the structure of utterance in euripides' and seneca's plays

rivista di cultura classica e medioevale · 2 · 2006

Hélène Perdicoyianni-Paléologou

THE STRUCTURE OF UTTERANCE IN EURIPIDES’ AND SENECA’S PLAYS

Introduction

The global enunciative framework of theatrical literary communication consists of locutor 1 (extra-textual : the author), the « theatrical text » and addressee 1 (extra-textual : the reader). Within the « theatrical text »

we distinguish two types of speeches : i) didaskalia (spatial, temporal and sce-nic indications), which forms imaginary background of the utterance, and ii) monologues, dialogues and three-way conversations, which contibute to the unfolding of the act.

This work deals with the study of various types of utterance structure in Euripides and Seneca’s plays. The corpus of this study consists of plays with a common subject in Euripides and Seneca, i.e. the Trojan Women, Hercules, Hippolytus/Phaedra and the Phoenician Women.

Euripides’ Trojan Women

a) Locutor 2 [didascalia] addressee 2 (God) [monologue with address] (2. 1. spectators) [dialogue] (2. 2. the destroyed city) (2. 3. Goddess)

b) Locutor 3 [didascalia] addressee 3 (Chorus) [dialogue] (3. 1. spectators) (3. 2. a person)

c) Locutor 4 [monologue] addressee 4 (a person) [dialogue] (4. 1. spectators) [a three-way conversation] (4. 2. a person) (4. 3. chorus)

We express our heartfelt thanks to Dr. Deborah Boedecker, Professor of Classics at Brown University, for appointing us as a Visiting Scholar to Brown in the Department of Classics where this research was undertaken (2002-2004).

240 hélène perdicoyianni-paléologou

Poseidon’s prologue locates the city where the play is unfolding by means of a deictic spatial expression, 1 describes anterior events and the present situa-tion. Poseidon also describes Hecuba’s misfortune and her position on stage. 2 Moreover, locutor 2 indicates the place where the Trojan women who are still unallotted wait 3 (locutor 2 [monologue with address] addressee 2. 1.).

Therefore, the primary function of locutor 2 is informational and descrip-tive. Poseidon’s speech prologue ends with a farewell bid to the destroyed city of Troy (locutor 2 [monologue with address] addressee 2. 2.).

Lines 48-97 refer to the second part of the prologue in which the dialogue between Poseidon and Athena takes place.The goddess justifi es her coming ; she expresses her intention of bringing heart to the Trojans whom she previ-ously hated and of giving the Greek army a painful journey home 4 (cognitive stage 1 ; locutor 2 [dialogue ] addressee 2. 3.).

Lines 153-196 describe the dialogue between the chorus and Hecuba. The fi rst Half-Chorus addresses the aged Queen of Troy by name and asks her to explain her pitiful lamentation. 5 Hecuba announces, in turn, the prompt ar-rival of the Greeks 6 to the Coryphaeus (cognitive stage 2 ; locutor 4 [dialogue] addressee 4.3.).

This conversation is followed by the dialogue betweeen Talthybius and Hecuba. The herald of the Greek army announces the allocation of women captives. Cassandra has been picked out as Agamemnon’s concubine, 7 Polyx-ena has been sacrifi ced at Achilles’ tomb, 8 Andromache is to be given to Achil-les’ son 9 and Hecuba to Odysseus 10 (cognitive stage 3 ; locutor 4 [dialogue] addressee 4. 2.).

The following scene is related to Cassandra’s monody and her mother’s long speech. In her iambic speech, Cassandra foretells the disasters awaiting Agamemnon, the man she is marrying. 11 This prophecy refers to events that will take place after the play has unfolded (cognitive stage 4 ; locutor 4 [dia-logue] addressee 4. 2.).

The following lines refer to a three-way conversation in which Talthybius orders, on the one hand, Cassandra to follow him to the ships of the Greeks, and, on the other hand, Hecuba to accompany Laertes’ son, when the latter seeks to lead the queen away. 12 We deal, then, with a cognitive doubling of

1 L. 4-5 : ajmfi; thvnde Trwikh;n cqovna.2 L. 36-37 : Th;n dÆ ajqlivan thvndÆ ei[ ti~ eijsora`n qevlei, ƒ pavrestin JEkavbh keimevnh pulw`n pavro~ �

davkrua cevousa polla; kai; pollw`n u{per.3 L. 32-33 : ÓOsai dÆ a[klhroi Trwadwn, uJpo; stevgai~ ƒ tai`sdÆ, see H. Perdicoyianni, Le vocabulaire

de l’habitation chez Euripide, lec 64 (1), 1996, p. 42-43. 4 L. 65-66. 5 L. 153-158.6 L. 156-160. 7 L. 245. 8 L. 264. 9 L. 274. 10 L. 277.11 L. 356-364. On the use of gamevw and gavmo~ in the context of non-marital union and legiti-

mate wedlock, see Euripides. Trojan Women, with translation and commentary by Shirley Barlow, Warminster, Aris & Phillips Ltd, 1986. 12 L. 419-423.

utterance in euripides’ and seneca’s plays 241

the aged captive (locutor 4 [a three-way conversation] addressee 4. 2.). Conse-quently, Hecuba and Cassandra are at the same cognitive level.

The scene ends with Cassandra’s prophecies of the misfortune awaiting Odysseus 1 by enumerating one by one the painful tribulations that the king of Ithaca must go through. These prophecies are followed by those concern-ing her misfortune after her death 2 (cognitive stage 5) and therefore refer to events which will take place after the play has unfolded. Cassandra’s speech ends with an appeal to her mother 3 and a brief reminder of cognitive stage 4, which represents Hecuba’s cognitive doubling.

Within l. 568-576, the Coryphaeus announces the entrance of Andromache (locutor 3 [didaskalia] addressee 3. 1). The following scene is a dialogue between Hecuba and Andromache, who reveals Polyxena’s death. 4 This is the cognitive doubling of Hecuba’s cognitive stage 3 (locutor 4 [dialogue] addressee 4. 2.).

The second arrival of Talthybius introduces cognitive stage 6. Indeed, the herald announces to Andromache and Hecuba the decision of the Achaeans, who resolved to kill Astyanax by fl inging him from the Trojan walls 5 (locutor 4 [dialogue] addressee 4. 2.).

The following scene begins with Menelas’ entrance on stage and his mono-logue in which he announces the decision of the Greek army. Indeed, Menelas is given the responsibility of fetching Helen, taking her back to Argos and putting her to death. 6 The monologue is addressed to Hecuba, who is lying stretched out on stage asleep (cognitive stage 7 ; locutor 4 [dialogue] addressee 4. 2.).

The monologue of Menelas is followed by a three-way conversation be-tween himself, Hecuba and Helen, who wants to learn the decision of the Greeks regarding her life. Menelas replies that the whole army handed her over to him to put her to death. 7 This is the cognitive doubling of Hecuba. The ex-queen and Helen are at the same cognitive level 8 (locutor 4 [dialogue] addressee 4. 2.).

