the yogacara-vijnanavada school of indian buddhism pts 1 & 2

AN OUTLINE OF THE YOGACARA-VUNANAV ADA SCHOOL OF INDIAN BUDDHISM"

PART ONE

ERIC CHEETHAM

Introduction

This article is concerned with describing the essential teachings of the Yogacara school in a structured way. The whole substance of this work is drawn from the writings of the founder of the school, Asar'lga, and of his brother, Vasubandhu. In addition, an extensive commentary on one of the earlier works has been used, that of the celebrated scholar-pilgrim, Hsuan-tsang.

Also, in the course of the article, reference will be made to some of the first Mahayana sutras. These are not Y ogacara texts in the strict sense, but as the Y ogacara doctrine 1S often an expansion of sutra themes, e.g. the Two Truths, the Great Way to Buddhahood and the dharmakiiya, the Mahayana sutras need to figure at times.

Two main themes occur throughout this article. One is the incidence of terminology, formulas and basic topics which Yogacara retained from the earlier IncJian Buddhist schools wh1ch preceded it and also from some of Sakyamuni's earliest recorded pronouncements.

The other theme will purport to show how Y ogacara further developed the deep (gambhfra) Dharma of the first Mahayana sutras further to uncover the real nature of the Mahayana message. From that to construct a coherent and accessible system of doctrine and practice to achieve an expressed purpose of those Mahayana sutras - Buddhahood for th,e Buddha's followers, and

The author acknowledges with appreciation the critical suggestions received from Dr John Powers of the Australian National University, Canberra, during the preparation of this article.

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to reveal the true nature of the world (saIpsara).

ASANGA

There seems to be a general consensus among most Buddhist scholars today that Asari.ga was the founder of the YogacaraVijilanavada (abbrev. Yogacara) school. He is believed to have lived in parts of North-West Indian during the fifth century CEo At a later stage in his life he had the co-operation of his younger brother Vasubandhu in the development of the new school.

According to Paramartha's 'Life of Vasubandhu'\ Asari.ga's teachings from Maitreya persuaded him of the authenticity of the Mahayana branch of Buddhism and of the special sutras. Although Asari.ga had long been a monk in the Sarvastivadin order, his encounter with Maitreya changed his doctrinal outlook and thereafter he became an ardent expositor and protagonist of the early Mahayana sutras.

The tradition recorded by Paramartha tells us that Asari.ga gained access to the Tu�ita heaven because of his mastery of special powers through meditation practice .. There he found Maitreya, who answered Asari.ga's longtime puzzlement over the real meaning of sunyata. The supernatural exposition resolved all Asari.ga's difficulties and provided an advanced degree of enlightenment. The sunyata explanation he received was the Mahayana version of dharmanajratmya, as well as pudgaJanaJi·atmya. Of course, this new radical theme had already been systematised when Nagarjuna founded the earlier Madhyamaka school.

Also, with the aid of Maitreya's tuition, Asari.ga began to perceive and to develop the characteristic doctrines of the new school of Y ogacara. Among others, one particular early �ahayana sutra received his attention, the SaIpdhlnjrmocanaSl1tra , which set out

lOne of Walpola Rahula's sources in his entry on 'Asailga' in EncycJopaedia of BuddhismII,l (1966), pp.133-46. 2 E. Lamotte, tr. L'Expjication des Mysteres (SaIpdhinmnocanasutrOl) (= EM), Louvain 1935. [There is an English trans I. from the original Tibetan by John Powers, Wisdom of the Buddha, The SadJdhinmnocana Maluiyana Sutra,

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several major doctrines associated with Yogacara. In the course of a long career Asailga wrote commentaries on several Mahayana sutras as well as a number of original works, several of which have been used here as source material.

THE THREE CHARACTERISTICS (1ak�a1}a)

Each of our main source books3 contains a description of the three Jaksa1}as (characteristics). Direct quotations will, however· be avoided as much as possible though the footnotes will provide the necessary references. But, of course, the explanations provided will be drawn from, and based upon, the texts mdicated. Parikaipita - Generally speaking, this word means: false i91aginings, something which is only a figment of the imagination . The word has other connected meanings. As the lowest of the three Jaksanas it is the most defiled. Consequently, unwarranted imputatIons are projected on to both 'external' and 'internal' dharmas. Basic to thiS common realm of existence is the major falsity (in terms of reality) of the bifurcation of subject and object, or of 'self' and 'other'. Another factor is the acceptance of general information about the nature of something and the need of language to communicate about itS.

Berkeley 1994, and from the Chinese by John P. Keenan, The Scriprure of the ExpHcation of Underlyjng Meaning, Berkeley 2000.] 3 These are: E. Lamotte, tr., La Somme du Gra.nd Vihicule d:4saJiga (MahayanllSa!pgraha) (= SGV), 2 vols, 2nd ed., Louvain 1973 [in the course of trans!. into English by S. Boin-Webb; there is an Engl. trans!' from the original Chinese by John P. Keenan, The Summary of the Great Vehicle, Berkeley 1992]; Wei Tat, The Doctrine of Mere Consclousness (Ch'eng Wei Sili LW1) [Sanskrit Vijiiaptimiitratiisiddhij of Hsiian tsang (= DMC), Hong Kong 1973 ; E. Lamotte, EM (cf. n.2.). [There is a further trans!. from the Chinese by Francis H. Cook, including the Trllpilka, in Three Texts on Consciollsness Only, Berkeley 1999, as well as from the Sanskrit in Stefan Anacker, Seven Works of VllSubandhu, Delhi 1984J

4 F. Edgerton, Buddhist Hybnd Sanskrit Dictionary (=BHSD), lSI Indian ed., Delhi 1970, pp.320-1. 5 EM, ell.VI, section 3.

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Vasubandhu indicates that various mental objects arise due to karmic propensity. Imaginary notions are attach�d to these. In fact, these false attributions have no real nature . ParikaJpjtaJak�a1Ja can thus be generally characterised as sensory or mental objects imagined as real and conceived in terms of self and others. All of it is therefore deceptive and illusory. In Yogacara terms this applies to the whole everyday world of people, places, ideas and events. Paratantra. - The second of the characteristics is paratantraJak�aIJa. The Y ogaca�a texts describe this in similar ways. Production due to causes , or, in more detail, whatever is depende1};t on others, discriminations produced by causes and conditions. This can be interpreted as referring to the formula of dependent arising (pratityasamutpada), in other words, the operatil.Jn of the conditioned dharmas (sarpsk(tadharma).

Ordinarily the operation of the dharmas is obscured by the dominant worldly features of parikaJpjta. A proportion of the practice schemes of early IndIan Buddhist schools was aimed specifically at bringing dharma perception within. This was in order to accentuate the effects of employing the four right efforts (samyakpradhana) in weakening the activity of defiled (akusaJa) dharmas and strengthening the presence of undefiled/good (kusaJa) dharmas. And this, If successful, led the way to acqUIring insight-knowledge (prajiia) in mainstream Hinayana. In Mahayana and in Y ogacara it was arrived at through prajiiaparamjta, which is a much more enhanced and somewhat differently orientated version. PaI1nj�panna. - This is the third Jak�ana, sometimes called 'own nature' (svabhava). Simply stated, it is uftimate reality. The BHSD gives it several meanings: completely perfected, arrived at the supreme goal, nature based on knowledge of absolute truth9.

� Vasubandhu's TriIpiikii, w.19·20. quoted in DMC, p.cxxxiii. EM, Ch. VI, section 3.

8 TriIpiikii, v.25 quoted in DMC, p.cxxxiii, and BHSD, p.318. 9 BHSD, pp.325-6.

.

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. Vasubandhu's Tnipsika and Hsuan-tsang's Vljfiaptimatratasl'ddhi have more detailed descriptions. It is perfected knowledge, or prajna, which sees into th� such ness (tathata) of things, perceiving them as they really arel . More explicitly, pa�inj�panna is the 'complete and perfect nature of all dharmas WhICh IS revealed by the two emptinesses (simyata)' 1. The name parini�panna is also given to the purified form o( paratantra, but it is etern�lly free from parikaJpita-nature or false imagination and illusionl . It can thus be inferred that this ultimate reality has to do with the true nature (dharmata) of dharmas and with the perfected prajna of thei� empHness (sunyata), sometimes referred to as 'purity' (anasrava) .

Finally, we are told in the Vljnaptimatratasiddh}4 that all three natures or characteristics (svabhavalak$ana) are inseparable from mind/mentals (citta) and their associates (caitta). These mentals (citta) conditioned and perfumed by false nature of self and others are really deceptive and they obscure the totally dependent and impermanent nature (paratantra) of the dharmas, the basic constituents. But this too is not completely perfected. Only parinispanna reveals the real emptiness of all dharmas and dissipates the wrong view of subject and object. The text concludes: 'These �ree natures are all inseparable from mind etc. (dtta, caitta)'l .

THE EIGHT CONSCIOUSNESSES IN YOGACARA

One of Yogacara's important innovations was to add two more consciousnesses to the already existing six. The original six go back

!O DMC, pp.623-4. 11 Ibid, p.633. 12 Ibid, p.635. 13 L. de La Vallee POllssin, tr. L'Abhidhmmakosa de VasubandJw (= Kosa), 6 vois, repro Brussels 1980 [English trans!. by Leo M. Pruden, Abhldhannakosabha$yam, 4 vo\s, Berkeley 1988-901, Ch.2, p.309, gives the basic view of 'pure' and 'impure' related to dharmas. 14 DMC, p.637. 15 Ibid.

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to the Buddha's ,recorded words in the old Pflli texts on the eighteen dhatus. Sakyamuni explained that the All is just six triads . of eye, visibles and vIsual consciousness dependently arising. And so on for hearing, smell, taste, touch and the mentals. The particular consciousnesses connected with each of these sensory and mental faculties aft the six consciousnesses as part of the eighteen dhatu scheme . Because each of the dhatus IS a dharma or a collection of dharmas this formula represents the world and its beings. Manas, the .seventh ronsciousness - Manas is the first addition made by Yogacara to the original formula of six consciousnesses as part of the dhatu scheme. It is placed in the sixth of the triads, alongside manodhatu, the mental organ element, and in certain aspects substitutes for it. According to the textual ddinitions manas is a dharma but it has mUltiple functions and associates. Primar\lf' it has two functions. It can cogitate and reflect upon its objects . This object is constantly supposed to be the atman. When it is transformed �anjv!ttJ), however, it can cognise absence of self (nairatmya)l .

In its normal condition manas has four particular features: self delusion (atmamoha) - self belief Wtmad!fj{1) - self conceit (atmamana) - self regard (atmasneha) .

These four, in their turn, produce various defiled associates (all upaklifj{adharmas) and because of this constantly enhanced combmation become an obstacle to the practice of the Way. Such a centre, controlling forms of thought and cognition, is doubtless the reason why manas is the location of the idea of 'self' and 'me'.

As already indicated, however, manas is capable of transformation and refinement. This can result from fundamental Buddhist practices plus special Mahayana practices (more of this anon). But it seems to occur in the upper reaches of the bod hi-

16 S8Ipyutta-nikflya IV, 14 and 32. 17 Trimsika, quoted in DMC, p.287. 18 •

DMC, p.287. 19 Ibid., p.289.

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sattva stages and leads on to one of the end goals, full and perfect knowledge (sarvajiiiina). This implies a considerable degree of preparation for full implementation. In Yogacara terms, however, the disturbed and restricted state of manas in its defiled state is the general condition of everyone.

