Transistors

Transfer Resistor

Chapter 9

Bipolar Transistors

Two PN junctions joined together

Two types available – NPN and PNP

The regions (from top to bottom) are called the collector (C), the base (B), and the emitter (E)

BaseCollector

Emitter

Operation Begin by reverse biasing the CB junction

Here we are showing an NPN transistor as an example

Now we apply a small forward bias on the emitter-base junction Electrons are pushed into the base,

which then quickly flow to the collector The result is a large emitter-collector

electron current (conventional current is C-E) which is maintained by a small E-B voltage

Some of the electrons pushed into the base by the forward bias E-B voltage end up depleting holes in that junction This would eventually destroy the

junction if we didn’t replenish the holes The electrons that might do this are

drawn off as a base current

Currents

Conventional View

Origin of the names

the Emitter 'emits' the electrons which pass through the device

the Collector 'collects' them again once they've passed through the Base

...and the Base?...

Original Manufacture

Base Thickness

The thickness of the unmodified Base region has to be just right. Too thin, and the Base would essentially vanish. The

Emitter and Collector would then form a continuous piece of semiconductor, so current would flow between them whatever the base potential.

Too thick, and electrons entering the Base from the Emitter wouldn't notice the Collector as it would be too far away. So then, the current would all be between the Emitter and the Base, and there'd be no Emitter-Collector current.

Amplification Properties

The C-B voltage junction operates near breakdown.This ensures that a small E-B voltage causes

avalancheLarge current through the device

Common Base NPN

Common Emitter NPN

Common Collector NPN

How does IC vary with VCE for various IB?

Note that both dc sources are variable

Set VBB to establish a certain IB

Collector Characteristic Curve If VCC = 0, then IC = 0 and VCE = 0

As VCC ↑ both VCE and IC ↑

When VCE 0.7 V, base-collector becomes reverse-biased and IC reaches full value (IC = IB)

IC ~ constant as VCE ↑. There is a slight increase of IC due to the widening of the depletion zone (BC) giving fewer holes for recombinations with e¯ in base.

Since IC = IB, different base currents produce different IC plateaus.

NPN Characteristic Curves

PNP Characteristic Curves

Load Line

For a constant load, stepping IB gives different currents (IC) predicted by where the load line crosses the characteristic curve. IC = IBworks so long as the load line intersects on the plateau region of the curve.

Slope of the load line is 1/RL

Saturation and Cut-off

Note that the load line intersects the 75 mA curve below the plateau region. This is saturation and IC = IB doesn’t work in this region.

Cut-off

Example

We adjust the base current to 200 A and note that this transistor has a = 100Then IC = IB = 100(200 X 10-6A) = 20 mA

Notice that we can use Kirchhoff’s voltage law around the right side of the circuitVCE = VCC – ICRC = 10 V – (20 mA)(220 ) = 10 V – 4.4 V = 5.6 V

Example

Now adjust IB to 300 ANow we get IC = 30 mA

And VCE = 10 V – (30 mA)(220 ) = 3.4 V

Finally, adjust IB = 400 A IB = 40 mA and VCE = 1.2 V

Plot the load line

VCE IC

5.6 V 20 mA

3.4 V 30 mA

1.2 V 40 mA

Gain as a function of IC

As temperature increases, the gain increasesfor all current values.

Operating Limits

There will be a limit on the dissipated powerPD(max) = VCEIC

VCE and IC were the parameters plotted on the characteristic curve. If there is a voltage limit (VCE(max)), then you can

compute the IC that results

If there is a current limit (IC(max)), then you can compute the VCE that results

Example

Assume PD(max) = 0.5 W

VCE(max) = 20 V

IC(max) = 50 mA

PD(max) VCE IC

0.5 W 5 V 100 mA

10 50

15 33

20 25

Operating Range

Operating

Range

Voltage Amplifiers

Common Base PNP

Now we have added an ac source

The biasing of the junctions are: BE is forward biased by VBB - thus a small resistance

BC is reverse biased by VCC – and a large resistance

Since IB is small, IC IE

Equivalent ac Circuit

gain voltage Vin

out AV

V

rE = internal ac emitter resistanceIE = Vin/rE (Ohm’s Law)

Vout = ICRC IERC

E

C

EE

CEV r

R

rI

RIA Recall the name – transfer resistor

Current Gains

Common Base = IC/IE < 1

Common Emitter = IC/IB

1

11

I

I1

I

I

III

Law Current sKirchhoff' From

C

B

C

E

BCE

1

)1(

11

Example

If = 50, then = 50/51 = 0.98Recall < 1

Rearranging, = + (1-) = = /(1-)

Transistors as Switches

The operating points

We can control the base current using VBB (we don’t actually use a physical switch). The circuit

then acts as a high speed switch.

Details

In Cut-offAll currents are zero and VCE = VCC

In Saturation IB big enough to produce IC(sat) IB

Using Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law through the ground loopVCC = VCE(sat) + IC(sat)RC

but VCE(sat) is very small (few tenths), so IC(sat) VCC/RC

Examplea) What is VCE when Vin = 0 V?