Within l. 1118-1122, the chorus addresses the unhappy women of Troy and announces to Hecuba the death of Astyanax (cognitive stage 8 ; locutor 3 [dia-logue] addressee 3. 2.).

This cognitive stage is followed by cognitive stage 9 pronounced by Talt-hybius. The enemy herald announces the departure of Neoptolemus and Andromache as well as the desire of the latter to put the body of her son into Hecuba’s arms so that she could wrap it in wreaths and winding sheets 9 (locutor 4 [dialogue] addressee 4. 2.).

1 L. 427-443.2 L. 448-450. On this graphic visual image of Cassandra’s death, cf. also Aesch. Ag. 1260ff .3 L. 458. 4 L. 622-623. 5 L. 725. 6 L. 873-875.7 L. 905. 8 L. 1055-1057. 9 L. 1123-1146.


The play ends with cognitive stage 10 in which Hecuba is informed of the prompt arrival of the Greek army which must deliver her into Odysseus’ hands 1 (locutor 4 [dialogue] addressee 4. 2.).

Conclusion

In Euripides’ Trojan Women, the structure of the utterance is based on the indication of events which will take place after the plot has unfolded and which are revealed by the prophecies of a goddess or a seer, both prompted by the fervent desire of revenge (cognitive stages 1, 4, 5). The structure is also based on the decisions of the Greek army regarding the life of the Trojan women and Astyanax (cognitive stages 3, 6) and that of Helen (cognitive stage 7). The announcement of these decisions is followed by that of their fulfi ll-ment, which is expressed by the past indicative (cognitive stages 8, 9) and the present indicative (cognitive stage 10). The present is also used by the locutor to inform the interlocutor about the present situation of the Greek army (cognitive stage 2).

Therefore, the study of the structure of the utterance shows that Euripides’ Trojan Women is more a play referring to the past than to the future and much less to the present.

Seneca’s Trojan Women

a) Locutor 2 [didaskalia] addressee 2 (a person) [monologue with address] (2. 1. spectators) [dialogue] (2. 2. destroyed city) [a three-way conversation] (2. 3. souls /shadow of the dead) (2. 4. old age) (2. 5. a person) (2. 6. Chorus) (2. 7. God)

b) Locutor 3 -----[monologue with address] addressee 3 (shadow of the dead) (3. 1. a person)

In the Prologue, Hecuba addresses Troy by name, a destroyed and burnt city (locutor 2 [monologue with address] addressee 2. 2.). and outlines previous events, such as the power of Troy, the ravaging of the city and the prophetic dream that she had before the birth of Paris. Indeed, she dreamt that she had given birth to a fi re-brand. This is interpreted by the aged ex-queen that the child she was carrying, Paris, would destroy the city. Hecuba also addresses Priam who has already dead, 2 the shadow of Hector and the great fl ocks of

1 L. 1270-1271. 2 L. 29.


all her children (locutor 2 [monologue with address] addressee 2. 3.). The fol-lowing monologue with address refers to her old age (locutor 2 [monologue with address] addressee 2. 4.). Within the following lines, she addresses herself and considers the impious slaughter of Priam and the allotment of Trojan women as war-prizes. She also addresses Cassandra, absent from the stage, and lets her know that there is one who seeks her bed (locutor 2 [monologue with address] addressee 2. 5.). Then, the aged queen bemoans her misfortune and expresses her feeling of fear. The monologue ends with Hecuba‘s address to the chorus of Trojan women, present on stage, and her advice to them to hold a funeral procession for Troy 1 (locutor 2 [monologue with address] ad-dressee 2. 6.).

Hecuba’s monologue is followed by the fi rst choral ode and lyric inter-change, which are, in turn, followed by the dialogue between the chorus and Talthybius. The Greek herald delivers a fearful speech describing the appear-ance of Achilles’ ghost which demands the wedding-sacrifi ce of Polyxena 2 (cognitive stage 1 ; locutor 2 [dialogue] addressee 2. 6.). This demand is ad-dressed to the Greek assembly (loc. 3. [mono with address] addressee (3. 1.). In light of Talthybius’ narrative, we fi nd the following structure of utterance :

1 L. 63-66. 2 L. 167-202. 3 L. 287-290. 4 L. 368-309. 5 L. 452-456. 6 L. 507-510.

Within the conversation between Pyrrhus, son of Achilles, and Agamemnon, the leader of the Greek expedition refuses to satisfy the wish of Achilles’ ghost 3 (cognitive stage 2 ; locutor 2 [dialogue] addressee 2. 5.).

This dialogue is followed by the conversation between Agamemnon and Calchas, who discloses the second reason for detaining the Greek ships at the shores of Troy : Hector’s son must fall from beetling tower 4 (cognitive stage 3 ; locutor 2 [dialogue] addressee 2. 5.).

Lines 409-523 refer to the dialogue between the old man and Andromache, in the presence of the chorus and Astyanax. Hector’s widow narrates her prophetic dream : Hector’s ghost advised her to protect the life of their son. 5 This forewarning is the cognitive stage 4 (locutor 3 [monologue with address] addressee 3. 1.) and, at the same time, explains Andromache’s decision to save Astyanax by hiding him in the tomb of his father. 6 In light of Andromache’s


narrative, we single out the following structure of utterance :

1 L. 522-523. 2 L. 526-527. 3 L. 528. 4 L. 597. 5 L. 879-885. 6 L. 938-944. 7 L. 976. 8 L. 978. 9 L. 980. 10 L. 998-999. 11 L. 1063-1064.

The scene ends with a didaskalia in which the spouse of Hector announces the arrival of Odysseus 1 (locutor 2 [didaskalia] addressee 2. 1).

The following scene outlines a dialogue between Odysseus and Andromache, in the presence of the Greek army. The king of Ithaca does not take any re-sponsibility for the content of his speech which is the voice of all Greeks and army chiefs.2 The structure of the utterance can be represented as follows :

The decision of the Greek chiefs concerns Astyanax, whose death is demand-ed by fate 3 (cognitive stage 5). Andromache attempts, in turn, to save her son by claiming that he is dead. 4 This astuteness is the false cognitive stage 6 of Odysseus, who fi nally thwarts the ruse of Andromache and forces her to hand the child to him.

In the following scene, Helen attempts to woo Polyxenea with a false prom-ise of marriage to Pyrrhus 5 (false cognitive stage 7). However, Helen can not persist in lying and discloses Polyxena’s fate 6 (cognitive stage 8) and the as-signment of the Trojan captives to Greek masters. Therefore, Andromache is the war-prize of Pyrrhus 7 (cognitive stage 9) ; Cassandra is alloted to Ag-amemnon 8 (cognitive stage 10) and Hecuba will be the servant of Odysseus 9 (cognitive stage 11). We are then dealing with a series of cognitive stages which inform the captives about their lot (locutor 2 [dialogue] addressee 2. 5.). The scene ends with the announcement of the arrival of Pyrrhus which is pro-nounced by Hector’s spouse 10 (locutor 2 [didaskalia] addressee 2. 1).