From this textual information manas can be generally described as a mental focus and an intellectual faculty producing responses, decisions and judgements based on data supJ?lied by the first six consciousnesses and mental objects. All tbls takes place within a particular dharma stream (pudgala, dharmasarptiina), but the same process occurs in every person'. Alayavijiiiina (store consciousness). - The most important addition that Yogacara made in the set of consciousnesses was the eighth, the store consciousness.

It should be noted that this eighth consciousness does not appear i5b the element of the eighteen dhiitu scheme of all the dhannas . Thus it is something special needing much e�.p

.lanation.

Our textual sources provided this in abundant measure . Vasubandhu's verse is concise when he says that this iilaya

vijfiiina is also called retribution consciousness (villFavljiiiina) and seed-carrier consciousness (sarvabIjakavijfjiina) . Furthermore, according to its main title, iilayavljiiiina, it is the receptacle consciousness because it receives and retains all the traces (viisana) of every dharma activity. These deposits are seeds (bija) which remain in !he iilayavijiiiina as potential causes until their eventual fruition2 .

Alayavljfiiina is the generative cause of all dharmas arising because its seeds (bija) produce dharmas as and when conditions are favourable. Thus it is the medium of karmic actuation and so is

20 .A diagram of the eighteen dhatuswill follow in Part Two. 21

EM, DMC and SGV. � TriIp.sika, v.2b, quoted in DMC, p.103.

DMC, p.1OS.

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also called vipakajiiana24• The aJayavijiiana itself is said to be regarded by manas as the

'inner self'. As such, the aJayavijiiana is gr�peo by manas in the same way that manas grasps everything else .

Asanga makes a point emphatically in a new direction. He writes that dharmas arise due to the pratityasamutpada, the twelve-linked chain of dependent arising. The twelve links distribute pleasure and pain. They also q�termine the existences in good or bad destinies (sugatidurgatl) . Asanga then concludes: the aJayavfjiiana is a retribution consciousness provided with all the seeds �sarvabijakavipakavijiiana) which produce the pratityasamutpada and so all the existences ip the triple world and all destimes arise from this consciousness2 .

All these processes, actions producing seeds, seeds producing actions, show the aJayavljiiana to be a universal and unending conscious 'atmosphere' in which everything lives and dies according to karmic seed production and fruition. The Mahayanasa1pgraha expresses this in difficult lan�Uage. Asanga says that all defiled (samkJesika) dharmas lodge asmin alijante) in the aJayavijiiana as fruit (phaJabhavana) and t e aJayavijiiana i¥spresent in these dharmas III the form of causes (hetubhavena) . Furthermore, it is described as being like a violent torrent proceeding with all the seeds. This has not been revealed before, the Buddha is said to explain, because the aJayavljiiana is profound aq� subtle beyond the understanding of the uninstructed and foolish .

On this textual evidence it can be said that the store consciousness is a stream of continuous consciousness of universal dimensions. The seed elements (bija) stored in it are forever being activated into dharmas which by their actions and associations

24 SOY, p.32. 25 DMC, p.l05. 26 SOY, p.37. 27 Ibld., pp.37-9. 28 Ibid., pp.12-13. 29 Ibid., p.14, quoting the SaI[ldhininnocana V, 7.

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\ produce patterns and constructions of both 'internal' and 'external' composites. All this produces the beings, worldly perceptions and the responses to perceptions, of Sarp.sara.

This profound penetration to the aJayavijiiana gives rise; in Y ogacara, to a further significant doctrine, the teaching of vijiiaptimatrata, with a literal meaning of 'mere notional projections', sometimes referred to as 'representation only'. This has two main meanings. First, that all perceptions of 'externals' are the result of seeds and dharmas arising from the store consciousness (aJayavijiiana), so that all sensory perception is mindproduced and has no mdependent existence. The MahayanasaIJ1graha quotes the Dasabhrlmlkasrltra, j�ying ' ... in the Three Worlds there is nothing but mind (citta) . . .' . Hsiian-tsang himself says: 'The word "mere" (matra) does not drPy dharmas so long as they are inseparable from consciousness ... ' .

The second main meaning has to do with the ultimately false bifurcation of subject and object, sometimes given as atman and dharmas. From this false apprehension arise all the defilements connected with grasping and selfhood. Vasubandhu's verses are terse as usual. He says that when no idea of object is considered this is the state of vJjiiaptimatrata, in which the a�:prehension of each object and the act of apprehension are absent .

The actual apprehension of vljiiaptimatrata is not a matter of reasoning or acceptance of scripture. Asari.ga tells us in d�tail how this 'higher knowledge' is gained. It becomes accessible in one of the more advanced stages of the bodhisattva process and results from training in the special insights concerning the nature of mental processes.

In fact, vijiiaptimatrata or mere notional projections, as a penetration into a part of suchness (tathata), occurs in the bodhisattva stage of darsanamarga, where deep insight examination of

30 DMC,p.507.

3l Ibid., p.505. 32 TriIpsikii, v.28, quoted in Ibid., p.xxxvii.

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mental and external objects reveals the true nature (dharmata)33. Asanga tells us that at this stage the bodhisattva uses four exammations to realise that objects are simpl)J mental words and the names of these objects are conceptual only 4. This is the actual full knowledge of vijjjciptimatrata and, when gained, all ideas of self and others are dissIpated because inner and outer no longer obtain, all is mind-made.

The indication here is that within the defiled realm of pan"kalpita, i.e., most of the time, whatever is attributed to conscious experience has little to do with what is actually there. For vijjjaptimatrata, externals and internals are simply names and concepts, part of sfinyata. Bijas (seeds, potentialities) It has been seen above that the alayavijjjana carries all the seeds (sarvabIjaka). These seeds (bIja), or potentialities, are deposited by past actions of the stream and each of them will enge?der a particular dharma when the conditions are appropriate3 . The seeds are like dharmas, part of a cluster and series which resides in the alayavljjjana. Unlike dharmas, they are not momentary. They can persist for aeons or moments, depending upon the presence of suitable conditio�, i.e., existing dharmas, for them to fructify as a retributive cause .

In fact, the bIjas are the Y ogacara medium for the transmission of karmic retribution, because the qualities deposited at their inception are retained and when the bijas engender a new dharma the results of these qualities are injected into that particular dharma. The moment tbat is done the bIja disappears.

The combined result of the process is an unending cycle. The Vljjjaptimatratasiddhj summarises that bIjas engender conscious

ness. This engendered consciousness creates and deposits!

33 SGV, p.155, plus Hsuan-tsang's commentary. 34 Ibid, p.161, plus Hsuan-tsang's commentary. 35 DMC, pp.127 and 169; also Triqlsika, vv.18,19, quoted in ibid, p.xxxiii. 36 Ibid, p.81.

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influences new bijas. Bijas thus created and increased by this imprinting (viisanii) influence the engendered consciousness. The proce�9 evolves in a reciprocal cycle in the manner of cause and effect .

For the inhabitants of the Darikaipita realm all, or most, of these arising seeds . will be of the �efiled (kii${a) variety. But because they all denve from past actIons some of these may have been deposited by Dharma practice in past existences. Consequently, some seeds could be outflows of insight-knowledge (prajiia). They too will surface when conditions are suitable. So any present Dharma practice could well be augmented by exercise in the distant past. Or, as one might say, one may have inherent capabilities only realised under certain CIrcumstances.

Seeds (bija) are not special to Yogacara, although their modus operandj certainly is. The question is asked by the Sarvastivadins in the Abhidharmakosa, 'What is meant by "seed" (bija)?' The answer given by Vasubandhu is that it is the five skandhascapable of producing a fruit by means of pariIJiimavise$a. The latter is defmed as the evolution of the series (s�{ptiina) to the point when the necessary fruit comes into existence .

In this context of Buddhist schools prior to Yogacara the bija seems to serve the same purpose. It is the medium of transmitting karmic effects, i.e. retributIon (vjpaka). Here it operates in a linear dimension by evolution of the elements of the stream of consciousness (dharmasaIptiina). For Yogacara, however, the seed (bija) is deposited in the iliayavijiiiina, which retains it outside the evolving stream until that particular stream produces conditions suitable for the seed to engender the dharma fruit. Viisanii (deposit, influence)

Closely connected with the aiayavijiiiina and the bijas is another important Yogacara doctrine. This is viisanii, which has several meanings as noted above. It also has two main functions; the first

37 ibJd., p.B5. 38 Kosa, Ch.2, p.l85.

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has already been mentioned in connection with the seeds (bija). Vasana concerns the traces or impressions deposited in the alayavijiiana by every active dharma, i.e., every thought, word and deed of conSCIOUS beings. By this deposit or trace a seed (bija) is delivered into the custody of the alayavijiiana. This seed carries the potentiality of a later result imbued with the karmic quality of the original act, or dharma. This is the first of the functions of vasana. Such a seed, in company with many others, remains in the alayavijiiana indefinitely until appropriate conditions obtain in the active world which would allow the seed to delivel its full potentiality by engenderin�f particular dharma as a retribution (vjpaka) for the past actions .

The second function of vasana is its capacity to influence (increase or diminish) previously deposited seeds in the alayavijiiana. Such influence (vasana) IS thus capable of augmenting or weakening seeds or clusters of seeds already held in the alayavijiiana for future emergence as dharmas.

This influence, sometimes rendered as perfuming, can of course be of either a good or bad variety. Activity of a bad or depraved kind can be sustained or dispersed by the impact of appropriate actions and their outflow of mfluence4o. The constant resurgence of the I?assions is actually. br?ught_ about by rel.evant seeds and the ongomg sustenance by simIlar vasana 41. In this way the seeds (bija), following further influence (vasana), combine within the alayavijiiana to project the karmic results into a future existence. ThiS occurs when suitable conditions, already existing, stimulate and encourage the seed clusters, reinforced by vasana, to emerge and engender new dharmas.

Such a karmic procedure of action and reaction, of short or long duration, has consequences for all the practice systems of Buddhist teaching, both mainstream and Mahayana. Asanga elaborates on this m his explanations of the special Mahayana and

. : TrUpsika, w.18,19, quoted in DMC, p.cxxxiii, also p.109. IbJd., p.135.

41 Ibid., pp.581-5.

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Yoga�ara forms of practice to be described here later. Asari.ga sets out the recommended methods a� being based upon and drawn from the sutra texts themselves 2. The special topics of the Mahayana deep-teaching sutras have to be assimilated, pondered upon and absorbed by hearing (iruta), or by reading them in such a way that seeds and future impre�nation is channelled into and stored within the alayavijiiana. This is called srutavasanabija and Asari.ga states that deposits of this kind we also the seed of the dharmakaya, the real body of the Buddha .

From what the text explains later it seems to be the case that if some seeds are 'cultivated' by right J?ractice they will grow into the dharmakaya itself, i.e. into full enhghtenment. Asari.ga describes one of the main §rocedures which can produce this result. The texts and topics the contents of the Mahayana sutras) contain deep Dharma an insight-knowledge. These need to be accessed by close attention to them and allowing the impregnation of hearing (irutavasana) to saturate the mental series. Correct reflection (yonjiomanaskara) on the words and their import gives access to unfettered knowledge (nkvikaJpakajiiana) 4. This is part of the special practices of the bodhisattva process leading to Buddha-hood. In this manner vasana, bija and the aJayavljiiana all have a practice dimension when allied to the gambhira Dharma of the early Mahayana sutras.

