulted in the secession of Pakistan andBangladesh from India." Further on, Israel is ranked with Japan and Turkey among

developed countries. There is a positive characterization of the Jewish state: "Small Israel

originated in 1948 following a 2000-year-old claim of Jews for their own territory. TheJews built an economically prosperous state, the GDP of which per capita is four times

higher than those of its Arab neighbors." The authors stress that "Israel is the most

effective utilizer of water worldwide," and is characterized by high levels of education:"Israel is the only Asian state in which the number of educated people is higher than

needed by science and the economy, so that many of them are unable to find jobs." Both

Tel Aviv and Jerusalem are listed as capitals of the country.

Geography for the Second Year of Gymnasium, Part Two (Bratislava, 1991) includes a

chapter on the religious structure of the world population. Judaism is classified as an

ethnic type of religion and it is characterized as "a complex of religion and social ethics."The authors claim 18 million followers of Judaism worldwide. Scattered comments

provide students with at least a basic sense of the nature of Judaic faith. Particular stress


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is placed on the concept of monotheism: "God is almighty, invisible, and inconceivable,

who created the world out of nothing and who directs it himself. Judaism is based on theBible and Talmud: faith in free human thinking, belief in good and evil, resurrection of

the dead, eternal life, and the wrath of God." Regrettably, Judaism is not listed in the

denominational classification of the Slovak population according to the 1991 census.

Literature

Literature 3 for the Third Year of Gymnasium and High Schools (Bratislava, 1995) andLiterature 4 for the Fourth Year of Gymnasium and High Schools (Bratislava, 1997)

cover twentieth-century world literature. Both mention Jewish authors and issues, though

not in a systematic fashion.

A Jewish element is first encountered in Literature 3 in connection with the writings of

Thomas Mann. The author, students are informed, "emigrated to Switzerland in order to

escape from Nazism. Later Mann left for the USA, where he wrote a historical-

philosophical tetralogy, Joseph and His Brothers, in which he connected a biblical storywith contemporary times. Through the biblical Jew Joseph, the author protested against

anti-Semitism and racism." The Jewish origin of Franz Kafka is not mentioned in arelatively extensive presentation of his works. However, when introducing the Russian

writer Issac Babel, the authors make the following comment: "Lyricism but also irony

were used by Babel in his book Odessa Stories (1931), in which he described hischildhood and the Jewish environment of Odessa." Czech author Ivan Olbracht's writings

on Jewish topics are cited, but no details are given. Gejza Vmo, one of the few Slovak

Jewish writers of the period, is touched upon, with students being told: "His novelBroken Branch is characterized by autobiographic features. . . . It focuses on the problem

of a 'broken branch'Jews and their coexistence with the majority population."

In their fourth year, gymnasium students learn about the contemporary world and Slovak

literature. Saul Bellow's novel Herzog, which receives significant attention, is

characterized in the following manner: "Like the author, Moses Herzog spent hischildhood in Chicago, to which his ancestors went from Russia." When listing Joseph

Heller's books, Good as Gold is mentioned. In regard to Arthur Miller's plays, Broken

Glass is characterized as depicting American Jewish society at the time of Kristallnacht.

Books by Czech Jewish authors are associated mainly with the Holocaust. Thus Jan

Oen's novel Romeo, Julia and Darkness is described as "a love story between studentPaul and a Jewish girl Ester which has a tragic end. Ester is shot by Germans and Paul's

soul is full of despair." Also mentioned are Ludvik Akenzy and Ivan Klima; about the

latter students are told: "When still a child, he survived three years in Terezinconcentration camp and his work reflects these experiences."

While Jewish themes find expression in post-1945 Slovak literature, they are not

discussed in Literature 4. Leopold Lahola's Jewish origin is not directly mentioned, butstudents are told that "he could not finish his studies due to racial reasons. He was

detained in the labor camp Novaky. He managed to escape from there and join the


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partisans."

Social Education

Social education seeks to acquaint students with the basic elements of select fields

philosophy, law, economics, political science, psychology, and religion. Judaism figuresonly in religious ethics, a second-year course whose goal is to promote religious

tolerance"accepting people with different worldviews." With respect to Judaism, its

monotheistic character is stressed. According to the curriculum outline, "every teachercan adjust the extent of the teaching material." Thus if a teacher wishes to focus

exclusively on Christianity, he or she may do so. Still, students claim that they get at least

some exposure to Judaism.