The closing scene is a three-way conversation, i.e. the messenger, Hecuba and Andromache and refers to the double description of the murder of Asty-anax (cognitive stage 12) as well as the sacrifi ce of Polyxena (cognitive stage 13) 11 (locutor 2 [a three-way conversation] addressee 2. 5.).

Before she is sacrifi ed, Priam’s daughter utters a speech in which she wishes


for Hermione to have a similarly fatal wedding to Pyrrhus and for Helen to be given back to her husband. 1 In the light of the messenger narrative, the structure of the utterance of Polyxena’s curse can be represented as follows : locutor 2 [didaskalia] addressee (2. 7.)

Conclusion

In Seneca’s Trojan Women, the structure of the utterance is based, on the one hand, on events which took place before the beginning of the play and which are fulfi lled within the unfolding of the plot, and on the other hand, on the announcement of future events which remain unrealized during the unfold-ment of the play.

In fact, when the unfolding of the plot begins, Polyxena’s death has already been demanded by Achilles’ ghost (cognitive stage 1). Cognitive stage 2 is an obstacle to the fulfi llment of the cognitive stage 1. Cognitive stage 2 is com-patible with cognitive stage 3. These two cognitive stages justify the current immobilization of the Greek ships at the shores of Troy and determine clearly the two poles of the plot. Cognitive stage 4 introduces cognitive stage 5. The false cognitive stage 6 prevents, by means of a deceipt, the fulfi llment of cog-nitive stage 5. However, Andromache’s ruse is twarted by that of Odysseus and, consequently, cognitive stage 5 begins to be realized. Cognitive stage 7 picks up the thread of cognitive stages 1 and 2. Cognitive stages 9, 10, 11 which are uttered by Helen concern future events, which are not, however, realized within the unfolding of the plot. Cognitive stages 12 and 13 describe the death of Astyanax and that of Polyxena and represent the fulfi llment of cognitive stages 3 and 8 respectively.

In conclusion, Seneca’s Trojan Women is more a play of the future than of the past and much less of the present.

Euripides’ Hippolytus

a) Locutor 2 [didaskalia] addressee 2 (Goddess) [monologue with address] (2. 1. spectators) [dialogue] (2. 2. a person) [a three-way conversation]

b) Locutor 3 [didaskalia] addressee 3 (Chorus) (3. 1. spectators)

c) Locutor 4 [monologue with address] addressee 4 (a person) [dialogue] (4. 1. spectators) [a three-way conversation] (4. 2. a person) (4. 3. Chorus)

1 L. 1134-1136.


In the opening speech, Aphrodite indicates the setting of the play by means of spatial deictic expressions 1 (locutor 2 [didaskalia] addressee 2. 1.), identifi es herself and indicates events related to the present and the past. Aphrodite declares herself resolved to punish the chaste Hippolytus, who disdains her and pays worship to Artemis. 2 With this design, she instills Phaedra with a passion for her stepson. Another function of Aphrodite’s opening speech is to anticipate and to summarize the unfolding of the plot. Therefore, the god-dess announces that Hippolytus’ death will be provoked by his father’s curses 3 (locutor 2 [monologue] addressee 2. 1.). Within l. 51-56, Aphrodite announces Hippolytus’ arrival on stage (locutor 2 [didaskalia] addressee 2. 1.).

Within l. 170-175, the chorus announces the arrival of Phaedra, who is ac-companied by her Nurse ((locutor 3 [didaskalia] addressee 3. 1.)

The following scene is a three-way conversation between Theseus’ spouse, the Nurse and the chorus. With great diffi culty, Phaedra is pressured into mak-ing a confession, declaring her passion for Hippolytus (cognitive stage 1) and her decision to die 4 to the Nurse and the chorus 5 (cognitive stage 2 ; locutor 4 [a three-way conversation] addressee 4. 2., 4. 3.). This resolve is also the fi rst stage of the preparation for Phaedra’s death. Meanwhile, the Nurse seeks to comfort her, and bids her to let love run its course, rather than let herself be consumed by an inexpressed woe. She reveals that she has love-charms that will rid Phaedra of this desease without disgrace or harming her mind 6 (cogni-tive stage 3 ; locutor 4 [dialogue] addressee 4. 2.). The scene ends with a little speech of the Nurse, who hints at a meeting with Hippolytus. 7

L. 565-600 pose the problem of space. Phaedra is standing near the palace door and recites the dialogue between the Nurse and Hippolytus to the cho-rus. The content of this dialogue is the revelation of Phaedra’s passion for Theseus’ son. In the light of Phaedra’s narrative, the conversation between the Nurse and Hippolytus can be represented as follows : locutor 4a [dialogue] addressee (4b). Therefore, it is the ajkohv that determines Phaedra’s speech. 8 The disclosure of her secret reawakens her desire to die as quickly as possible. 9 This is the cognitive doubling of the chorus and, at the same time, the second stage of the preparation for Phaedra’s death.

In the following scene, we deal with a dialogue between the Nurse and Hip-polytus. The young man, emerging from the palace with the Nurse in close pursuit, expresses his contempt for Phaedra and declares his own purity. 10

1 L. 12 : th`sde gh`~ Troizhniva~ ; l. 29-31 : thvnde gh`n Troizhnivan, ƒ pevtran par Æaujth;n Pallavdo~ katovyion ƒ gh`~ thvsde ... ; v. 35 : thvnde cqovna.

2 L. 13-14. On Aphrodite’s aversion towards Hippolytus, see Euripides. Hippolytus, with an Introduction, Translation and Commentary by M. R. Halleran, Warminster, Aris & Phillips, 1995.

3 L. 43-44. 4 L. 401. 5 L. 350-352. 6 L. 509-512. 7 L. 521-524.8 L. 575-576 : tai`sdÆ ejpista`sai pÊuvlai~ / ajkoÊuvsaqÆ oi|o~ kevlado~ ejn dovmoi~ pivtnei.9 L.599-600. 10 L. 651-655.


He then announces his decision to leave and to return when Theseus does 1 (cognitive stage 4 ; locutor 4 [dialogue] addressee 4. 2.).

The dialogue is followed by a three-way conversation. 2 Phaedra reveals for the third time her decision to die. 3 The deictic expression thìdÆ ejn hJmevrai designates the temporal space in which her resolution will be executed. This is a cognitive doubling of the Nurse and the chorus who already know the resolve of their mistress. The cognitive doubling is followed by a new allu-sion to the date of Phaedra’s death (cognitive stage 5 ; locutor 4 [a three-way conversation] addressee 4. 2., 4. 3.).

L. 776-789 again pose the problem of space. From within the palace, the Nurse cries and announces Phaedra’s death. 4 The corpse of the queen func-tions as an extra-textual locutor, a stimulus, which informs the Nurse of Phae-dra’s suicide : it is then the opsis which determines the Nurse’s speech. The utterance is separated from the locutor and, at the same, time, represents cognitive stage 6.