As with the seeds (bija) the idea and function of vasana are not a Yogacara innovation. Vasubandhu, writing about the teaching of the Sarvastivadins and others, says that bhavana perfumes and !mpregnat�s thought. Thus �pavana , or rec�IliI?g �n� cultivating, IS the equivalent of vasana . As well as this similanty of usage, the Sarvastivadins had another special term which prefigures the Yogacara use of vasana. This term is upadta, or accumul�ted act, i.e., an action reinforced by deliberate further approval 6. With

42 SOY, p.3. 43 Ibid., p.68. 44 IbId., pp.68, 16l. 4S Kasa, Ch.2, p.lS7; Ch 4, pp.248-9. 46 Ibid., ChA, p.242.

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more technical precision this is a dharma-element followed by other dharmas of approval and, lacking any regret, thereby increases the retribution (vipaka) of the first dharma.

This procedure is almost identical to the effects of vasana on the bIjas. The difference in Y ogacara is that this takes place in the alayavijiiana, and not in the dharmasaIptana. Here IS one indication of the origin of this particular process. The triple gnosis (sruta, dnta, bhavana)47

The Yogacara elaboration and combination of the a!ayavijiiana, bIja and vasana set down markers for the right practice necessary to fulfil the basic goal of all Mahayana: Buddhahood, or full enlightenment. This goal is often expressed in the early Mahayana sutras, especially the Lotu§ (Saddharmapum;1adkasutra), the Vimalakirtinirdda and the SDramgamasamadhisDtra. Such right

practic� is generall):, known as t�e stages of th� �odhisattva p�th. Yogacara was mamly responsIble for provldmg the detaIled sequence of these practices contained in the whole extent of the bodhisattva path or process.

One of these is bahusruta, literally meaning 'much hearing', but in this context meaning well-versed and well-acquainted with the content of the sutras. Bahusruta is also an umbrella term covering several other special teaching formulas. One of these is the title of this section. But bahusruta needs to be presented first so that the intended purpose of the others can be perceived.

The basic notion of bahuSruta was well-known in pre-Buddhist times. It was then understood �s referring to one who was learned and well-versed in the Vedas . In the earliest Buddhist records Ananda is portrayed as the highest example of Buddhj�t erudition in that he c<:!n recall all the teachings he had heard . For early Mahayana, Ananda was completely surpassed by the great bodhisattva MaiijusrI, who could recall and expound all the teachings of

47 G. Tucci, Minor Buddhist Texts, Part II, Rome 1958, p.160. 48 M. Monier-Williams, A Sanskrit-English Dictionary, repr. Delhi 1981, p.726. 49 Ariguttara-nikaya II, pp.28-9.

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every Buddha, not just Sakyamuni5o• Asanga is explicit on the Yogacara application of this word. He says that the bodhisattva perfumes his mental states (cittasa1J1tana) by much hearing (bahuirota) of the Mahayana teaching. He reiterates the point by saying that these mental states (cittacajttasa1J1tana) are perfumed by much healJing (bahuirota) of the texts and topics of the Mahayana 1.

The primary formula associated with bahusruta is the so-called triple gnosis of hearing or reading Mahayana topics (irota), considering and {Jondenng them (cinta) and meditative contemplation of all thIS (bhavana). As with several other key terms already mentioned, this formula was well known to the early Buddhist schools, particularly the Sarvastivada. Vasubandhu describes all three elements in his Abhjdharmakosa. He describes sruta thus, ' . . . a certainty which procee9s by means of knowledge called the speech of a qualified person's . C¥ita is given as, ' . . . t:he certainty born from internal examination' . The third factor, bhavana, is rendered as, ' .. . a certainty born from meditation .. . so that the specific marks of all three are established' .

Even before the time of the Abhjdharmakosa some early Pali suttas proclaim the same theme as the Buddha's word. Thus we have the Buddha's admonition to his monks that they should listen to th� suttas attentively so as to understand, recite and master them 5. The AIiguttara is more specific and comes close to the tripe gnosis above. It recommended JJstening to, reflecting upon and understanding the inner meaning .

50 E. Lamotte, tr. SliramgamasamadhiS(itra, The Concentration of Heroic Progress, Engl. trans!. by S. Boin-Webb, Riclunond!London 1998, p.208 ff and n.278 . 51 SGV, pp.154-5, 159. 52 Kosa, Ch.6, p.143. 53 Ibid., pp.143-4.

Ibid. 54

55 SaIpyutta-fllkaya II, 267. 56 AJiguttara-nikaY;i V, 26.

49


Yogacara inherited all this as common practice. Asanga puts the whole procedure in its wider context. He tells us that the slitras teach Dharma meaning while the Vinaya puts it all into action. The aim is to liberate from Sarpsara and that is done by vasana, This influence or impregnation is achieved by srota, cinta and, in place of the usual bhavana, Asanga gives us ' .. . by cultivating tranquillity (samatha) there i� calming, and through insight (vipasyana) there is penetration' 7.

Further on in the same text Asanga expands on this by saying that the vasana necessary for enlightenment arises from the Dharma heard from the slitras and received and understood correctly. These deposits (seeds) are c�[fied forward by the retributIon-consciousness (vipakavijiiana) . The reason for the replacement of bhavana in the old triple formula is not stated. One possible reason may be the prominence given to samatha and vipasyana in the Sarpdhmirmocanasutra.

This slitra was highly regarded by' early Y ogacara and the text devotes a whole chapter to a detaII�� exposition of the various processes involved in these practices . It also defines the triple gnosis but sMbstitutes samatha and vipasyana for bhavana as the third factor . Because of the extensive mstructions given in the Samdhinirmocanasutra and because of the usual contextual pattern of close and progressive attention to the contents of the Mahayana scriptures (and earlier Canons), Asanga may well have followed its example.

Whatever the reasons for the change they must have been strong to warrant altering such a well-established formula. At least part of the reason can be found in samatha and vipasyana themselves. Not only does the Samdhinirmocanasutra deal in considerable detail with samatha and vipasyana (the third part of the triple formula), it also sets out clearly what it is all for. The

57 SOY, p .3 . . 58 Ibid., pp.67-8.

59 EM, Ch.8, sections 1-35. 60 Ibid., section 24.

50


,

opening of Chapter 8 has the Buddha listing the twelve subdIvisions of the Canon from sutras through birth stories and exploits (avadana) to instructions and explanations (upadeSa). The text continues that all this is listened to attentively. Recollecting extracts all this is reflected upon and persistently recalled. The result is said to be a bodily and mental attitude called samatha, or calm tranquillit/1. Moving to vipaiyaml, the text tells us that once having gamed the calm of samatha a penetrating examination of the Dharma extracts follows. This . consists of perceived images in interior concentration which arise from what has been heard and recollected. These are subjected to investigation, examination, a survey £nd a judgement which is called vipasyana or penetrating insight

The purpose is reiterated further on in the text. Here it says that samatha and vipasyana should be based on the Dhar�a m conformity with the teachings already received and adopted6 . The Samdhinirmocanasl1tra continues to analyse the various types and groups of these practices and their topics. Later, it tells us�f the expected progression of this formulation of the triple gnosis .

This sutra again presents the third factor of the triple gnosis (§ruta, cinta, bhavana) as the pair of samatha and vipasyana. It also reminds us that only this pair is capable of genetrating the meaning and intention of the text in question. Sruta and6finta contribute to 'deliverance' but cannot, on their own, reach it .

All of this indicates the basic purpose of these special practices. In effect, the necessity of 'much hearing' (of the textual topics of Mahayana) called bahusIuta is brought about by the triple gnosis of srota and cinta and completed by samatha and vipasyana. Here we have one of the principle Y ogacara practice methods. A method which is a constant requirement throughout the process of

61 IbJd., Ch.8, Nos 2 and 3. 62 Ibid., No.4. 63 Ibid., No.2. 64 Ibid., No.24. 65 IbJd.

51


the bodhisattva stages (bhiiml). The combination of bahusruta and the triple gnosis is based upon and employs the co-ordination of the alayaVljIlana, the bijas and vasana in a practice manner adaptable to all capabilities. And it is aimed at the realisation of the deep (gambhira) teaching of the Mahayana siitras and the subsequent explanation of them. Eventually, by means of the bodhisattva process (which uses this technique) the ultimate goal, also presented in the Mahayana texts, is brought within reach, i.e., full and perfect enlightenment.

At a much less elevated level the meaning of the word bahu§rota and its associated methods of the triple gnosis was expanded from earlier times by early Mahayana and Yogacara. It was intended to convey a being or beings, well acquainted with Mahayana sutra contents and motivated to pursue deep Dharma. This word also implies a stream of consciousness (dharmasaJptana), impregnated (vasita) with, and saturated by, Dharma assimilation from past existences. These propensities were accompanied by good roots produced by long-term engagement in right conduct and general outlook conducive to appreciating the content of the Mahayana sutras.

THE THREE TURNINGS OF THE DHARMA WHEEL

Now that some of the main topics of Yogacara have been presented, one of the matters with which this article is concerned can be addressed. This, as mentioned in the introduction, is the theme that Yogacara preserved and made use of a number of technical terms and topics which were part of the corpus of early Indian Buddhist doctnne well before the Mahayana appeared on the scene as a distinct teaching. The importance of this feature, if it can be shown, is that it would help to illustrate that Yogacara, with Madhyamaka before it, is firmly linked to the doctrines and practices of the first Indian Buddhist schools and in some cases to the original itself. The situation can be likened to a kind of evolution. Although the later forms are dissimilar in certain resl?ects, they contain features or elements which point clearly to

. theIr parentage and to their part in a long development. This picture is set out in a particular wa)� by. on �f;,�h!,,,,,,'.?rJv}

Cheetham - The Yogacara-VijiHinavada School

Mahayana siitras, the Sarpdhinirmocanasutra 66. In this text the special teaching of the three turnings of the Wheel of the Dharma is explained. Tne first turning was at Varana�I, where the Buddha pronounced the Four Noble Tr4ths (caturaryasatya) and other original formulas. This so-called Sravaka teaching is said to have been insufficiently explained and gave rise to some controversy. As a result of this the Mahayana was enunciated, in particular the doctrine of dhannanairatmya, i.e., all dharmas are without ownnature (sarvadharmanii)svabhava). This was the second turning of the Wheel.

This too was considered as open to criticism and insufficiently explicit. So the Wheel was turned for the thire} time. Now the teaching of sunyata was explicit for both the Sravaka and the Mahayana . .I!1 this t�ird exposition the text says it64s unsurpassed, has an explicit meanmg and causes no controversy .

What this does, amongst other things, is to show that the Dharma, as an expressed teaching, is capable of development and a deeper, more precise meaning. ThiS is just what Yogacara perceived and revealed, and in this way Y ogacara can be regarded as the third turning of the Wheel. It is certamly true that Yogacara followed on as a further teaching, requiring some knowledge of the earlier corpus for its own right comprehension.

Some of the evidence for this can be seen in the special terminology used here to set out the main doctrine of Yogacara. For example, the alayavljiiana, perhaps the fundamental Yogacara teaching: at first sight the descriptions of the alayavijiiana may be disconcerting to anyone familiar with the earlier mainstream teaching, even for some early Mahayanists. But it has to be noted that a very similar theme formed part of the doctrine held by the mainstream Mahasarp.ghika school. They called it the root consciousness (mulavijiiana) and it was spoken of as a 'hidden' teaching in much the same way as it is presented in the Sarpdhimrmocanasutra, where the Buddha stated that the alayavljiiana

66 1fl0{.;"::-,,:9>�_' 1 .