Ans. VCE = VCC = 10 V

b) What minimum value of IB is required to saturate the transistor if = 200? Take VCE(sat) = 0 V

IC(sat) VCC/RC = 10 V/1000

= 10 mA

Then, IB = IC(sat)/ = 10 mA/200 = 0.05mA

Example

LED

If a square wave is input for VBB, then the LED will be on when the input is high, and off when the input is low.

Transistors with ac Input

Assume that is such that IC varies between 20 and 40 mA. The transistor is constantly changing curves along the load line.

Pt. A corresponds to the positive peak. Pt. B corresponds to the negative peak. This graph shows

ideal operation.

Distortion

The location of the point Q (size of the dc source on input) may cause an operating point to lie outside of the active range.

Driven to saturation

Driven into Cutoff

Base Biasing

It is usually not necessary to provide two sources for biasing the transistor.

The red arrows follow the base-emitter part of the circuit, which contains the resistor RB. The voltage drop across RB is VCC – VBE (Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law). The base current is then…

C

BECC

R

VV BI and IC = IB

Base Biasing

Use Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law on the black arrowed loop of the circuitVCC = ICRC + VCE

So, VCE = VCC – ICRC

VCE = VCC – IBRC

Disadvantge occurs in the equation for both VCE and IC

But varies – thus so do VCE and IC

This shifts the Q-point (-dpendent)

Example

Let RC = 560 @ 25 °C = 100

RB = 100 k @ 75 °C = 150

VCC = +12 V

mA 11.3 A) (100)(113 I I BC

V 5.67

) A)(560 (100)(113 - V 12

RI V V CBCCCE

@ 75 °C

IB is the same

IC = 16.95 mA

VCE = 2.51 V

IC increases by 50%

VCE decreases by 56%

A113 100,000

V 0.7 - V 12I

C 25 @

B

B

BECC

R

VV

Transistor Amplifiers

AmplificationThe process of increasing the strength of a

signal.The result of controlling a relatively large

quantity of current (output) with a small quantity of current (input).

AmplifierDevice use to increase the current, voltage, or

power of the input signal without appreciably altering the essential quality.

Class A

Entire input waveform is faithfully reproduced.

Transistor spends its entire time in the active modeNever reaches either cutoff or saturation.Drive the transistor exactly halfway between

cutoff and saturation.Transistor is always on – always dissipating

power – can be quite inefficient

Class A

Class B

No DC bias voltageThe transistor spends half its time in active

mode and the other half in cutoff

Push-pull Pair

Transistor Q1 "pushes" (drives the output voltage in a positive direction with respect to ground), while transistor Q2 "pulls" the output voltage (in a negative direction, toward 0 volts with respect to ground).

Individually, each of these transistors is operating in class B mode, active only for one-half of the input waveform cycle. Together, however, they function as a team to produce an output waveform identical in shape to the input waveform.

Class AB

Between Class A (100% operation) and Class B (50% operation).

Class C

IC flows for less than half then cycle. Usually get more gain in Class B and C, but more distortion

Common Emitter Transistor Amplifier

Notice that VBB forward biases the emitter-base junction and dc current flows through the circuit at all times

The class of the amplifier is determined by VBB with respect to the input signal.

Signal that adds to VBB causes transistor current to increaseSignal that subtracts from VBB causes transistor current to decrease

Details

At positive peak of input, VBB is adding to the input

Resistance in the transistor is reduced Current in the circuit increases Larger current means more voltage drop across

RC (VRC = IRC) Larger voltage drop across RC leaves less

voltage to be dropped across the transistor We take the output VCE – as input increases, VCE

decreases.

More details

As the input goes to the negative peakTransistor resistance increasesLess current flowsLess voltage is dropped across RC

More voltage can be dropped across C-EThe result is a phase reversal

Feature of the common emitter amplifierThe closer VBB is to VCC, the larger the

transistor current.

PNP Common Emitter Amplifier

NPN Common Base Transistor Amplifier

Signal that adds to VBB causes transistor current to increaseSignal that subtracts from VBB causes transistor current to decrease

• At positive peak of input, VBB is adding to the input• Resistance in the transistor is reduced• Current in the circuit increases• Larger current means more voltage drop across RC (VRC = IRC)• Collector current increases• No phase reversal

PNP Common Base Amplifier

NPN Common Collector Transistor Amplifier

Also called an Emitter Follower circuit – output on emitter is almost a replica of the input

Input is across the C-B junction – this is reversed biased and the impedance is high

Output is across the B-E junction – this is forward biased and the impedance is low.

Current gain is high but voltage gain is low.