The following scene describes the arrival of Theseus who is told the news by the chorus leader. The king and the chorus are at the same cognitive level. At the sight of Phaedra’s corpse, the chorus wonders about the motive of her suicide. 5 This question begins the revelation of circumstances surrounding the queen’s suicide. Indeed, the tablet hanging from Phaedra’s hand informs Theseus about the motive of her suicide. The structure of the utterance can be represented as follows :

1 L. 659-660. 2 L. 668-731.3 L. 722-723, 725-725 : thìdÆ ejn hJmevrai. On the use of the expression in Greek tragedy, see M. R.

Halleran, op. cit., l. 21-22. 4 L. 778 : ejn ajgcovnai" devspoina,Qhsevvw~ davmar.5 L. 816 : Tiv~ a[ra savn, tavlainÆ, ajmauroi` zovan ?

GRAFH

« Le producteur eff ectif de la parole », Phaedra, speaks to addressee 2, Theseus, by means of the grafhv (879 : ejn grafai`~ ; 859 : e[grayen). Moreover, « le pro-ducteur eff ectif de la parole », makes the locutor (deltos) address addressee 1, who may be the reader. The address is made by means of the same grafhv and logos. This is indicated by the use of verbs and expressions (857 : shmh`nai ; 865 : levxai ; 877 : boaì ; 879-880 : mevlow / fqeggovmenon), which are endowed with metaphorical meaning. The grafhv plays, then, an intermediate double role : it establishes, on the one hand, the communication between « le producteur


eff ectif de la parole » and addressee 2, and, on the other hand, the locutor and addressee 1.

The sight (o[yi~) (879 : ei\don) and the reading (ajnavgnwsi~) of the grafhv provide cognitive stage 7 concerning the reason of Phaedra’s suicide and, at the same time, determine the lovgo~ of Theseus.

Within l. 885-886, Theseus informs the chorus leader about the content of the devlto~ : Hippolytus dared to take his bride-to-be by force (locutor 4 [dialogue] addressee 4. 3.). Therefore, the king and the chorus are at the same cognitive level.

Theseus’ anger explodes upon hearing of the incestuous crime of Hippoly-tus and decides to drive him our of Athens. Subsequently, he will be stricken by Poseidon, who will either send him into the underworld or will have him wander in a foreign land and drag out his painful life 1 (cognitive stage 8 ; locu-tor 4 [dialogue] addressee 4. 3.). Within l. 899-901, the chorus announces the entrance of Hippolytus (locutor 3 [didaskalia] addressee 3. 1.)

The young hero learns of Phaedra’s death by seeing her corpse on stage. It is by sight (o[yi~) that he learns his step-mother’s death. Theseus immediately declares his suspicion of Hippolytus and sentences him to exile (locutor 4 [dialogue] addressee 4. 2.). Therefore, at the end of the scene, Hippolytus is at the same cognitive level as Theseus and the chorus.

L. 1151-1152 refer to the arrival of a companion of Hippolytus (locutor 3 [didaskalia] addressee 3. 1.). He announces to Theseus the death of his son 2 (cognitive stage 9 ; locutor 4 [message dialogue] addressee 4. 2.). The an-nouncement is followed by an accurate description of his sad fate. 3 Within the narrative, the messenger relates the speech that Hyppolytus delivered be-fore he died. The young hero addresses, fi rst, his companions 4 (locutor 4a [monologue with address] locutor 4b) and then Zeus 5 (locutor 4a [monologue with address] locutor 4c).

In the exodus, Artemis reveals to Theseus the true instigator of the crime, i.e. Aphrodite 6 (cognitive stage 10 ; locutor 2 [dialogue] addressee 2. 2.).

The entrance of Hippolytus, supported by his attendants, is announced by the chorus. 7 The play ends with a three-way conversation, i. e. Hippolytus, Theseus, and Artemis (locutor 2 [a three-way conversation] addressee 2. 2.). The goddess fi rst reveals to Hippolytus the instigator of the catastrophy that has befallen him, Aphrodite. 8 This puts Hippolytus at the same cognitive level as Theseus. Afterwards, she reveals her acts of vengeance against mortals who revere the power of Cypris 9 as well as the honors she will bestow upon the young hero 10 (cognitive stage 11).

1 L.893-898. 2 L. 1162-1163. 3 L. 1173-1254. 4 L. 1182-1184. 5 L. 1191-1193. 6 L. 1327-1328. 7 L. 1342-1346. 8 L. 1400. 9 L. 1420-1422. 10 L. 1423-1430.


Conclusion

In the light of the structure of the utterances, we assert that cognitive stage 1 sets the spectators in the heart of the action by means of Phaedra’s decla-ration, in which she expresses her passion for Hippolytus. At the same time, cognitive stage 1 justifi es cognitive stage 2. Cognitive stage 2 is realized by the announcement of cognitive stage 6. Cognitive stage 6 is also introduced by cognitive stage 5 and is falsely justifi ed by cognitive stage 7. Cognitive stage 8 is justifi ed by cognitive stage 7 and is realized upon the announcement of cognitive stage 9. Cognitive stage 10 reveals the truth about Phaedra’s suicide and, consequently, juxtaposes to cognitive stage 7. Cognitive stage 11 indicates events which will take place after the plot has unfolded and are revealed by the prophecies of a goddess, i.e. Artemis, inspired by a fi erce desire for vengeance. Finally, cognitive stages 3 and 4 are not realized at all within the unfolding of the plot. Therefore, they are not endowed with any enunciative function.

The structure of the utterance shows that Euripides’ Hippolytus is more a play referring to the past than to the present. The future appears only at the end of the plot with the prophecies of Artemis.

Seneca’s Phaedra

a) Locutor 2 [monologue with address] addressee 2 (a person) [dialogue] (2. 1. spectators) (2. 2. a person) (2. 3. God, Goddess) (2. 4. Chorus)


Seneca’s Phaedra presupposes a famous Euripidean original and, in all like-hood, a lost tragedy by Sophocles as well as the fourth of Ovid’s Heroides. In the fi rst part of the prologue, Hippolytus proceeds to assign the various tasks of the day to his followers (locutor 2 [monologue with address] addressee 2. 2) and asks for Diana’s help (locutor 2 [monologue with address] addressee 2. 3.). In the second part, Phaedra enters on stage with the Nurse. She complaints about her husband’s absence 1 (cognitive stage 1) and reveals her incestous love for her stepson Hippolytus as well as her decision to follow him through the deep forests 2 (cognitive stage 2). She fi nally declares her resolve to death 3 (cognitive stage 3 ; locutor 2 [dialogue] addressee 2. 2.). The dialogue ends with the nurse’s decision to approach the cruel Hippolytus and bend his relentless will 4 (cognitive stage 4).