6, fhid.. C;Cl: Lion "10 53


is not revealed to the uninstructed'. The wording used by Professor A. Bareau deserves to be partly quoted to appreciate the similarity: .

'There is a root-consciousness (miiJavijiiana) which serves as support for the eye-consciousness and the other sense consci�gtsnesses, just as the root of the tree is the basis for the leaves ... ' .

Whatever the date of origin of the MahasaI11ghika school it was certainly well before Yogacara appeared, an� this MahasaI11ghika school undoubtedly formed part of the malllstream branches of Indian Buddhism.

The next terminological linkage is the seeds (bija). It has already been shown in previous pages that this term was used by the Sarvastivadin school, as recorded in the Abhjdharmakosa. Also, its actual usage by the Sarvastivadins is very similar to its purpose in the Yogacara scheme, i.e., as the carrier of karmic results into the future. Here we have another case of Yogacara reaching back into an early mainstream Hlnayana school's teaching to gain the basis for its own version.

Both vasaml and bahusruta, already presented earlier, are further examples of terminological linking between Y ogacara and the mainstream body of terminology. Vasana was part of the Sarvastivadin technical terminology and it j? defined in the Abhjdharmakosa as the equivalent of bhavana . The meaning is also very similar, as something that influences and impregnates the mental series. But Yogacara applied this, not to the mental series, but to the alayavljiiana.

For bahusruta there is a similar correspondence. This term was known and used from the earliest days of the Indian SaI11gha as referring to a monk who was well-versed in the canonical texts and who could recall them. In early Mahayana the word retained this meaning, except that the great bodhisattvas could both recall

·68 A. Bareau, US Sectes bouddhiques du Petit VihicuJe, Paris/S<>igon 1955, Ps.n (my translation).

9 Kosa, ehA, p.248.

54


much more and express more deeply7o. Even more expansion in application took place in Yogacara. Here the word bahu§ruta was closely connected with Yogacara usage of bija and vasana to mean someone who has applied themselves both deeply and positively to the contents of the Mahayana siltras and sastras with the effect that a permanent and transforming impression is made on their mental series. This, in its turn, advances that person (pudgaJa) towards and along the bodhisattva process.

There are more linking features needing a place at this point, although they have not yet been presented III detail. They are the eighteen dhatus and the dharma elements. Both will be set out in Yogacara terms below. Now, these need to be discussed briefly and set alongside the other terminology linking Yogacara with the earlier Indian Buddhist schools and in some cases with the recorded words of the Buddha himself.

First, the eighteen dhatus (realms and dOIRains) have been specified by the Buddha as the all or everything . These eighteen domains are the five senses, their respective realms, plus their respective consciousnesses, as well as the mental organ and consciousness and its mental objects (see eighteen dhatusdiagram in Part Two).

This major formula is basic to all the early mainstream schools and had to be known and understood. It is also fundamental to Yogacara, which accepted it and employed it as central to the Y ogacara system. Asanga, in fact, used the formyJa as the overall framework for his version of the dharma scheme , of which more anon. Thus Yogacara employed this fundamental formula (with certain additions and interpretations) going back to the recorded words of the Buddha and the Canons of most, if not all, of the mainstream schools.

70 S:l1raIpgamasamadhisl1tra trans., op.cit., p.208. 71 Sa.rpyutta-nikaya IV, 14 and 32. 72 The Compendium of tile Higher TeachIiIg (PhIlosophy) by Asanga (Abhi-dharmasamucc,7ya), Engl. trans!' by S Boin-Webb from the French of Walpola Rahula, Fremont 2001, pp.23 ff.

55


It is a similar, if rather more complicated, story with the dharmas. The details of the particular Y ogacara dharma system will be set out in later pages. At this point it needs to be shown how Yogacara inherited the original dharma scheme, which had been elaborated in the Abhidharma texts. Perhaps the most significant item in the records of the Buddha's words on dharmas is to be found in Dhammapada I, which has the Pali text of the first verse: 'Manopubba1P,ama dhammiF etc., given as 'Mind precedes all mental states' . �

Another example is found in the AIiguttara: 'Whether or not the Holy Ones appear in the world, the essential nature of Jpings pertaining to things (dharma1}aIp dharmata) remains stable' .

More examples of this major topic will be given here later. Suffice to say that a good proportion of the theses of the Sarvastivadins concerns dharmas and citta and the Sarvastivadins are one of the first separately identified schools of Indian Buddhism. Other mainstream schools disagree on the quality and substance of dharmas, e.g., Jpe Bahusrutas,. Lokottaravadins, Andhakas and Prajiiaptivadins .

Furthermore, that great compendium of mainstream Hinayana doctrine, the AbhjdharmakoSa by Vasubandhu, devotes significant parts of Chapters 2 and 4 to defming dharmas.

Y ogacara also had a dharma scheme of its own, as we shall see, which was derived from the earlier systems of the mainstream Hinayana schools, earticularly the SarvastiYtada. This is confirmed when the two detailed lists are compared 6. Of the 100 dharmas

73 Translated by Yen. Buddharakkhita, Kandy 1996, p.23. 74 From E. Lamotte's History of Indian Buddhism, tr. S. Boin-Webb, Louvainla-Neuve 1988, p.25 and n.25, quoting AIiguttara-nikaya I, p.126, and Visuddhimagga, p.518

. 75 Cf. Bareau, Les Sectes bouddhiques ... , op. cit., for analysis and appendages. 76 J. Takakusu, The Essentials of Buddhist Philosophy, Honolulu 1947. Dharma sheets at pp.72 and 94. N.B. some items of the Hosso sheet have been amended here (in the following pages) in the light of Asanga's own listing in the

56

Cheetham - The Yogacara-Vijlianavada School

listed "for Hoss6, i.e., the Japanese form of Y ogacara, over sixty are common to both Sarvastivada and Y ogacara. The rest are specific Yogacara additions to the old scheme. Not only that, but many of the definitions of the dharmas in common use are virtually unchanged by Yogacara. That is not to say that the Yogacarins Just adopted the old dharma system. Far from it. Their additions to it and their basic reinterpretation of the whole system shows that the Yogacara scheme was substantially developed from the previous dharma teachings.

All of these examples of change and evolution of the earlier scheme of dharmas serve as an illustration of the topic of the three turnings of the Dharma Wheel.

The teaching of the three turnings of the Dharma Wheel has been described at the beginning of thIS section. In effect, it sets out a three-stage progression of main teaching topics. These develop the earliest formulas, i.e., the Four Noble Truths, into the Mahayana form of sunyata. Furthermore, there is a development between the second and third turns of the Wheel which involves a more explicit exposition of sunffita for all the Buddha's followers, both Hinayana and Mahayana . Such a progression is evident in each of the six examples given above (aJayavijiiana, bija, vasana, bahusruta, eighteen dhatus and the dharmas). Each of these originated in the earliest Buddhist teachings and each of them was revIsed and reformulated in the Y ogacara system - they represent g direct linkage with the early Buddhist schools and to some of Sakyamuni's own recorded words. They are some of the first phase doctrinal topics and special terms taken up by Y ogacara. More of the same are spread throughout Asanga's own works, especially the Mahayanasmpgraha and the Abhldharmasamuccaya.

In the MahayanasaIpgraha, as an example, in the Introduction (prastavana), the Abhidharma is discussed. In Chapter III Sarpsara and Nirval).a feature, as wet! as the five margas. Chapter V

AbhidhaI711asamuccaya, See also lists in the appendices to this article (Part Two). 77 EM, XXX and XXXI.

57


focuses on siIa, dtta and prajiia. And in Chapter X the five skandhas §lppear and there is an exposition of the Buddha's attributes7

• All these topics figure prominently in the earlier Dharma teachings. Here, however, they are all reorientated and expanded to conform to the Yogacara system.

In the light of this, it is possible to see Yogacara as a further teaching, going deeper and more explicitly into the original doctrines. Just as sugge�ted in the. Sarpdbimimocanasl1tra, in fact, a pattern of a very anCIent practIce may also be seen here. The Vimalakfrtinirde§asl1tra has an early section in which Vimalaklrti

questions the arhat Mahakatyayana on his p�ctice of explaining in detail some of the Buddha's brief sayings . In a sense, early Mahayana and Yogacara follow this same practice in a rather more expanded manner, and developed in depth. Thus it can be said that Yogacara, by retaining and developing the ancient teachings and terminologies, demonstrates its ancestry. In so doing it shows how it is firmly linked to and is part of the evolution of Indian Buddhism as a whole.

(To be concluded)

. 78 SGY.

79 E. Lamotte, tr., The Teaching of Vimalakirti (VimalakirtJnirdeia), Engl. trans!' by S. Boin, London 1976, p.63 and 11.50, with Pali references.

58

AN OUtfLIN"E OF THE YOOACARA-VIJNANA\/ADA SCI-lOOil Of" INDIAN BUDDHISM

PARTT'WO

ERIC Cf-fEl::THAI\1

Part ()nt: of this article set out certain of the doctrinal features of Yogacara as \vell as basic practices. Part 1\vo nO'N c.ompletes these tOpICS hased on the same source rnatcrial as used in Part t)ne.

THE EIGHTEEN DI-IATU51 (ELEMENTS); THE ALL

It has been sho\vn here alreauv that the SLX triads of the eighteen dlJIltu scheme (sec diagrarn) are part of the Buddha's original set of teaching fOrITIulas. These� and the elaborations in toe Abhidharma texts, are part of Yogacara's pedigree frolnrhe early mainst�eam teach�ng. Asailg� pr?sents �he explicit vcrsion8�f this same eIghteen dhatu schernc in hIS AbhldharmasamUCCCl}'8 .

The Yogacara schenle of dllatlls combines with t\VO other ancient forlnulas� the five �kaJ1dh8S and t\velve ayatanas (faculties and fields). As the skal1dlJlls and ;}"vatrtnas are nan1es for particular c?llections of dharma elen1ents, \vhcn brought together \vithin the eIghteen dhiitu framework they represent all dharma activity as a whole� Indeed Chapter One of Asanga's Abhidh£J.rmas;·zmuccaya sets out this conlbined schen1e in detail, together \vith d,';finitions of each of the dharlnas involved.

The formula of the eighteen dhlifu8 comprises six triads of elements: the five senses� i.e.� organ, object and conscioLsness for each sen�e faculty of seeing� smclling� tasting and touching. Added to ,these lS the sixth triad, \vhich consists of nlental organ� mental �hbJefct and n1ental consciousness. The cOlnplete layout i�, given in

e ollowing diagram. "

,QO AhhidhanntlSi,lmllcCayn tl-'("lllS'" 'r P t I Cl 0 _ _ 0 p. C I " � ar � 1. ne.

15]


THE EIGHTEEN DHATUSIN YOGACARA

1. caksurdhatu (eye element)

4. srotradhatu (ear element)

7. ghranadhatu (nose element)

2. nJpadhatu (form element)

5. sabdadhiitu (sound element)

8. gandhadhatu (odour element)

3. caksurvljnanadhatu (visual consciousness

element) 6. srotravljiianadhatu (auditory consciousness

element)

10. jihvadbatu 11. rasadhatu (tongue element) (taste element)

9. ahranavljiiaIJadhatu (offact6ry consciousness

element) 12. jihvavljiianadhatu (gustatory consciousness

element) 13. kayadhatu (body element)

16. manodhatu (mental organ element, manas)

14. sprastavyadbatu 15. kayavIjfjanadhiitu (tangibifi'ty element) (tactile consciousness

element) 17. dharmadhatu 18. manovijfjanadhatu (mental objects (mental consciousness

element) element) i.e. vin!y'ata (special)

kusaJa (wllOlesome) akusaJa (defiled, unwholesome) upakJesa (secondary defiled/unwholesome) am'yata (indeterminate) cittavjprayukta saIJlskara (distinct from

other mentals) asaIJlskrta (unconditioned)

For the early schools the sensory objects were real entiLes which existed externally. Similarly, all the other dhatu combinations consisted of real fundamental elements (dharma) which appeared in consort with others and then disappeare51 only to be replaced immediately by further clusters of dharmas .