History

There are hardly any new history textbooks for secondary schools, while those issued

under Communist auspices are completely inadequate.

1997 saw the publication of a new history textbook for technical and vocational highschools written by a team of authors: History Textbook for Technical and Vocational

High Schools, vol. 1, From Primeval Times to the Modern Era (Bratislava, 1997) and vol.

2, History of the Modern Era to the Revolutionary Years 1848-1849 (Bratislava, 1997).These volumes, however, contain little information about Jewish history. The first

reference to Jews is in the chapter dealing with ancient civilizations, where it is stated:

"Its most prominent ruler, Nebuchadnezzar, conquered Jerusalem, the capital of Hebrew-Jews, and in 587 B.C. he took the Jews as his captives." In a chapter entitled "The

Culture of River Civilizations," students are informed: "On the territory of Palestine thereappeared a faith in a single God, Yahweh, which laid the grounds of the Jewish and later

of the Christian religions. Their holy book, the Old Testament (part of the Bible) is more

than 3000 years old and consists of 40 volumes. It belongs to the cultural heritage of

mankind."

When dealing with the rise of Fascism and Nazism, teachers can make use of two books

by Josh Brooman, Italy and Mussolini: Italy 1900-1945 (1985) and Hitler's Germany:Germany 1933-1945 (1985), both translated into Slovak by the Slovak Teachers'

Association.

Fortunately, in dealing with the period of the Holocaust, an important resource is

available, namely D. Kov's and L. Liptk's History Chapters for High Schools

(Bratislava, 1990; 2d ed. 1992), which has the same temporary character as the textbookfor elementary schools that the authors published (see above).

The authors describe Nazi policy toward the Jews as follows:

In this "great German living space" there was supposed to rule a "higher" German race.

The "inferior nations"Slavs and Jewshad to be decimated or entirely annihilated,


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When the transports were organized, the selected victims were rounded up at night. TheHlinka Guards and the police committed burglaries; all those scenes, full of violence and

brutality, are difficult to describe. The racist legislation and later the deportation of the

Jews were met with protests that the Vatican made to Tiso.

The authors conclude with a powerful indictment of the Slovak Republic: "The active

participation of the Bratislava government in the annihilation of Jewish citizens made it a

prisoner of its German protector, to whom they clung until the last days of the war.Persecution of the Jews was connected with so much violence and brutality that it

ultimately cut off the road of the Hlinka Party to Europe."

To supplement scarce reading material on the Holocaust, schools in several cities of

central and eastern Slovakia (Martin, Preov, Bansk Bystrica) make annual visits to

Auschwitz. This however, is not the rule in Bratislava. Trips to concentration camps

usually come about as a result of initiatives among students and teachers and are, as a

rule, voluntary. Various organizations provide significant support in this respecte.g.,the Milan Simeka Foundation. In 1995 this foundation organized a trip to Auschwitz for

former prisoners together with high school students.

Other Sources for Jewish History

We have stressed that contemporary Slovak society is divided on the issue of the former

Slovak state and its functioning, and this shows itself in the publication of textbooks and

the recommendation of other materials for classroom use. So far the most serious conflictin this regard has centered on The History of Slovakia and the Slovaks by Milan S.

Durica.

Durica, who emigrated from Slovakia shortly after the Communists took over in 1948, is

a professor of Central and East European history at Padua University in Italy, and also

professor of ecclesiastic history at the Theological Faculty of Comenius University inBratislava. The first edition of his book, issued by Slovak Pedagogical Publishers in

1995, did not arouse any public response. This changed, however, when the second

edition was published in 1996 with the help of the Ministry of Education, using a grantprovided by the European Union. This edition of 90,000 copies was distributed to all

Slovak elementary and secondary schools as a recommended book that was seen as

providing the "official" view on Slovak history. Slovak students were expected to formtheir opinions about the Holocaust with the help of The History of Slovakia and the

Slovaks.

While The History of Slovakia and the Slovaks covers Slovak history from the first

centuries of the common era to the present, more than a quarter of the book is taken up

with the period from the declaration of Slovak autonomy in October 1938 until the

liberation of Czechoslovakia in May 1945. Durica uses every means available tominimize the participation of the wartime Slovak state in the liquidation of Slovak Jewry

and to excuse President Tiso's behavior in this regard. A key element of his strategy is to


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blame Prime Minister Tuka and Interior Minister Mach for what happened to the Jews.