1 L. 91-98. 2 L. 233-235. 3 L. 258. 4 L. 271-273.


Within l. 360-386, the Nurse informs the chorus of the misfortune of their mistress (cognitive stage 5 ; locutor 2 [dialogue] addressee 2. 4.).

Then, the Nurse fetches Hippolytus, who rejectes her proposal. In the fol-lowing scene, Hippolytus and Phaedra converse in the Nurse’s presence. The queen reveals her deep love to Hippolytus 1 but the hero remains infl exible. By means of Phaedra’s declaration, Hippolytus is at the same cognitive level as the Nurse.

In order to save her mistress’ honor, the Nurse decides to lay the blame on Hippolytus and charge him with incestuous love 2 (false cognitive stage 6 ; locu-tor 2 [dialogue] addressee 2. 2.). This falsehood is immediately spread among the people of Athens, 3 who are then at the same cognitive stage as Phaedra.

Meanwhile, Theseus comes back from the underworld and is told by the Nurse about Phaedra’s misfortune and her decision to take her own life 4 (false cognitive stage 7 ; locutor 2 [dialogue] addressee 2. 2.).

At the same time, Phaedra reticently reinforces the accusation of her Nurse. Indeed, she reveals to her husband the insult to her honour without indicat-ing the culprit’s name. This partial announcement of the erroneous accusa-tion invented by the Nurse is false cognitive stage 8 (locutor 2 [dialogue] addressee 2. 2.). Theseus fi nally conjectures about the culprir’s name and asks Neptune for the death of his son (locutor 2 [monologue with address] addressee 2. 3.).

Within l. 989-990, the chorus announces the entrance of the messenger (locutor 3 [didaskalia] addressee 3. 1.), who describes Hippolytus’death 5 in the presence of Theseus (cognitive stage 9 ; locutor 2 [dialogue] addressee 2. 2.).

In the closing scene, Hippolytus’ body is carried on stage and Phaedra appears with a drawn sword in her hand. She confesses her falsehood, falls upon her sword and dies. 6 Her declaration is the realization of cognitive stage 10.

Conclusion

In Seneca’s Phaedra, the present plays a more decisive role than the past, al-though the past appears more frequent. In fact, the present functions as the main thread of the entire action. Cognitive stage 2 is justifi ed by cognitive stage 1. Moreover, cognitive stage 2 justifi es cognitive stages 3, 4, and 5, all endowed with a purely informational function, and cognitive stages 6, 7, and 8, which are false accusations. These are rejected by cognitive stage 10, which is uttered upon the announcement of cognitive stage 9. Finally, cognitive stage 3 is realized by cognitive stage 10.

1 L. 666-671. 2 L. 720-721. 3 L. 725-730. 4 L. 854-855. 5 L. 1000-1114. 6 L. 1159-1200.


Euripides’ Medea

a) Locutor 2 [didaskalia] addressee 2 (a person) [monologue with address] (2. 1. spectators) [dialogue] (2. 2. a person) (2. 3.Chorus)

b) Locutor 3 [didaskalia] addressee 3 (Chorus) [dialogue] (3. 1. spectators) (3. 2. a person)

The Nurse’s prologue speech sets the setting of the action by means of a deictic spatial expression 1 and indirectly gives background information for the story about to unfold. She also describes Medea’s sorrow which is caused by Jason’s conjugal betrayal. The fi rst part of the prologue ends with the announcement of the entrance of Medea’s children on stage (locutor 2 [di-daskalia] addressee 2. 1.).

A dialogue follows, in which the paedagogus informs the nurse of Creon’s decision to exile Medea and her children 2 (cognitive stage 1 ; locutor 2 [dia-logue] adressee 2. 2.)

The fi rst episode begins with the entrance of Medea accompanied by the nurse. She addresses the chorus and discloses her decision to kill her husband in order to take revenge on him 3 (cognitive stage 2 ; locutor 2 [dialogue] adress-ee 2. 3.) The chorus approves, in turn, the resolution of their mistress and announces the entrance of Creon 4 (locutor 3 [didaskalia] addressee 3. 1.).

The king of Corinth engages Medea in a dialogue while the Nurse remains silent. He declares his decision to banish Medea and her children, 5 because he fears for the safety of his daughter. At that moment, Medea and the Nurse are at the same cognitive level (locutor 2 [dialogue] adressee 2. 2.).

Within l. 374-375, Medea announces her cruel decision to kill Jason, his new bride and Creon to the chorus leader (cognitive stage 3 ; locutor 2 [dialogue] adressee 2. 3.).

For the second time, Medea is told about Creon’s decision, 6 in this instance by Jason. This is the cognitive doubling of Medea (locutor 2 [dialogue] adress-ee 2. 2.).

The exit of Jason is followed by the stasimon of the chorus and the dialogue between Aegeus and Medea. The heroine informs Aegeus of Jason’s cowardly adultery and her imminent exile. The communication of this information brings Aegeus and Medea to the same cognitive level (locutor 2 [dialogue] adressee 2. 2.).

1 L. 10 : thvnde gh`n Korinqivan 2 L. 70-72. 3 L. 259-263. 4 L. 267-270. 5 L. 271-276. 6 L. 458.


The following scene is a dialogue between the chorus and Medea, who dis-closes how to carry out her plans to murder her children and Creon’s daughter (cognitive stage 4 ; locutor 2 [dialogue] adressee 2. 2.).

In the second dialogue between Jason and Medea, cognitive stage 3 is real-ized. Indeed, the heroine starts carrying out her plan astutely. She approves the wedding of her husband with Creon’s daughter and gives her children a poisoned gown to be off ered to their father’s new wife (locutor 2 [dialogue] adressee 2. 2.).

In the following scene, the paedagogus comes on-stage with Medea’s children and describes the joy of Creon’s daughter upon receiving the wedding gifts (cognitive stage 5 ; locutor 2 [dialogue] adressee 2. 2.).

Within l. 1116-1120, Medea announces the entrance of the messenger (locu-tor 2 [dialogue] adressee 2. 1.) who outlines the arrival of her children at the royal house, the off ering of the poisoned gifts, the death of Creon’s daughter, the reaction of the king and his death 1 (cognitive stage 6 ; locutor 2 [dialogue] adressee 2. 2.).

After the messenger comes off the scene, a short dialogue between the chorus leader and Medea insues. She expresses again her resolution to kill her children as quickly as possible, and, then to fl ee Corinth. 2 This is the cognitive doubling of the chorus (locutor 2 [dialogue] adressee 2. 2.). Within the mes-senger narrative, we single out a persuasive monologue in which Jason (locu-tor a) addresses his new wife (locutor b) in order to convince her to accept Medea’s gifts 3 and another emotional monologue in which Creon (locutor 2c) addressed his dead daughter (addressee 2d). 4

The following scene poses the problem of space. Within the palace, cries of Medea’s children, who are invisible to the spectators, convey their pain and terror. The utterance is then separated from the locutor. The closing scene consists of Jason’s dialogue with the chorus and Medea ‘s spectacular appear-ance in the dragon-chariot. First, Jason is informed of the death of his children by the chorus leader 5 (cognitive stage 7 ; locutor 3 [dialogue] adressee 3. 2.). Afterwards, Medea informs him of their burial. Then Medea announces what she is planning to do without delay 6 and warns Jason of his death. All this information refers to events which will take place after the plot has unfolded and represents cognitive stage 8 ; locutor 2 [dialogue] adressee 2. 2.).