Asanga and Vasubandhu only go along with this so far. Yogacar a recognises all the dharmas, as we shall see, and even adds some to the Sarvastivadin lists. In particular, Asanga uses the

81 Kosa, CIl.l, pp.5 and 6.

152

Cheetham - The Yogacara-Vijfianavada School

eighteen dhatu scheme as an all-embracing framework for all dharmas, i.e. Sarpsara. Again, an important dharma addition is made. This is manas, the seventh consciousness. The fundamental difference, however, is that Y ogacara does not regard any of these dharma elements as being independent and really existing externals or internals. Instead, they are simply outflows from the a!ayavijnana by means of engendering seeds (bija).

Vasubandhu expresses this in brief. He says that th,� sensory consciousnesses depend upon the f!ayavljnana and they manifest subject to causes and conditions8 . This refers to the Yogacara teaching of vijnaptlInatrata, sometimes called 'repre;entation only'. This topic will be expanded below, but at thiS point it is necessary to consider the main Yogacara additions, one of which is wit�in the eighteen dflatus. They are the seventh and eighth conSClousnesses.

Manas, the seventh consciousness, is a dharma and .'.S part of the eighteen dJuitu scheme. It is located at number 16, the triad of mentality. As such it is numbered among the Yogaca:a list of dharmas (see appendi.,x Jist, No.89).

Although manas is l isted as a dharma, its functions suggest it is not a single momentary entity as described in the old Abhidharma texts. Manas has Wultiple functions as described here earlier. Vasubandhu states that manas; the seventh consciousness, cogitates and deliberates. It also receives input from all the other consCiousr,esses and i s closely associated with a variety (If defilements 4 in its padka!pita state. So, as a thought-centre applying examination and judgement to all this input, manas could be argued to be more than a single entity. The texts do not expand on thIS but it could be surmised that either manas is a 'c'uster' of various dharmas, or the whole concept of dharmas was amended in the Yogacara scheme of things. One thing is clearly c.xpressed and that is that manas has the a!ayavijnfwa, the eighth CI >oscious-

82 Vasubandhu's TriIpllkii, v.lS, quoted in DMC, p.cxxxi. 83 TriIpllkfJ, v.2, quoted in ,bid., p.cxxiii. 84 Ibid., pp.289-303.

153


ness, as its basis and support as well as its object85. The aJayavijij;jna, the eighth consciousness, however, does not

figure specifically in any of the eighteen dhatus. Thi� IJ2ay be because of its definition as being the cause and conditions of all the elements. Here we probably have a reference to the bijas, which constitute the aJayavijiiana, these being the progenitors of all dharmas.

On the other hand, the eighteen dbatusdo not include the condition�9/unconditioned dharmas within number 17, the dharmadhatu . On this matter Y ogacara diverges from the early schools. In these, the asarpskrla dharmas were shown as distinctly separate from the f ive skandhas which, in both Yogacara and mainstream, are part of the eighteen dhiitus. There is some explanation of this by Asanga, who says that all the dhatus are 'knowable' (jneya) �nd thus can presumably incorporate the eight asamskrta dharmas8

. A point, however, not readily explained is this: if the asarpik(tas are dharmas, they have to be engendered by bijas (seeds) which can only come from the aJayavIjiiana. The question is how is this possible for unconditioned elements which are said to have no mdependence or relationship with anything else? For example, is NirvaQ.a produced by a bija? Doubtless there is a quite satisfactory answer to this but, so far, it has eluded this writer.

The accompanying dhatu diagram sets out the eighteen dhatu scheme and its contents. The first five triads (Nos 1-5) nave sufficient operational clarity to make further explanation unnecessary. Except in one regard. Again, Yogacara deviates from the earlier Abhidharmas by placing the sensory organs in the first place of the triads (Nos 1, 4, 7, 10 and 13). The early schools explained the sensory process as a linkage between object, organ and consciousness. The object impinging upon, or being sought out by, the orga� engende.rs a sensory result which is impi'ess�d on the correspondmg conscIousness. It seems that the Yogacara

85 TrirpSikii, v.5, quoted in ibid., p.cxxv. 86 Abhidbarmasamuccaya trans., op. cit., p.59. 87 Ibid., p.23. 88 Ibid., p.30.

154


reverted to the Buddha's original seguence89 here. In any case, all these elements arose from the bJjas In the aJayavijiiana In related combinations, so that a primary, external object was redundant.

It is the last of the six triads that need some comment. With the addition of the dharma manas to manodhatu, No.16, th(: number of dharma consciousnesses within the eighteen dhatus is increased from six to seven. The eighth consciousness, the alayavijiiana, is not part of the dharma list or the dhatu scheme. The second item of the sixth triad, i.e. No.17, is a collection of all the remainder of the Yogacara dharmas as indicated by the headings appended to it.

With all this in mind it seems to be the case that Yogacara made abundant use of the Buddha's original eighteen dhatu scheme, with modifications which were dictated by the deep Dharma's revelations it unearthed. With Yogacara, then, the eighteen dhatus combine all the dharmas of Samsara, both conditioned and unconditioned, As a consequence the skandhas and all the iiyatanas, being collective names for particular dharmas, found a place within the overall dhiitu scheme. The essential difference between this and the earlier schemes is that all of it is dttamatra (only mind-made), i.e., the product of bijas (seeds) emerging from the iiJayav�'jjjiina. In the pankaJpjta realm this situation is not known although it is never absent. Only by progress through the realm of paratantra to the pannj�panna perceptions can teality be known.

It may be for this reason that Yogacara has ambivalent attitudes towards these cl harmas, e.g., the asarpskrtas and the vjprayuktas and manas. If all dharmas are empty and mind-made, precision is superfluous except in the p,,?rikaJplta realm. THE YOGACARA DHARMA SYSTEM, A SCHEME OF DOCTRINE

AND PRACTICE.

The Yogacara system of basic doctrine and practice, like all the early schools of Indian Buddhism, incorporated a dharma scheme of some kind. That is to say, a collection of fundamental elements

89 SaIf1yutta-mkaYil IV, 15. 155


of conscious existence (dharma), each of which had specific functions and associations. At one time, opinions were expressed that the dharma schemes were the work of later masters and were not part of the original teachings of the Buddha. There are, however, many references to dharmas in the Pal i canonical texts and a part of these has already been presented above. Some of the difficulty has arisen because of the varied equ ivalents given for the word dharma/dhamma in English textual translat ions. An example of this can be seen in the various translations of the text of the I?hammapada I, one of which is quoted in the previous section . This fIrSt verse is critical evidence for dharmas being part of the Buddha's teaching, yet the Engl ish renderi ng completely confused the meaning by not supplying the Pali term and also by imprecise and various English words l ike 'thoughts'. Another text can supply further evidence in &p is regard . It is related in the Pal i Vinaya-pitaka and elsewhere ,whef(� Asvajit, one of the Buddha's fIrst disciples at Varary.asi" met Sariputra before the latter joined the Buddha's following. Sariputra asked Asvajit who his teacher was and what teaching he fol lowed. Asvajit answered in a short verse as fol lows:

Ye dbarma hetll prabhava hetlln te�am tathagato aha te�af!l ca yo nIi-odbo evaf!lvadi mahasramal}ai;

Translating from Lamotte's French, this can be rendered as: 'Of dharmas which arise from a cause

,

The Tathagata has proclaimed The cause as well as their stopping'. Thus teaches the great ascetic.

Sariputra was so impressed by this terse statement ,>,bout the (}rising and stopping of dhannas that he went straight to Sakyamuni for more. The rest, as they say, is history.

Bearing in mind the place and the persons involved in this

90 See Part One, The three turnings of the Dharma Wheel, p.[22], n.73. 91 Vi1laya I, pAD; also in E. Lamotte's translation of the MaJujprajiiaparamitopades,"I: Le haite de Ja gnwde vertu de sagesse de NltgaIjllflL"l II, Louvain 1949, 1967, p.631, n.1., and in Mahiivastu III, p.62.

156

Cheetham - The Yogacara-VijiHinavada School

episode, one cannot get much closer to the original teaching than this. But, as mentioned, there are considerably more textual references to dharmas which can be found in the Buddha's recorded pronouncements. They would be tedious to quote in detail, but some of the reference getails are given in the footnote below, to be consulted if required9 .

So again, Yogacara will be seen here as adopt ing and adapting original and early canonical teaching to a deeper and more explicit system, though one which is undisputedly derived from its Buddhist precursors and from Buddha originals.

On this evidence the dharmas and their groupings are not just the product of academic embell ishment by idle monks in a hot climate. Doubtless this also took place. But it is clear that dharmas were fundamental to the original teaching of the Buddha as well as to the early Abhidharma masters.

Why then are dharmas so important? In the first placf; they are the result of Buddhist psychological analysis which lays bare the actual entities causing the suffering of all beings. Secondly, once dharmas are brought into view they can be pacified by special practices and, as a result, according to the final passag.es of the Satiparthana, Nirva1).a can be attained within seven days.

For these and other reasons dharmas remain fundamental to Yogacara just as they did with its forbears. The more profound insights of Yogacara, however, required some changes to the old usages. Nonetheless, Yogacara never lost sight of the primary purpose of bringing dharmas into view. Dharmas always were the basIs of right effort, and to facil itate this practical end., i .e., the acquiring and sustaining of wholesome dharmas and the el imination of the defiled and unwholesome variety, the dharma l istings were divided into separate categories. For Yogacara these are:

citta (mentals)

92 The Heart of Buddhist Meditation (Satipayhiina), tr. Nyanaponika Thera,

Colombo 1954, pp,125, 139-40; Sarpyutta-nikiiya II, 25, and Kosa, ,::::h,3, p,72; Kosa, Ch,2, pp.215, 310; lbld., Ch.I, p.ll; Lamotte, Trlu'ti II, op. cit., p.912, quoting the SutriiJilJpkalL1.

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caitaslka (mental associates) rupa (physical faculties) vlprayukta (distinct from other mentals) asarpsk(ta (unconditioned)

The largest of these categories is the second, the caitaslka. This is subdivided into sub-sections which comprise over fifty separate dharmas. The sub-sections include dharmas classified as good/ wholesome, bad/defiled, and indeterminate. Such subdivisions are intended as an aid to right cultivation, as mentioned earlier.

Before turning to a detailed presentation of the Y ogacara dharma scheme, it is necessary to set out one of tile major Abhidharma developments which Yogacara accepted. The Abhidharmakosa expl�ins the purpose of Dharma/dharma practice. Vasubandhu says that without the discernment of dharmas, i.e., bringing then;. into awareness, the�e is no subjugation of the passions (klesa), and hence there IS no release from Sarrsara. Here is a concise statement of doctrine and necessary practice which AsaiJ.ga would rework later. Indeed it can be seen as the raison d'etre of all dharma schemes in mainstream HTnayana and Mahayana.