Thus, Durica writes of events on May 25, 1940: "The German ambassador to Bratislava,Hans Bernard, reported to Berlin that Alexander Mach visited President Tiso and urged

him to adopt the radical solution of the Jewish issue, which Tiso rejected. Therefore,

Tuka asked Berlin for instructions and moral support."

Anti-Jewish measures, which began to be implemented at the end of 1938, are mentioned

for the first time by Durica in connection with constitutional law No. 210 of September 3,

1940, "which for a one-year term authorized the Slovak government to resolve the issuesrelated to the Aryanization of Jewish property and businesses. By adopting such

legislation, the parliament limited its own powers, and also the power of the president,

while strengthening the position of the government."

Durica notes the adoption of the Jewish Codex on September 9, 1941 in this way: "The

Slovak government issued edict No. 198/1941 on the legal status of Jews ('Jewish

Codex'). It represented almost a faithful copy of the German anti-Jewish laws. However,

article 255 endowed the president with the right to make exemptions from thisgovernmental decree which had the same force as a law. President Tiso never signed the

legislation."

Durica indicates that at the beginning of 1942 there were 64 Jewish schools in Slovakia

previously there had been 24attended by about 8,000 students. Unmentioned, however,is the fact that the boom in Jewish schools was due to the expulsion of Jewish children

from the public schools.

Durica stresses German pressure to deport Slovak Jews and the alleged resistance of the

Slovak parliament and President Tiso:

The leadership of the Hlinka Party headed by Dr. Jozef Tiso decided to resolve the

Jewish question in accordance with Christian moral principles. They proposed to build

labor camps for Jews in Slovakia and to tax Jewish property. Following this decision,labor camps for Jews were set up in Novaky, Sered, Vyhne; later, labor centers were

established in Zilina, Ilava, Deges, and Nitra. These were more or less facilities of an

economic character run on the basis of state orders. The cabinet-making shops in Seredwere the most modern and efficient facilities of their kind in Slovakia. Every camp had

its own agricultural section with cattle-breeding for the camp's own supply. There were

schools established for children, vocational training for apprentices. During vacationschildren could spend some time outside the camps in those Jewish families that were free.

Jewish physicians cared for the health conditions of camp inhabitants. Dentists were

provided with gold for dentures, which at that time most Slovaks could not afford at all.Chiefs of economic sections were often permitted to travel across Slovakia, a privilege

they often misused to organize illegal actions.

As to the actual deportation process, it is described as follows:

March 25, 1942: The first transport of Slovak Jews left from Poprad through Zilina to the


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former Poland. It consisted of approximately 1000 young girls capable of work. In the

following transports approximately 8000 Jewish youths, both girls and boys, weredeported. The displacement of Jews and especially their harsh treatment by some Slovak

Hlinka Guards raised sharp criticism and resistance of many Slovak citizens, church

officials, and the state council. The main objection was that family ties were broken

among deported individuals. Therefore, Tuka and Mach requested the German officials totake the older family members as well. The chief of the fourth department B4 of the

Chief Reich Security Office (RSHA) in Berlin, Adolf Eichmann, first refused to comply

with their wish, but later he changed his view. Thus, beginning April 11, there started thedeportation of entire families. The president's office intervened in these governmental

actions by granting presidential exceptions according to article 255 of the government

Act 198/1941. Similarly, ministries provided special passes to many Jews, claiming thatthey were economically irreplaceable, which exempted them from deportation. Such

passes protected approximately 35,000 Jews.

Given its attempt to explain away the complicity of the Slovak state in the destruction of

Slovak Jewry, it is not surprising that Durica's book was attacked in many quarters.Among those protesting the effort to make it an official textbook were the Federation of

the Jewish Communities in Slovakia, B'nai B'rith, Protestant church officials, variouspolitical parties, and the Helsinki Committee and other human rights organizations.

Another volume that was meant to make up for the shortage of new history textbooks isthe Lexicon of Slovak History (1997), compiled by a team of authors. It is divided into

two parts: "The Calendar," which lists historical events chronologically, and "The

Vocabulary," which is encyclopedic in character.

Unfortunately, the sections of the volume dealing with the Holocaust lean heavily onDurica's book. The deportation of Slovak Jews is described as follows:

On March 25, 1942 the deportations of Jews to the German concentrations camps began.