Conclusion

The structure of the utterance in Medea leads to the observation that the enunciative dynamic of the plot is mainly located in the past : when the action starts, Creon has already decided to exile Medea and her children (cognitive

1 L. 1136-1236. 2 L. 1236-1239. 3 L. 1151-1155. 4 L. 1207-1210. 5 L. 1309. 6 L. 1384-1385.


stage 1). Moreover, Medea has already resolved to kill her husband (cognitive stage 2), Creon and his daughter (cognitive stage 3). Cognitive stage 4 refers to the near future and is gradually fulfi lled by cognitive stages 5, 6 and 7. These stages refer to events which take place off stage. Within the unfodling of the plot, a part of cognitive stage 3 is fulfi lled upon the announcement of cognitive stage 6. Finally, cognitive stage 2 and the fi rst part of cognitive stage 3 are not realized within the action ; however, they are reinforced by the announcement of cognitive stage 8 which foretells the death of Jason with a vengeful tone. This is the sole cognitive stage which will be realized off stage in the future.

Seneca’s Medea

a) Locutor 2 [didaskalia] addressee 2 (a person) [monologue with address] (2. 1. spectators) [dialogue] (2. 2. god, deity) (2. 3.terrestrial elements) (2. 4. shadows) (2. 5. a person) (2. 6. Chorus)

Seneca’s Medea goes back to Euripides, but perhaps also to a tragedy of Ovid of thesame name, which was suff essul but is now lost.

The action begins with a monologue with address pronounced by Medea in which the heroine evokes the conjugal Gods, deities (locutor 2 [monologue with address] addressee 2. 2), terrestrial elements (locutor 2 [monologue with address] addressee 2. 3), impious shades (locutor 2 [monologue with address] addressee 2. 4) and, fi nally, the former mistress of Jason (locutor 2 [monologue with address] addressee 2. 5). Medea begs them to bring destruction upon the whole royal family, as well as Jason’s new wife and to curse her husband. Then, she beseeches the Sun (locutor 2 [monologue with address] addressee 2. 2), the father of her race, to destroy Corinth, the homeland of Jason. Afterwards, Medea, decides to take vengeance upon him.1

Within l. 147-149, Medea discloses to the nurse her irrevocable decision to reduce the palace to ashes (cognitive stage 1 ; locutor 2 [dialogue] addressee 2. 5).

To do this, she asks Creon for one day’s delay. Despite his fears, Creon grants hes wish. In the following scene, the Nurse vainly attempts to calm the anger of Medea, who reaffi rms hr resolution to take vengeance upon Jason. This is the cognitive doubling of the Nurse. Following her encounter with her husband, Medea announces to the nurse how she will carry out her plan : she will make her sons bring gifts imbued with baneful poisons to Jason’s new wife 2 (cognitive stage 2 ; locutor 2 [dialogue] addressee 2. 5).

1 L. 51-55. 1 L. 570-576.


This cognitive stage is followed by cognitive stage 3 in which the messenger announces to the Chorus the death of Creon and his daughter 1 (locutor 2 [dialogue] addressee 2. 6).

In the following scene, the Nurse advises Medea to quickly go away from the land of Pelos. However, her advice remains ineff ective. In fact, Medea re-veals that the death of Creusa and that of her father are only a small part of her vengeance. 2 This declaration represents cognitive stage 4 and her plan is realized by the murder of one of her children on stage. 3 Medea fi nishes her speech by disclosing to the Nurse the act that she is immediately planning to do : she will take the corpses of her children to the lofty roof of her palace 4 (cognitive stage 5 ; locutor 2 [dialogue] addressee 2. 5).

The closing scene is a dialogue between Jason and Medea, who appears on the house-top with her second child and the Nurse. Then, she reveals to Jason the death of his new wife and his father-in-law, as well as the imminent murder of their second child. 5 This announcement is cognitive stage 6, whose third part is realized before she gets into the charriot and is carried away.

ConclusionSeneca’s Medea is characterized by the sequential announcement of events which will take place in the near future and which are realized within the unfolding of the plot. The enunciative dynamic of Seneca’s Medea is then located in the present and the near future. Therefore, cognitive stages 1 and 2 are fulfi lled upon the announcement of cognitive stage 3 which refers to events that will take place off stage. Cognitive stage 4 and the third part of the cognitive stage 6 are realized on stage. In addition, cognitive stage 5 is fulfi lled in the closing scene.

Euripides’ Herculesa) Locutor 2 [didaskalia] addressee 2 (a person) [monologue with address] (2. 1. spectators) [dialogue] (2. 2. a person) [a three-way conversation] (2. 3.Chorus)b) Locutor 3 [didaskalia] addressee 3 (Chorus/ (3. 1. spectators) The Coryphaeus) (3. 2. Chorus)c) Locutor 4 [monologue with address] addressee 4. (Goddess) [dialogue] (4. 1. Spectators) (4. 2. Chorus) (4. 3. Goddess)

1 L. 879-880. 2 L. 897-898. 3 L. 970-971. 4 L. 973-974. 5 L. 999-1001.


In the Prologue, Amphitryon introduces himself 1 and provides the spectators with spatial deictic indications regarding the setting of the play 2 and that of the scene. This is set outside the palace of Heracles at Thebes, 3 where the father, Megara the wife, and three small sons of Heracles sit as suppliants in front of the altar of Zeus the Saviour. 4 Amphitryon’s prologue speech is also endowed with a narrative function. Indeed, Amphitryon outlines Heracles’ parentage, the reason for the family settling in Thebes from Argos, Heracles’ attempts to get back to Argos by performing labours for Eurystheus as a price for their return, and the news that the great hero is now involved with his last labour in the Underworld. In addition, Amphitryon’s prologue speech bears a descriptive function. The old man describes the current usurping ruler of Thebes, Lycos, who ousted the previous ruler, Megara’s father Creon, and the family’s present treatment by his hand (locutor 2 [monologue with address] addressee 2. 1).

Within l. 138-139, the chorus leader announces the entrance of Lycos (locu-tor 3 [didaskalia] addressee 3. 1.). He engages Amphitryon and Megara in con-versation, in the end of which the wife of Heracles accepts to die but not by fi re, 5 which would be a coward’s death 6 (cognitive stage 1). She advises Am-phitryon to brave death with her and his grand-sons. The old man is convinced and decides to join them in death 7 (cognitive stage 2 ; locutor 2 [a three-way conversation] addressee 2. 2).