PNP Common Collector Transistor Amplifier

Gain Factors

E

C

I

I Usually given for common base amplifier

B

C

I

I Usually given for common emitter amplifier

B

E

I

I Usually given for common collector amplifier

Gamma

Recall from Kirchhoff’s Current Law IB + IC = IE

1

I

I

I

I1 I

B

E

B

CB

-1

1

-1

-1 LCD

-1

1

-1 since And

Ex. For = 100 = /(1+) = 0.99

= 1 + = 101

Bringing it Together

Type Common Base

Common Emitter

Common Collector

Relation between input/output phase

0° 180° 0°

Voltage Gain High Medium Low

Current Gain Low () Medium () High ()

Power Gain Low High Medium

Input Z Low Medium High

Output Z High Medium Low

Hybrid Parameters

Condition

hi Input resistance Output shorted

hr Voltage feedback ratio Input open

hf Forward current gain Output shorted

ho Output conductance Input open

Second subscript indicates common base (b), common emitter (e), or common collector (c)

Hybrid Parameters

=

= Slope of curve

Hybrid Parameters

hie = VB/IB Ohm’s Law

hie =input impedance

hre = VB/VC

Hybrid Parameters

hfe = IC/IB

Equivalent of

hoe = IC/VC

Various Forms

Common Emitter (e)

Common Base (b)

Common Collector (c)

hi (ohms) VB/IB VE/IB VB/IB

hr (unitless) VB/VC VE/VC VB/VE

hf (unitless) IC/IB IC/IE IE/IB

ho (watts) ICVC ICVC IEVE

Pin-outs

No standard – look at the spec sheet or the case

Loudness

When the energy (intensity) of the sound increases by a factor of 10, the loudness increases by 1 bel Named for A. G. Bell One bel is a large unit and we use 1/10th bel, or

decibels

When the energy (intensity) of the sound increases by a factor of 10, the loudness increases by 10 dB

Decibel Scale

For intensitiesL = 10 log(I/Io)

For energiesL = 10 log(E/Eo)

For amplitudesL = 20 log(A/Ao)

Threshold of Hearing

The Io or Eo or Ao refers to the intensity, energy, or amplitude of the sound wave for the threshold of hearing Io = 10-12 W/m2

Loudness levels always compared to threshold Relative measure

Common Loud Sounds

 160

 

Jet engine - close up   

 150

Snare drums played hard at 6 inches awayTrumpet peaks at 5 inches away

 140 Rock singer screaming in microphone (lips on mic)

     

 130

 

Pneumatic (jack) hammer 

Cymbal crash

Planes on airport runway 120 Threshold of pain - Piccolo strongly played

   Fender guitar amplifier, full volume at 10 inches away

Power tools 110 

Subway (not the sandwich shop) 100Flute in players right ear - Violin in players left ear

Common Quieter Sounds

 90

 

Heavy truck traffic   

Chamber music 80Typical home stereo listening levelAcoustic guitar, played with finger at 1 foot away

Average factory   

 70

 

Busy street 

Small orchestra 

60 Conversational speech at 1 foot away

Average office noise 50 

Quiet conversation 40 

Quiet office 30 

Quiet living room 20 

 10 Quiet recording studio

 0 Threshold of hearing for healthy youths

The Math

l1 = 10 log(I1/Io)l2 = 10 log(I2/Io)

l2 – l1 = l = 10(log I2 – log Io – log I1 + log Io) = 10(log I2 – log I1)

l2 – l1 = l = 10 log(I2/I1)

Threshold of Hearing when I = Io l = 0 dB

Threshold of Pain when I 1012 Io l = 120 dB

Example

A loudspeaker produces loudness rated at 90 dB (l1) at a distance of 4 ft (d1). How far can the sound travel (d2) and still give a loudness at the listener’s ear of 40 dB (l2 - conversation at 3 ft.)?

Sound follows the inverse square law I1/I2 = d22/d1

2

l = 50 dB = 10 log(I2/I1)

log(I2/I1) = 5 which means I2/I1 = 105

If d1 = 4 ft, then d22 = (I1/I2) d1

2 = 105 (4 ft)2

d2 = 1260 ft (about ¼ mile)

Common Emitter Current Gain

For the -3 dB pointl = 3 dB = 10 log (I1/I2)

I1/I2 = 2 = P1/P2

so 3 dB below initial level mean half the power

Frequency

hfe

0 dB-3 dB

Why do Frequency limits occur?

It takes a certain time for e- to travel from emitter to collector (transit time)

If frequency is too high, applied current varies too rapidly

Electrons may be unable to dislodge rapidly enough to move from E to C before current surges in the other direction.

Making the base thinner reduces transit time and improves frequency response

Interelement Capacitance

As reverse bias increases on the C-B junction, the depletion zone increases and C decreases (C = A/d and d increasing).

As emitter current increases, C increases (d decreasing).

If capacitance changes, so does capacitive reactance

Increasing C decreases XC

C f 2

1X C

Feedback

Small base current provides a path back to input If the feedback voltage aids the input voltage,

then it is positive (regenerative) feedback If the feedback is too large, the amplifier will

oscillate

Superheterodyne Receiver