The deportations were ordered by the prime minister V. Tuka after an agreement withGermany without parliament's and president's knowledge as well as of other members of

the government. Slovakia was the first independent state that displaced most of its Jews

in this way. It was also the first state that stopped the deportations in October 1942 after itlearned about the annihilation of Jews (until the end of 1942, 58,000 Jews were

deported). The deportations were renewed only in October 1944 when the German army

invaded Slovakia. Approximately 70,000 Jewish citizens were deported, of whom 67,000died in the German concentration camps.

Under the heading "Labor Camps" the following information is provided:

Centers for Jews and persons avoiding work. In Slovakia they began to be built in 1941.

They were designed for that part of the Jewish population that lost its civil rights after the

adoption of the Jewish Codex. The deportations of Jews from Slovakia to Germanconcentration camps in Poland beginning March 25, 1942, speeded up the construction of

labor camps to save Jews from deportations. Persons selected for deportation were held in


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gathering camps temporarily. The labor camps for Jews were established by the Interior

Ministry's act of April 4, 1942, which required a general labor duty. In Slovakia therewere established three labor camps, which acquired the character of state enterprises. The

camp in Sered (1700 persons) specialized in joinery work and it ranked among the most

modern and efficient companies in Slovakia. The camp in Novaky (1300 persons)

specialized in clothing production and the camp in Vyhne (400 people) on constructionworks. All of them were guarded by the Hlinka Guards. Apart from a strict camp regime,

they had their own self-administration, social and cultural facilities (hospital, nurseries,

schools, libraries, theaters). Besides the labor camps for Jews, there were also Jewishworking centers which were smaller working groups dispersed all across Slovakia

(approx. 700 people). The labor camps for Jews ceased to exist when the uprising burst

out in 1944.

The entry under "Jewish Codex" is worth quoting in full:

The Jewish Codex is a governmental decree on the status of Jews. After the first Slovak

Republic came into being on March 14, 1939, the authorities began to seek a solution tothe so-called Jewish question that would resolve the economic, political, and cultural

situation of the Jewish population. In Slovakia, where assimilation among Jews was lessthan in Hungary or the Czech Republic, the Jews were viewed as a foreign element. This

was due to previous historical experience and prejudices, contemporary ideas, and the

lack of mutual tolerance and knowledge. Tiso's government attempted to proceedaccording to the so-called 4-percent method (proportion of the Jewish population to the

majority population). In 1940, 88,951 Jews lived in Slovakia. The first governmental act

that restricted Jewish rights was issued on April 18, 1939. It defined the term "Jew" onreligious rather than racial grounds and limited their participation in certain free

professions. Until September 1940, 47 governmental rulings restricting the rights of Jewswere issued; however, most of them allowed for exceptions. Gradually, their properties

began to be confiscated (e.g., land reform of February 29, 1940, the first Aryanization

legislation of April 15, 1940). These laws very flagrantly affected the economic

prosperity of Jews; however, they were not entirely excluded from the economic life ofthe country. From March 1939 until the end of 1941, 6194 Slovak Jews left Slovakia. The

Salzburg negotiations of July 28, 1940, brought a turning point on the Jewish issue. Upon

A. Eichmann's proposal, D. Wisliczeny came to Bratislava as an adviser on the Jewishissue to the Slovak government with the aim of depriving the Jews of their property and

displacing them. The new prime minister V. Tuka and interior minister A. Mach

requested a fast solution of the so-called Jewish question. On September 3, 1940, theparliament authorized the government to take all measures necessary for the Aryanization

of Jewish propertyi.e., its complete transfer into non-Jewish hands. Jewish property

was registered and counted. According to that registration, 54,667 individuals ownedproperty amounting to Sk 4 billion 322 239,000 and their debts accounted for Sk 1 billion

134 582,000. The Jewish Codex was issued as the governmental ruling on September 9,

1941, following the model of the so-called Nuremberg racial laws. The Codex, which

consisted of 270 articles, was monitored by H. Globke, the author of extensivecommentaries to the Nuremberg Laws. The term "Jew" was defined by racial criteria: it

was a person who had at least three Jewish grandparents. Half-Jewish persons were