Within l. 442-450, the chorus leader sees the children with Megara and Am-phitryon come into view, the former dressed in funeral clothes in preparation for death (locutor 3 [didaskalia] addressee 3. 1.). Their entrance functions as an extra-textual locutor, which informs the chorus leader about the unfolding of the plot : Heracles’ family is ready to die. Indeed, it is the sight (o[yi~) which determines the speech (lovgo~) of the chorus leader. 8

In the beginning of the following scene, Heracles is seen approaching from a distance 9 (locutor 2 [didaskalia] addressee 2. 2.). Here too, Heracles’ sudden entrance functions as an extra-textual locutor and therefore the sight (o[yi~) determines the speech (lovgo~) of the locutor, i. e. Megara.

Heracles engages Amphytrion and Megara in a three-way conversation, in which he learns the misfortune of his family. Then, the hero discloses his resolve to save his children’s life. 10 This represents cognitive stage 3 which is

1 L. 1-3.2 tavsde Qhvba" (l. 4), th`sde cqonov~ (l. 8), thvnde povlin (l. 34), th`sde gh`~ (l. 38).3 L. 44. toi`sdÆ ejn dwvmasi ; l. 51 tavsdÆ e[dra~. On the meaning of dw` ma, see H. Perdicoyianni, op.

cit. 21-26.4 L. 48. bwmo;n kaqivzw tovnde Swth`ro~ Dio;~. On the ironic use of Zeus’ epithet « The Saviour »,

see Euripides. Heracles, with an Introduction, Translation and Commentary by Sh. A. Barlow, Warminsetr, Aris & Phillips, 1996. 5 L. 284-286. 6 L. 289.

7 L. 319-320. 8 L. 442 : eijsorw`.9 L. 514 : w\ prevsbu, leuvÊssw tajma; fivltatÆ ; h] tiv fw` ; 10 L. 580-581.


followed by cognitive stage 4, in which the said hero outlines his Labours 1 (locutor 2 [a three-way conversation] addressee 2. 2).

Lines 749 and 754 pose the problem of space. Within the palace, Lycos howls with pain while being killed. The utterance is separated from the locutor. Within l. 760, Lycos’ death is confi med by the chorus leader : Gevronte~, oujkevtÆ e[sti dussebh;~ ajnh;r (cognitive stage 5 ; locutor 3 designates the chorus leader [didaskalia] addressee 3. 2).

Within l. 816-817 (a\rÆ ej~ aujto;n pivtulon h{komen fovbou,/ / gevronte~, oi|on favsmÆ uJpe;r dovmwn oJrw`), the Coryphaeus asks the chorus about the appear-ance of Iris on the roof of the palace with Lyssa (locutor 3 designates the chorus leader [didaskalia] addressee 3. 2).

The fi rst part of the following scene is a monologue in which Iris announces to the chorus her task to drive Heracles out of his mind so that he kills his children. She also reveals that this is by order of Hera, who has had an im-placable hatred for her husband’s bastard son 2 (cognitive stage 6 ; locutor 4 [monologue with address] addressee 4. 2.)

The second part of the scene is a dialogue between the two goddess. Iris orders Lyssa to disturb Heracles’ mind. In return, the daughter of the dark Night fi rst expresses her reluctance to perform her task but she then accepts the atrocious plan of Iris. Therefore, Lyssa outlines the explosive force with which Heracles’ madness will be created 3 (cognitive stage 7 ; locutor 4 [dia-logue] addressee 4. 3.).

Lines 887 (ÆIwv moi mevleo~), 890 (ÆIw; stevgai) and 900 (Aij ai` kakw`n) pose the problem of space. Within the palace, Amphityon, who is invisible to the spectators, howls with pain. The utterance is separated from the locutor. In the following scene, the messenger outlines the death of Heracles’ sons (cog-nitive stage 8 ; locutor 2 [dialogue] addresse 2. 3). In the light of the messenger narrative, we single out the following structures of utterance :

2a : designates Heracles [monologue with address] 2b designates Amphit-ryon ;

2c : designates the servant monologue with address] 2d designates the rest of the servants ;

2e : designates Amphitryon [monologue with address] 2f designates Hera-cles ;

2g : designates Megara [monologue with address] 2h designates Heracles ;2i : designates Hercules’child [monologue with address] 2j designates Hera-

cles.In the following dialogue, Heracles is informed of his own crime by Am-

phitryon. 4 Father and son are at the same cognitive stage. Afterwards, Hera-

1 L. 610-621. 2 L. 830-832.3 L. 864-866 : kai; katarrhjxw mevlaqra kai; dojmou~ ejpembalw` ,/ tejknÆ ajpokteivnasa prw` ton : o} de;

ktanw;n oujk ei[setai /pai`da~ ou}~ e[tiktÆ ejnaivrwn, pri;n a]n ejma;~ luvÊssa~ ajfh`i. 4 L. 1135.


cles announces the arrival of Theseus 1 (locutor 2 [didaskalia] addressee 2. 1.). The two heroes are at the same cognitive level by means of the disclosure which Heracles makes about his horrible act. 2 The king of Athens conveys his intention of off ering him generous benefi ts, namely purifi cation of pollu-tion, a home in Athens and eventual burial with honours 3 (cognitive stage 9 ; locutor 2 [dialogue] addresse 2. 2). Finally, Heracles announces to his father his return to Athens and, at the same time, promises him a burial in Athens 4 (cognitive stage 10 ; locutor 2 [dialogue] addresse 2. 2).

Conclusion

In Euripides’ Hercules, the enunciative dynamic has unfolded within all tenses of utterance. The fi rst three cognitive stages are located in the present. In fact, they refer to the decisions which have been taken by three diff erent locutors at the moment they are uttered. Cognitive stage 3 is realized with the an-nouncement of cognitive stage 5. Cognitive stage 4 refers to events which took place in the past and are not in relationship to the unfolding of the action. Consequently, cognitive stage 4 is not endowed with a enunciative dynamic. The present is also located within cognitive stage 6, which introduces cogni-tive stage 7. In fact, cognitive stage 7 provides the spectators with information about the fulfi llment of cognitive stage 6 ; then, cognitive stage 8 follows in which cognitive stage 6 is realized. The fi nal two cognitive stages are used by the locutors in order to express their promises which will be realized after the plot has unfolded. Euripides’ Hercules is then a play which belongs more to the present than to the past or the future.

Seneca’s Hercules Furens

a) Locutor 2 [didaskalia] addressee 2 (Goddess) [monologue with address] (2. 1. spectators) (2. 2. underworld beings)


c) Locutor 4 [didaskalia] addressee 4. (a person) [monologue with address] (4. 1. spectators) [dialogue] (4. 2. a person)

The Hercules Furens deals with the madness of the said hero, which, provoked by Juno, leads the hero to slay his wife and sons.