The dharma topics above which Yogacara took over had a further outcome. It is the doctrine of the dharmasarptana, or mental series. This is a combination of the basic themes \)f no-self (anatman) and impermanence (anityata). It means, :1enerally speaking, that although dharma elements are real (for the Abhidharmako::,�a), they appear and disappear with minute ,juration. Consequentally, change, rarid or otherwise, is a comtant and therefore the dharmas exist 10 a related sequence with n:) permanent self/soul. Vasubandhu expressed the case precise'y, so his short statements are worth quoting:

'By series (saIptiina) we understand material and mental elements uninterruptedly succeeding each other in a procession which has action as originating cause.

The successive moments of the procession are different,

93 Kosa, ell.1, p.5, v.3. 158


therefore there is evolution (pan{Jiima), transformation of the . ,94 senes.

Again, Vasubandhu notes: 'Dh b . . . . ,9S armas, emg momentary, eXIst m serIes ... .

Yogacara would agree with the basic idea of this, which they called dttasarptana, but its explanation of exactly what the statements meant would differ. This is due to the emergence of its special doctrine of the aJayavijiiana, bija and viisana which made a llOear production of successive dharmas obsolete. For Y (ogacara there certainly was succession and transformation, but these were dependent upon the seeds (bija) from the develop-ments in the aJayavijiiana and viisana. In this case, therefore, the result was similar but the direction of the causal production differed.

Another feature of dharma activity linked to the dharmasaJptana is the notion of 'clusters' of dharmas. This too is accepted in the Yogacara dharma scheme. This notion is implicit in the circumstance that no dharma is considered to arise singly and alone. Always there are accompanying conditions (pratyaya) and associates. The Abhidharma text specifies a basic twenty-seven dharmas in evel), dharma c1uster96• A further ten dharmas are added to this if one accounts for th� category of mahabhumikas which are present at every moment 7. Thus every singk dharma becomes a multiple entity by reason of its necessary a'isociates. One of the old categories of Sarvastivadin dharmas emphasises this factor. This is the category of samprayuktas, i.e., mental associates indicating the group of dharmas which are capable of linkage to form a cluster. Yogacara employs the same theme by its term cjtta/caitta, i.e., mentals and mental associates. An example of Yogacara usage has been shown above concerning the multiple entity of mantiS.

So much for similarities and adoptions by Yogacara from the

94 IbJd., Cll.9, p.296 95 Ibid., eh.3, p.33.

96 IbJd., Ch.2, p.194 and n.3. 97 IbJd., Ch.2, p.l53.

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Sarvastivadins and others. Now we can turn to what the Yogacarins changed in their own dharma scheme to take account of its deeper perceptions of the Dharma in general.

Perhaps the most important change by the Yogacarins to the meaning of the dharma scheme was that they denied the existence of external objec�s a.s separate �.r.?m !h� min?,. cjtt€�. AS(llig� puts the case for thIS, I.e., for vljnaptJmatrata 10 hIS Nlahayanasamgraha. He quotes Mahayana siHras to the effect that the whole wo'rld � nothing but mind (citta) and that there is no external object9 . In respect of dharmas and dhatus this means that the nJpadharmas, i.e. dhatus Nos 2, 5, 8, 11 and 14, are not external to the perceiver. This is emphasised, aoain by Asanga, when he explains the form element (nJpadhatd) and visual consciousness element (cak�urvljfjanadhatu). What happens is that the eye perceives torms and then visual consciousness reacts to that visible form; it is also (and this is �£ucial) the result of accumula�ed seeds arising in the aJayavijfjana . Air the sense consciousne,;.ses arise from the store consciousness &pd that is why all of that is projected notions only (v{iJlaptimatra)l . Even more radical is Vasubandhu when he writes that neither the atman nor dharmas exist and so all is mere consciousness.

All the pre-Mahayana schools taught anatman but that dharmas were real. In Yogacara (Vasubandhu) dharmas too are not real existents. That is not to say that they are not tht':re. They are 'mind-made' and all arise from the a/ayavljnana by means of active seeds (bIja).

So, despite the protestations that dharmas do not exist, Yogacara then sets out to define and categorise each of its 103 factors in its dharma scheme! This is not as aberrant as it seems because, as will be seen and as already shown in the section on hahusruta and dharma practice, all dharmas have a purp'0se. This purpose is to become the means to pass out of the pankaJpita realm, where

98 SVG, pp.92-4. 99 AbhidhannasamUCCl/Yl1 trans. op. cit., pA. 100 Trirpsika, v.15, quoted in DMC, p.cxxxUi. 101 !b d 7 ' b 'd 1 ,v.1 ,111 J 1 .

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the defiled dharmas are rampant, and into the paratantra and parini�panna realms) where the dharmas can. b� perceived as th�y really are: empty (sunya) and markless (ammltta), and where to their real nature they are all the same (samata).

This perception is only reached in the upper levels of the bodhisattva stages where dharma activity is then a pure (anasrava) process and leads to a fundamental turning around in the depth of consciousness (asrayaparavrm). In order to attain that close approach to full enlightenment the dharmas have first to be identified and then cultivated through the perfections (p/Jramitii). This, of course, starts in pankaJpita where false imagination dominates. Hence the necessity of penetration to the ope.ration of dharmas (dharmapravicaya) and so they all have to be brought into view, defined and employed by right effort.

For this purpose lists of both the Sarvastivadin and Yogacara dharmas are appended. Here, some of the special features of the Yogacara scheme are presented.

Controversially perhaps, although the store consciousness (aJayavijiiana) is called the eiiillth consciousness in the Vijiiaptimatratasiddhi and els1�here ,the Sanskrit stanzas of Vasub�n9hu �<? _not call it so �. It�. ��mes have been given to liS h��e as vlpakavljn�1fla a�d sa.rvabljavljn.ana. Added to thIS �he aJayavljnana does not fIgure 10 either the eIghteen dhiitus or to the Yogacara list of dharmas, although manas appears in both. It may be postulated from this that the aJayavijiiana is not a dharma, at least 10 the generally accepted sense of that word. Some of the definitions of the aJayavijiiana given by Asanga appear to support the idea that it cannot be a dharma.

For example, Asanga says in his Mahayanasamgraha that all produced dharmas anse from the store consciousness (aJayavljnana) and they are then �ormed into the chain of dependent arising (pratityasamutpiida)l

. Further on in the same text Asanga

102 Ibid., v.2, quoted in ibid., p.cx. 103 Ibid., p.251. 104 SGV,p.37

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says that the aJayavijiiana as retribution consciousness holds all the seeds (bija) and because � this all the destinies and existences arise from this consciousness .

The VijiiaptJmatratasiddhj expands these by stating that the retribution consciousness (aJayavijllana) is homogenous, continuous and capable of sust&ining body and life and preventing these from being mterrup'!�dl . Again! �t states that �his conscioutd1ess is called aJayavljnana because It mcludes all defIled dharmas

These definitions, among a number of others, make it difficult to see how the aJayavijiiana can be reckoned among the other single function elements of very short duration, especIally in view of the negative evidence that it does not figure m the eighteen dhatus or the Yogacara dharma list. So, whether or nm. it is the eighth consciousness, it can hardly be of the same kind as the other seven consciousnesses. By its function and titles it seems to be unique and of a different nature to the dharmas contained in the eighteen dhatus.

The Y ogacara �harma list is arranged under the five headings of the skandhas 10

• The group of mental associates (saml'rayukta) comprises skandhas two, three and four. They include wch subgroups as the wholesome (kusaJa) and unwholesome ,. akusaJa) and the derived and secondary defIled dharmas (see dharma list). In all, this group is composed of fifty-five separate dharmas, which is over half the total. This is the group which produces most of the 'clusters' and, because all the defilements and passions arise from it, it is a major constituent of the realm of parikaJpita. As such, it provides the focus for most of the early dharma practice.

Also included among the fourth skandha are the dharmas of the 'distinct from other mentals' (cittaviprayuktasarpskqra) subse�t�on. This_is .a _ st!an,ge example of Xogacara adaptation. The ongmal Sarvastivadm Itst contamed thIrteen of these. The Yoga-

105 Ibid., p.39. 106 DMC, p.227. 107 Ibid., p.185. 108 Abhidharmasamuccaya trans., op. cit., pp.1-25.

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cara, despite its seeming ambivalence on dharmas in general109, adds ten more to these making a total for this sub-section of twenty-three. The Yogacara additions themselves are also rather strange. Such items as rapidity (java, No.83) and succession (anukrama, No.84), time (kala, No.85) and region (de§a, No.86) once again do not seem to conform to the general idea of a dharma as an irreducible element of conscious existence. On the other hand, as part of the skandhas they do seem to connect the so-called personality (pudgala) to the surrounding world. All the dharmas of the skancJha groups are conditioned (sarpsArta). The last group of the set is outside the group of the skandi,as but is contained within the eighteen dhatu framework.

This is the section of the unconditioned (asarpslqta) dharmas. Here again Yogacara expanded the original three cfharmas to eight. Comment has already been made on this section above. The Yogacara additions comprise three types of such ness (tathata) and two extra types of 'stoppIng' (lllfodha). Why these extra are necessary seems problematical and, anyway, how can there be more than one kind of such ness? This, together with the already mentioned difficulty of unconditioned, i.e. unrelated and unconnected, dhannas being produced by bijas from the alayavijiiana makes the additions to this section strange indeed. Further comment will be made in these questions below.

Regarding the detail of the practice dimension of dharmas, this can now be set out. There will be little sUfl?rise if it is said that the preliminary practice system in Yogacara IS similar to that of the earlier schools, i.e., to bring dharma elements into focus and build a body of good roots, i.e., wholesome dharmas, to sustain more advanced practices. Such is the first of the old progressive phases of the five paths (marga) . The first path is called sambhfJramarga, or path of acquiring egUipment. This preparatory stage is also part of the Yogacara bodhisattva process In that it is necessary to accumulate the mok�abh;]oiyas \ dharmas of or aids to delr/erance). These are faith (sraddhfi), energy (virya), mindfulness (S!J1!tJ) and

109 7: . '·1. f1IJ1S1](8, v.l. 163


some wisdom (prajiia)110. These are all dharmas as can be seen by the notes attached.

The process continues by entry into the second path called prayogamarga (path of preliminary or focused exercise). This comprises four more features common to both mainstream Hlnayana and Mahayana, i.e., the nkvedahbhagfyas.

In Yogacara, however, these four features have the same names as before but their definitions and aims vary. The four are called u�magata (heats), murdhan (summits), k$antj (patience) and laukikagradharma (supreme worldly dharmas) . All ei�ht together are the ingredients of the good roots (kusaiamuia) . The aim of these practices in Yogacara is described and clearly set out in the Vijiiaptlmatratasjddhl. The aim is to gain acct;ss to the third path, the path of vision (darsanamarga), and for that the ingrained conception of subject and object need:; to be removed 112. If successful they lead to the realisation that these dharmas do \\ot exist other than as vijiiaptJmatra (mere notional projections)1. .

The next stage of this process is called darsanamarga, the third of the five paths. Here the first 'vision' of reality is gained with the appearance of njrvjkalpajiiana, i.e., knowledge free from false imagination and discrimin,\tion. This reveals the two sunyatas, i.e., of pudgala and of dharmas 14.