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considered non-Jews. Intermarriages between Jews and gentiles were forbidden. Jews had

to be labeled. Their personal freedom was radically restricted. President Tiso enforcedarticle 255 in the Jewish Codex according to which he could grant an exception or

partially exempt a person from this ruling. There began the construction of labor camps

for Jews. The confidential conference of German politicians at Wannsee on January 20,

1942 determined the "final solution of the Jewish question" by annihilation of the Jews.When Germany requested an increase in the number of Slovak workers designated for

labor in Germany, the Slovak Interior Ministry offered 20,000 Jews from Slovakia as a

substitute for the requested labor force. Germany systematically enforced the solution ofthe so-called Jewish question by displacement of Jews. Without informing the

government and President Tiso about his plans, V. Tuka made an agreement with

Germans to dislodge the Jews from Slovakia. The deportations started on March 25,1942. The government paid DM 500 for each deported Jew.

Another supplement to textbooks was published in 1997 under the title The HistoryBook. It is intended to help gymnasium students pass their graduation examinations. The

chapter "The Slovak Republic (1939-1945)" includes a sixteen-line section entitled"Persecution of Jewish Citizens" which provides accurate information about the

Holocaust. A listing of restrictions imposed on Jewse.g., they could not practice certain

professions, they had to wear the yellow star, communication between "Aryans" and Jewswas prohibitedpaves the way for the following statement: "On the pretext that the Jews

were to be conscripted for labor in the territory of former Poland, Tuka and Mach elicited

from the government the deportation of the Jews from Slovakia. From March 25 whenthe first transport left Poprad until October 1942, 58,000 Jews were forced out of

Slovakia. Some Jews escaped abroad, others obtained the so-called presidentialexception. The racist legislation and displacement of Jews met with a strong protest from

the Vatican addressed to Tiso. The deportations were stopped only in the fall of 1942."

We talked to several secondary-school teachers about how they coped with the shortageof quality history textbooks and the use they made of the recommended supplemental

books. A history teacher at a Catholic high school in Bratislava showed us a number of

books that she used for reference. Among them were two of Durica's books. When askedif she actually used them in class, she replied that students should know both sides of a

controversial issue before making a final judgment. She used Durica's books for reference

on the early history of Slovakia, but used other sources in dealing with the SlovakRepublic. At the time of our interview, she was teaching World War II and the Holocaust

to third-year students. She indicated that she had invited several historians to talk to her

students and on a number of occasions went with them to the Jewish Museum inBratislava, although she complained that she had very little time for such extra activities.

A history teacher at another Bratislava gymnasium made it clear that she focuses on anti-

Semitism, indicating that it is neither a new nor a peculiarly German phenomenon. Sheconsidered Durica's book to be tendentious and, when using it, added appropriate

commentary. She made it clear, however, that some of her colleagues viewed things quite


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differently. The wartime Slovak Republic is often a source of sharp dispute in the

classroom, she reported. In the fourth year of history instruction at her school, there is anoptional seminar on the Holocaust. In 1997-98, approximately 50 studentsout of a total

of 130 fourth-year studentsenrolled in it. Students seem to show increasing interest in

this issue, she stated. Even if they do not participate in the seminar, they ask her to tell

them the truth about the wartime Slovak Republic and President Tiso.

Another history teacher told us that her family had suffered as a result of xenophobia, and

that she therefore wanted her students to understand the atrocities of the Holocaust. Aftera great deal of effort, she was able to organize a trip to Auschwitz for her students,

stressing the point that nothing equals direct contact with the reality of the concentration

camps. She planned to continue such trips if funding is available.

Many teachers use the Lexicon of World History, written by a team of authors, as a

teaching aid, and it provides some coverage of Israel, both ancient and modern. The book

is divided into two parts, one containing dates and the other entries. The first part refers

to ancient Israel as follows:

1250 B.C.: Palestinethe first nomadic Hebrew tribes come here, and around 1025 B.C.establish the first Jewish state (King David).

1010-970 B.C.: Palestinewas ruled by King David, who strengthened the Jewish stateand expanded its territory. Jerusalem became the capital.

972-930 B.C.: Palestinethe rule of King Solomon, the son of king David. He reinforcedhis empire both politically and economically. He maintained friendly and peaceful

relations with his neighbors. In Jerusalem he built a large temple of Yahweh. After hisdeath, the Jewish state split into southern and northern kingdoms.