In the same stage of darsanamarga, as a conclusion of lh� stage, the higher comprehension (abhlsamaya) is attained 1. This amounts to 'lR actual realisation of the non-duality of all dharmas and the real meaning of the Dharma and the Three lewels. On completing the darsanamarga there is entrance into the first of the

110 DMC, p.679. III Ibid 112 Ibid. 113 Ibid, p.681. 114 Ibid., p.691. 115 IbJd., p.699. 116 SOY, p.160.

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Cheetham - The Yogiiciira- Vijiiiinaviida School

ten stages (bhiimJ)1l7 which is sometimes referred to as the path

proper, i.e. all preliminaries are fulfil led and the progresl; through the stages has begun. At this point also calming (samatha) and insight penetration (vjpasyana) continue to function as described above in the section on bahusruta. At the darsanam1�a stage and beyond, however, insight penetration predominates1 .

Now, from the first bhiimi onwards the unobstructed knowledge (niIvjkalpakajiitina) is constantly activated. The presence of this special insight-knowledge is establ ished when prajIJiiparamita is attained in the sixth bhiimI: This form of perfected insight cuts off forever the secondary defilements and the ser�s (bija) of the grasping at subject and object (grahakaugrahya)

1 . this cutting

off contributes to the eventual demolition of the two barriers (avarana) of defiled dh�IJTIas (klesa) and false or incomplete knowledge (jiieyavaralJa) . Here we have the start of th� fruition of al l the earlier acquired knowledge of the dharma elements and the practice of right effort (samyagvayama) to subdue defilements.

By these processes of passing through the stages (bhiimJ), one of Yogacara's primary goals is achieved. It is the 'transformation of the base (asrayaparav!ttJ)'. The base referred to is the fundamental stratum of both pure and impure dharma activity as well as the biJas which produce them in the alaya vijnana.

These various attainments just prior to the 'transformation of the base' mark a convergence, In some respects, of the doctrines of the MaC\hyamaka and Yogacara. The stage of the sixth perfection involves prajiiaparamjta (perfect insight-knowledge) and this conveys the comprehension that all dharmas are marked by emptiness (sarvadharma siinyatalak�alJa). Indeed they are emptiness itself. This in turn brings about the full acceptance that dharmas do not arise (anutpattjkadharmaksantl). With that, the crucial and specific Yogacara theme of the 'transformation of t he base' (asrayaparav!ttJ) comes to be.

117 D MC, p.701. 118

Ibid., p.69S. 119

flnd.. p.703. 120

Ibid., p.705.

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All this may serve to illustrate how dharma schemes underlie most of Y ogacara doctrine and practice and, of course, most of the rest of Indian Buddhism. For Yogacara in particular the point reached at this stage is tantamount to entry into paD'nI�panna (ultimate reality). It should be noted, however, thar defiled dharmas of all kmds constitute the parikaJpita experience. Yet it is the true nature of these same dharmas which emerges in the higher stages.

Beyond that, as we shall see next, the true dharma nature takes on its supreme form, the fulfilment of the original aspiration to perfect enlightenment, the final flowering of the bodhidtta.

THEDHARMAS AND THEDHARMAKAYA

After passing through t.he seri�s of the pat� of visior: Idar§a!1amarga) the next ascendmg sections are the SIX perfections (paramita) within the corresponding bodhisattva stages (bhulll1). All of this is part of the fourth of the paths called bhavanamarga, meaning path of continuous cultivation, or bringing into existence. This too refers to the dharmas, and the changes to them 'vhich are brought about in this process produce some very advanced staging posts in these higher levels of the Way.

The first concern here seems to be to overcome the barrier (avaraIJa) of the defilements/passions (kJeia) still remaining. By r�eated access to the unobstructed knowfedge (nirvikaJpakajnana) both barriers of defiled dharmas and incomplete knowfedge (kJeia and jiieyavaraIJa) are dissipated and entry into the parinif}panna realm is gained. This highly charged cultivation of good and special dharmas, i.e., prajiia, opens the way to punfying the aJayavijiiana of defiled seeds (bija) and results iq the 'inner transformation or turning of the base' (a!Irayaparav.rttJ) 21.

It is of some interest to note that in this same bhavanamarga not only is perfect wisdom gainecj at the sixth bhumi, i.e. full compre?£nslon of sunyata, but the Sravaka path to Nirvana is also fulfilled . This seems to refer back to the statements in the

121 Ibid., p.707. 122 SOY, p.262-3.

166

Cheetham - The Yogacara- Vijii anavada School

Samdhlnirmocanasl1tra already mentioned concerning the three turnings oj the Wheel by which both major branches of the Dharma (Sravaka and Mahayana) are incorporated in the explicit teaching of the third turning.

Such constant cultivation of dharmas produces the 'in�f! transformation' (asrayapanlv.rttJ) which can be of six kinds . These different kinds concern the purification of the dharma stream, the fading of the false and the appearance of reality by oveFcoming the final barrie�s (avara{Ja). The sixth kind i!; actually defmed as where the bodhisattva penetrates to the lac;\: of selfexistence of the dharmas (dharmanairatmya) and re�Jising that SaqIsara is forever calm and should not be abandoned 1 .

By this point in the bodhisattva I?rocess several kinds of what are usually lumped together as 'medItation' have been either perfected or highly refined and concentrated. These are practices already prescribed here such as dharmapravicaya, samatha and vipasyana, samadhj and dhyana. The last practice will have already b.een perf.�cte? by .t�e fi�th pliramita. This allows acc��s to th� sIXth, pra;naparamlta, WhICh IS the pattern throughout, I.e., speCIfic types of 'meditation' practice produce the highest goals in the upper sta�es. This means that such meditative practices have to be cultivated and intensified as the first bhl1mi is approach�d. From this point on the defiled dharmas (already perceived and worked upon earlier) are gradually transforrn�d and their bijaseJiminated from this particular dharmasa.rptana .

As if to reinforce the notion th�; the dharma elements are central to this whole process it is said 6 that all ten bhl1mis have a self-nature comprising all the good conditioned (sa.rpskrta) and all the unconditioned dharmas. Furthermore, acceft�on to tne tenth and final bhl1mi provides mastery of all dharmas .

123 Ibld., p.263.

124 Ibid

125 DMC, p.723. 126

ibJd., p.711. 127

ibJd., p.741.

167


A clear distinction is made between seeds (bija) and their respective dharmas when manifesting. An example is given that the arising of some defiled (klJ�!a) dharmas is cut off at the stage of the first bhumi, whereas the defiled seeds (biJa) are cut off progressively by means of special Wseditation practice during the passage through all the ten bhumlS' . Thus the seeds (b�ia) which can give rise to supreme enlightenment (aIJuttarasamyaksambodhl) can only operate when the two barriers (av8rana) of defi lement (kleSfIh and incomplete profound knowledge (jneya) are cleared away .

All this is part of the continu ing process of dharma purification which l ies at the heart of the 'transformation of the base' (asrayapanlV(ttJ). Indee9 the �?!d '?��se' (asraya) is said to be the st�!e conscIousness (alayaVljnana)' wherefrom all the seeds (blja) arise. And the purpose of it al l is suggested when it is said that the Buddha's body of enjoyment (sambhoQakaya) is produced by part of the 8focess of the 'transformatIon of the base' (asraya-

- tt 31 parav! 1 .

The furifying of the dharmas is again referred to wher it is said that 0 the eighteen dhatus, i.e., the person and the whole of SaIpsara, Nos 1-15, are always impure (sasrava) until ful l bodhi But Nos 16, 17, and 18 can be either pure or iIRPure. For a Buddha, however, al l eighteen dhatus are pure1 . Here, the Buddha is usual ly referred to as the dharmakaya, a term redolent with several meanings. In this context it is defined as the three bodies (trikaya); i.e . , the body of true nature (svabhava), the body of enjoyme�t (sambhogakaya) and tq� appearance body (nirmanakaya)

1 • Vasubandhu's

trirpsika 4 states with finality that

128 Ibid., p.743. 129 Ibid., p.767. 130 ibId., p.705. 131 ibJd., p.797. 132 ibid., p.789. 133 Ibid., p.793. 134 TrimiJka, v.30.

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ultimate attainment is the pure dhatu, i.e., the dharmakaya135• This dharmakaya is also said to br the support and base

(asraya) of sovereignt¥ over all dharmas 36. And yet the Vijiiapti. matratfisiddhi statesl 7 that the dharmakaya appears when both the aJayavljiiana and the bijas are stopped. This supreme state, i .e., the real body of the Buddha and supreme enlig.htenm.en.t, is attaifl:�d by the unobstructed knowledge a.nd penetration (mrvik.aJ. pakajnana) focused upon the deep teachmglDharma of the major Mahayana sutras plus the fulfilment of passage through all ten bhl1mis. Here is a clear reference to the previously mentioned main practice system of the triple gnosis (sruta, cinta, .5amatha/

. / -)138 vlpa�yana . In all this, both Asanga and Vasubandhu are elaborating in

what had earlier been presented in such ba�ic Mahayana sutras as the A�!asahasrikaprajiJaparamita and the StJraipgamasamadhi In these can be found statements such as: The true nature (tathata) of the Tathagata a�d the tathata of all dharmas are single, nondual, not dividedl . Or: Tathagatas are neither born nor die because st their complete synonymity with the true nature of dharmas .

Such is the unsurpassed peak (bhutako!l) of all Mahayanist endeavour. All the details above sets out the means whereby this supreme aim is attained. It should therefore not be wondered at that the dharma elements should figure so prominently throughout the whole process. In doing so, of course, Yogacara also continues and consolidates the similar tradition among the very earliest Indian Buddhist schools, even the recorded teaching of the Buddha himself. The sublime aim of the further teaching, i .e., that of the first Mahayana sutras, is the reason why Yogacara

135 IbId. 136 SGV, p.266. 137 DMC, p.797. 138 SGV, pp.274-5. 139 E. Conze, tr. The Perfection of' Wisdom jJl Eight Thousand Lint}!>; Calcutta 1958, p.114. 140 cr. Sliallpgamasamadhisutra trans, op. cit., p.166.

169


constantly emphasises attention to dharmas,i.e., dharmapravicaya. Right effort (samyagvayama) in this area produces insightknowledge (prajnaj and prajna opens the gate to all the rest.

* * * * *

Several concluding remarks may now be in order. On the basis of the textual extracts given above, the two main themes of the article have been outlined. Of course, much more textual material could have been used, but it is hoped that the extent has been sufficiently wide and apposite to underpin the main propositions. These are that the main Yogacara doctrines are derived from and are extensions of the topics of the Buddha's recorded �eachings and of the mainstream Indian Buddhist schools.

Also, that Yogacara presents a coherent system of doctrine which is closely allied to necessary and related practice. Indeed here, as in earlier schools, doctrine and practice are inter-related and inter-dependent. The difference between Yogacara and the earlier mainstream HTnayana is that the Yogadi.ra is dependent upon and elaborates the deep teaching of the first Mahayana sutras. This reflects Asanga's own experience (and that of his brother Vasubandhu) of being grounded in the Sarvastivada and then progressing into the further teaching of first phase Mahayana.

Despite the amount of detailed exposition here, there remain some very puzzling and unresolved questions (it is ever s(;).

Having just outlined the dharma scheme of Yogacara, it may be as well to start here.

The question arising is: what is the status and qualities of a 'dharma' in Yogacara? In the early Abhidharma the answer was clear. A dharma is an element which lasts only an instant and is immediately replaced by another. Even so, each dharma has different characteristics and a karmic outflow. For Y ogacara, dharmas have no external existence and are all 'mind made'.

Furthermore, although manas is listed as a dharma which is within the eighteen dhatus, its functions, as defined, cannot be carried out by a single, instantly disappearing entity. For manas to

170

Chee tha m - The Yogacara - VijiHinavada School

be a dharma it has to have qualities of considerable durat ion, or to be a complex or cluster of related dharmas.

Turning to the group of dttavjprayuktas, items such as Nos 83, java (raYldity\ and 84, anikrama (uniform succ�s�ion), and 88, samagn (totality of causes and effects), do not fIt lOto the usual idea of a single dharma element .

Again, why add so many dharmas to the old list if, as Vasubandhu says, dharmas do not exist? And, strangely, most .ldditions are made to the most problematic groups, i.e ., vjprayuktas and asarpskrta dharmas . The latter raise theIr own difficulties. They are classified as dharmas and therefore are brought into being by seeds in the store consciousness. Yet by definition these dharmas are non-arising and unconditioned and so cannot be produced.

One speculation to conclude. Asanga is said by some! to have been the founder of the Tathagatagarbha school as well as of the Yogacara. The Tathagatagarbha teaching followed quickly upon the establishment of Yogacara. AccordlOg to Tathagatagarbha texts the final phase of the process is the transformation of the refined dharmas into their intrinsic purity and true nature. At that point the pure Tathagatagarbha is revealed, although it is always present. [s Asanga further refining his Yogacara theme of the iisrayaparavrtti by introducing the Tathiigatagarbha? If so, it may be questioned whether the iiJayavijiiiina and the Tatbagatagarbha are not similar or even the same.

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The 75 d h armas of the Sarvastivad ins

from Vasubandhu's Abhjdharmakosa

Section 1 . The 72 samskrta (condit ioned) dharmas (A,B and C) A The 1 1 dharmas of the nlpaskandha are:

vlsaya (domain) lnddya (organ) or

visible) 1 . nlpa ayatana (faculty) 6. cak�ur ayatana {faculty) sou nd) 2. sabda ayatana (faculty) 7. srotra ayatana { faculty) odour) 3. gandha ayatana (faculty) 8. ghral}a ayatana (faculty) taste) 4. rasa ayatana (faculty) 9. jjhva ayatana) (facult¥) tangIble) 5 . spra�!avya ilyatana (fac) 10. kaya ayatana (faculty)

and 11. aVl]naptj ( unmanifested act)

B The 60 dharmas of sarpskaraskandha B1 The 46 sa1J1prayuktadharmas, i .e. associated with thought

i . 10 mahabl1l1mjkas : 12. vedana (skandha) feeling, sen�,ation (great, always present)13. sarpjiia(skandha) perception, Hotion,

[idea

ll. 10 kusalamahabhilmilcas

(wholesome)

14. cetana vol it ion, wil l , i ntentio l l 15 . chanda desire for action 16. spada contact (qual ified as cuntiguity) 17. smrti recollection, memory,mindful ness 18. prajiia insight/wisdom 19. adhjmok�a approval, acceptance, re

20. manaskara fixing attention [cognition

21. samadhj concentration, one-pointed [focus

22. sraddha acquiescence,faith, adherence,

23. virya energy [confidence (in)

24. upek�a equanimity, balanced com[posure

25 . hri respect, veneration of virtuous [ qual ities/persons

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i i i. 2 akwfaJamahabhiimikas

(unwholesome)

iv. 6 kJesamahabhiimikas

(defiled, bad)

v. 10 padttakJesabhiimikas or upakJesas

(derived from defilemen ts)

vi. 8 aniyatas (indeterminate)

26. apatrapya dread of bad acts 27. aJobha greedlessness, no greed 28. advesa hatelessness, no hate 29. avihirpsa no-injury, harmlessness 30. prasrabdhi aptitude, dexterity 31 . apramada dil igence, persistent effort 32. ahrikya disrespect, lack of regard for

[virtue 33. anapatrapya disregard of bad n:pute, no

[dread 34. moha ignorance, delusion 35 . kausidya laziness, indolence, sloth 36. styana sloth, sluggishness 37. pramada negl i$ence, carelessness 38. asraddhya non-Del ief 39. auddhatya agitation/restlessness 40. jr�ya envy 41 . matsarya avarice 42. krodha anger, irritation 43. mrak�a hypocrisy 44. maya deceit 45 . sathya dissimulation, fraudulence 46. made? pride, self-esteem 47. pradasa obst inate approval of mis-

48. upanaha 49. vihimsa 50. kauJqtya 51 . middha 52. vitarka 53. vicara

[deeds enmity, hatred active hosti l ity, harmfulness

regret, remorse languor, torpor

54. raga sometimes c!as- [55 . pratigha

sified as upa-kJesas (v.above) 56. mana

discursive mental enquiry judgement, assessment attachment, desires mental disturbances and

[ irritation arrogance, conceit, self-ag

[grandisement doubt 57. vicikitsa

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Budd hist Stud ies Review 21 , 2 (2004)

B2. The 14 citta viprayuktas, i.e. dissociated from thought 58. prapti possession and retention 59. aprapti non-retention, non-possession 60. sabhagata compatibil ity, similarity of

[type 61. asaIpjiiika unconsciousness, unaware

[ness 62. asamjiiJ�c;amapatti meditative state of .

unconsciousness, attain-[ment of consciousness

63. nirodhasamapattJ meditative state of stopped thought and

[mentar activity 64. jivita l ife force, qual ity of continuity 65. jati b irth, arising, production 66. sthiti duration, abldlOg 67. jara ageing, decay 68. anityata impermanence, instabi l ity 69. namakaya names that prompt ideas 70. padakaya meaningful phrases 7 1 . vyaiijanakaya syllable, vowel and con

[sonant sounds C 72. vijiianaskandha is a single dharma - simple, unm ixed con-

sciousness of a particular object.

Section 2. The three asamskrtas (unconditioned) are: 73. akasa space 74. pratisarpkhyanirodha total st('pp' ing by

(= NilvaQ.a) l insight 75 . aprati5arpkhyanirodha stopping/disjunc

tIon by lack of [cause

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Asailga's List of Yogacara dharmas as con ta in e d i n the A bhidharmasam uccaya14 1

1 . samskrta dharmas The rive 'skandhas (aggregates, conditioned)

Skandha one, rupa dharmas (aggregates of matter) The 10 ayataIlas

dharma number 1 . caksurdhiitu, eye element 2. sroiradhiitu, ear element 3. ghriiIJadhiitu, nose element 4. jih viidhiitu, tongue element 5 . kiiyadhiitu, body, touch, tacti le element 6. rupadhatu, form element 7. s<7bdadhiitu, sound element 8. gandhadhatu, odour element 9. rasadhatu, taste element 10. spra$!a vyadhiitu, tangibil ity element d harma types and numbers in skandhas two, three a nd four

a = 5 sarvatraga, universal b = 5 viniyata, special c = 1 1 kusala, wholesome d = 10 akusalCl, unwholesome, defiled e = 20 upakleia, secondary unwholesome f = 4 aniyata, indeterminate

Total 55 d harmas i n skandhas two, three and four a = sarvatraga , universal

Skandha two, vedana (aggregate of fecli ng) 1 1) a. vedana, sensation

Skandha three, saIJ1.iiia (aggregate of perception) 12) a. saIpjiia, perception

1 4 1 AbhidlJarmasamuccaya trans. , op. cit.

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Skandha four, sa1]1skara. (aggregate of formations) 1 3j a. cetana, vohtlon aroused by contact with the organs 14 a. manaskara, attention 1 5 a. sparsa, contact

b = 5 viniyata, special 16 b. chanda, desire 17 b. adhimoksa, resolve 18 b. smrtl; recollection/mindfulness 1 9 b. samadhl; concentration 20 b. prajna, insight-wisdom

c = 1 1 kusala, wholesome 21 c. sraddiJa, confidence 22 c. hri, respect (self respect) 23 c. apatrapya, integrity (modesty) 24 c. alobha, non-covetousness (absence of greed) 25 c. adve�a, non-hatred (absence of hatred) 26 c. amoha, non-delusion (absence of delusion) 27 c. vi1J'a, vigour 28 c. prasrabdhi, aptitude 29 c. apramada, vigilence 30 c. upek�a, equanimity 3 1 c. aviiJi1]1sa, non-injury

d = 10 akusaia/kiesa, unwholesome, defiled 32 d. raga, greed 33 d. pratigiJa, irritation 34 d. mana, conceit 35 d. avidya, ignorance 36 d. vicikitsa, doubt 37 d. satkayad!�!i, view of individuality . 38 d. antagrahad!�!j, idea of grasping extreme views 39 d. ejrHlparamarsa, agherence to views 40 d. silavrataparamarsa, adherence to obselVances/rituals 41 d. mithyad!�p; false views

e = 20 upaklesa, defiled/unwholesome 42) e. krodha, anger

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43 e. upanaha, enmity 44 e. mrak$�, hypoc�isy 45 e. pradasa, vexation 46 e. irsya, envy 47 e. matsarya, avarice 48 e. maya, deception/illusion 49 e. sathya, d�sslmulation 50 e. mada, pnde 51 e. vjhjmsa, violence 52 e. afJrikya, shamelessness 53 e. anapatrapYl'1, non-integrity 54 e. styana, torpor/inertia 55 e. auddhatya, agitation 56 e. asraddhya, lack of confidence 57 e. kausidya, indolence 58 e. pramaada, negligence 59 e. mU$jtasm(tl"ta, forgetfulness 60 e. asamprajanya, wrong understanding 61 e. VIK$epa, distraction

f = 4 anjvata, indeterminate 62 f. middha, diowsiness/languor 63 f. kaukrtya, remorse 64 f . vjtarka, discursive mental enquiry 65 f. vkara, mental judgement cjttavj ra ktasam!!J*ara (distinct from other mentals)

66 praptJ:yossession 67 asaIpjm�"amapattj, attainment of non-perception 68 niFodhasamapattj, attainment of non-sensation 69 asaIpjijjka, state of non-perception 70 jivjtendnya, the life faculty 71 mKayasabhaga, similarity of types 72 jatJ; birth 73 jara, ageing 74 sthjti, duration 75 am'tyata, impermanence 76 namakaya, names 77 padakaya, words 78 vyaiijanakaya, consonants

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79 prthagjanatva, the status of an ordinary man 80 pravrttl; turn ing over process 81 pratlniyama, distinction (of karman), d iversity 82 yoga, conformity of causes and effects 83 java, rapidity

. 84 anukrama, uniform succession 85 kala, time 86 desa, region (of space) 87 saIpkhya, number 88 samagri, totality (of causes, effects and conditk,ns)

Skandha five, vljiiana (aggregate of consciousness) 89 mana�� mind centre, mental organ 90 caksurvijiiana, visual consciousness 91 sroiravijiiana, auditory consciousness 92 ghraIJavljiiana, olfactory consciousness 93 jihvavijiiana, gustatory consciousness 94 kayavljiiana, tacti le consciousness 95 manovijiiana, mental [ object] consciousness

2. asamskrta (unconditioned) dharmas 96) kusaladharmatathata, the such ness or essential nature

of favourable things 97) akusaladharmatathata, t he suchness of essenti2 1 nature

of unfavourable things 98) avyakrtadharmatathata, the suchness of neutral things 99) akasa, space 100) apratisaIpkhyanirodha, lack of causes, cessation obtain-

ed without acquired insight lOll pratisaIpkhyanirodha, stopping by insight 102 aniiijya, the immobil ity of sensat ions 103 saIpjiiavedayita [mJ-odhaj, the cessation of perception

and feel ing

1 78

the yogacara-vijnanavada school of indian buddhism pts 1 & 2

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