166-137 B.C.: Palestineuprising broke out that was headed by members of Hasmonean

familyMathias and Judah Maccabee (thus it gets to be known as the Maccabeeuprising) against the Syrian Seleucids. After victorious fights the cult of Yahweh,

worshiped in the main Jerusalem temple, was renewed. In 142 B.C. an independent state,

ruled by the Hasmonean dynasty, was established.

The modern State of Israel has several entries in the Lexicon of World History, along the

lines of the following: "Israel, Tel Aviv, May 14, 1948declaration of the state of Israel.The next day the first Arab-Israeli war broke out due to disapproval of the Arabic

population with the division of Palestine into two independent states." The 1956 war is

presented along with the Six-Day War and Yom Kippur War. The language of all theseentries is neutral. However, a separate entry, entitled "Israeli-Arab Wars" has a slightly

negative tone. Thus, the 1948 victory is evaluated in the following words: "It helped

Israel to ensure its existence and expand its military bases. No Palestinian state was

established, and there occurred a new exodus of refugees." As a result of the Six-DayWar, according to the Lexicon, "Israel got under its control all occupied territories

inhabited by Arabs. However, it lost a great deal of its reputation."


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InstitutionsIn recent years, several institutions have been founded in Slovakia to educate the public

about Jewish life and culture.

In 1994 a department on Jewish culture at the Slovak National Museum was transformedinto the Museum of Jewish Culture. The permanent exhibition includes a memorial to the

Holocaust. Temporary exhibits focus mainly on the arts and events of the recent past.

Visited by groups of elementary- and secondary-school students from all parts of thecountry, the museum also sponsors professional conferences and publishes a series

entitled Acta Judaica Slovaca.

A smaller museum in the eastern Slovak city of Presov recently opened an exhibit of the

Barkany collection of Judaica.

In 1996 an Institute of Judaic Studies was opened at the Comenius University in

Bratislava to teach Hebrew, Jewish history, Jewish philosophy, and other subjects. Itsinitial public lectures met with a positive response. The Institute has published a Hebrew

textbook and a Hebrew-Slovak dictionary and organized conferences on "Jews inInteraction" (1997) and "Bioethics in Judaism" (1998).

The Institute of History and the Institute of Ethnology of the Slovak Academy haveshown new interest in Jewish themes, as has the Museumof the Slovak National Uprising

in Bansk Bystrica.

The Federation of Jewish Communities in Slovakia and the Jewish Community Center

(JCC) of Bratislava have devoted much attention to the Holocaust and have providedsupport for Jewish institutions. The Bratislava JCC has organized several academic

events and published the proceedings, among them, "Jewish Identity Yesterday, Today

and Tomorrow" (1995) and "The Jews in Bratislava" (1997). The JCC also organizes

educational events for high school students.

ConclusionSince the overthrow of the Communist regime in 1989, Jewish-related themes havebegun to appear in Slovak textbooks. This development is most welcome, but it remains a

fact that most students continue to be largely ignorant of Jewish history, religion, and

culture.

In part, of course, the lack of awareness of things Jewish reflects the legacy of the

Communist past, when Jewish themes were either consciously ignored or treated in anegative light. Another operative factor, however, is the strong current of Slovak

ethnocentrism. Slovaks do not think of their society as being pluralistic. Inevitably then,

textbooks focus on events and personalities connected with the Slovak people, while

largely ignoring others. Moreover, it is the case that Jews played less of a role in thedevelopment of Slovak culture than in the surrounding areasin the Czech lands,

Austria, Germany, Hungary, etc.


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The one aspect of the Jewish experience that finds significant play in Slovak textbooks isthe Holocaust, and this is related to the controversy surrounding the wartime Slovak state.

The Slovak Republic is a flashpoint of conflict; some embrace it as the first expression of

Slovak statehood, while others reject it as antidemocratic and as bearing responsibility for

the deportation and murder of tens of thousands of Slovak Jews.

If nothing else, the clash of opinion surrounding the wartime Slovak state has made

students aware of a Jewish dimension to Slovak history. This awareness needs to beexpanded upon in the future to take in the full sweep of Jewish history, Judaism as a

living faith, and the modern State of Israel.

Postscript. This study was completed prior to the September 1998 elections in Slovakia.

The newly appointed minister of education, Milan Ftacnik, is a member of the Party of

the Democratic Left, which has always condemned the wartime Slovak state and its anti-

Jewish policy. Hopefully, this will lead to a more positive orientation toward Jewish

themes in Slovak schools.