In the Prologue speech, Juno identifi es herself and justifi es her leaving the heavens and coming down to earth. By means of deictic spatial expressions,

1 L. 1154. 2 L. 1182-1183. 3 L. 1323-1337. 4 L. 1418-1420.


Juno indicates the place whence she speaks 1 (locutor 2 [didaskalia] addressee 2. 1.). Then, the goddess refers to the present situation and summarizes the unfolding of the plot. She conveys her long-time wrath towards Hercules and discloses her decision to banish his peace. 2 Indeed, Juno will provoke the mad-ness of Hercules by calling up the goddess Discord, hateful Crime, Impiety, Error and Madness 3 (locutor 2 [monologue with address] addressee 2. 1.).

In the second part of the prologue, Juno advises slaves of Pluto to shatter Hercules’ mind and to let a fi erce fl ame scorch his spirit 4 (locutor 2 [mono-logue with address] addressee 2. 2.). The prologue ends with the way in which Juno will carry out her plan 5 (locutor 2 [monologue with address] addressee 2. 1.).

Within lines 329-331, the arrival of Lycus is announced by Megara (locutor 4 [didaskalia] addressee 4. 1.).

Lycus informs the spectators about his plan about his wedding with Her-cules’ wife, which will strengthen his royal power. In case that Megara should refuse and scorn his bed, the king expresses his resolution to utterly ruin the entire house of Hercules (locutor 4 [monologue with address] addressee 4. 1).

In the following scene, Lycus reveals his desire to Megara. Irritated by her refusal, the king decides her death and that of her sons 6 (cognitive stage 1 ; locutor 4 [dialogue] addressee 4. 2.).

After his unexpected arrival, Hercules engages his father in a dialogue. Am-phitryon discloses the misfortune of his family, i.e. the death of his father-in-law and the prompt assassination of his family 7 (cognitive stage 2 ; locutor 4 [dialogue] addressee 4. 2.).

The following scene is a conversation between Theseus and Amphitryon in the presence of Megare and her children. The description of the glorious battle which Hercules carried out represents cognitive stage 3 (locutor 4 [dia-logue] addressee 4. 2.).

This cognitive stage is completed by cognitive stage 4 in which the chorus praises Hercules’ return from the underworld where he subdued the gods 8 (locutor 3 [didaskalia] addressee 3. 1).

In the following scene, Juno provokes the madness of Hercules in the mid-dle of a sacrifi ce off ered to Jupiter. Subsequently, the hero slays his children and his wife. Upon recovering his sanity, he perceives their bodies. 9 In this scene, the corpses function as an extra-textual speaker, a stimulus, which in-forms Hercules about the tragic fate of his family : it is then the opsis which determines the logos of the hero. We deal herewith with cognitive stage 5

1 L. 6, 8, 12, 14 : hinc ; l. 10 : illinc. 2 L. 27-29. 3 L. 96-99. 4 L. 104-106. 5 L. 118-121. 6 L. 507-508. 7 L. 629-630 8 L. 889-890. 9 L. 1160-1161.


which is completed by the cognitive stage 6 referring to the revelation of the murderer, i.e. Hercules, and that of the real culprit of the crime, Juno. 123 This disclosure is made by Hercules within his dialogue with his father (locutor 4 [dialogue] addressee 4. 2.).

Upon discovering the truth, the hero is resolved to kill himself, then allows himself to be dissuaded from his plan and fi nally goes to Athens to be puri-fi ed.

Conclusion

Seneca’s Hercules Furens is more a play referring to the past than to the present and the future. Moreover, we observe an informational complementarity of the fi nal four cognitive stages.

Euripides’ Phoenician Women

a) Locutor 2 [didaskalia] addressee 2 (a person) [monologue with address] (2. 1. spectators) [dialogue] (2. 2. God ) [a three-way conversation] (2. 3. a person) (2. 4. Chorus) (2. 5. City)

b) Locutor 3 [monologue with address] addressee 3 (Chorus) [didaskalia] (3. 1. spectators) [dialogue] (3. 2. a person)

Jokaste’s prologue speech begins with an invocation of the Sun whom she reproaches for the misfortune he caused to Thebes (locutor 2 [monologue with address] addressee 2. 2). Arfterwards, she identifi es herself and outlines previous events, such as Laios’ marriage to her, his childlessness and the re-quest he made to Apollo for a union producing male children. In the light of the narrative of Jokaste, the answer of Apollo that Laios’ son would kill him can be represented as follows : Loc. 2a : designates Apollo [monologue with address] 2b designates Laius.

Iokaste also narrates Oedipus’ birth, rearing and parricide. Indeed, Oedi-pus killed his father in a quarel with his driver, not knowing who he was. The structure of the controversy between Laius’ driver and Oedipus can be drawn as follows : Loc. 2c : designates Laius’ driver [monologue with address] 2d designates Oedipus.

Iokaste also refers to her marriage to Oedipus the children that were born from this incestuous union and Oedipus’ curses called down on his sons upon

1 L. 1200-1201.


revealing his crime. In addition, she indicates the statement of the agreement to rule alternate years and Polyneikes’ voluntary exile for the fi rst year. Finally, Iokaste makes it clear that Eteokles is, by his violation of the agreement, in the wrong.

The speech of Iokaste also indicates the present situation, i.e. the arrival of Polyneikes accompanied by a large force of Argives and his demanding for ancestral power and a share in the land (locutor 2 [monologue with address] addressee 2. 1).

In addition, Iokaste sets the scene by the use of deictic spatial expressions 1 and the city where the action will unfold 2 (locutor 2 [didaskalia] addressee 2. 1.). Iokaste’s prologue speech ends with an invocation addressed to Zeus whose benevolence she implores (locutor 2 [monologue with address] ad-dressee 2. 2).

In the following scene, we deal with a dialogue between Antigone and his slave, an old man, informing her about the invading army 3 (cognitive stage 1 ; locutor 2 [dialogue] addressee 2.3).

The conversation is followed by the parodos in which the chorus announces the sinister arrival of the impetuous Ares, who personifi es « War » 4 (cognitive stage 2 ; locutor 3 [didaskalia] addressee 3. 1.)

L. 261-290 describe the arrival of Polyneikes and the exchange of informa-tion with the chorus. In this exchange, the girls of the chorus reveal their origins, identity and destination 5 (cognitive stage 3 ; locutor 3 [dialogue] ad-dressee 3. 3.) ; in return, Polyneikes discloses his identity 6 (cognitive stage 4 ; locutor 2 [dialogue] addressee 2. 4.).

Within l. 296-300, the chorus announces to Iokaste, who is within the palace, the arrival of her exiled son (cognitive stage 5 ; locutor 3 [didaskalia] addressee 3. 1. ; 3. 3.). Iokaste engages Polyneikes in an emotional dialogue in the end of which the chorus announces the entrance of Eteokles 7 (locutor 3 [didaskalia] addressee 3. 1.).

The following scene is a three-way conversation (locutor 2 [a three-way conversation] addressee 2. 3). First, Polyneikes discloses his decision to send the army away from Thebes if he receives his due 8 (cognitive stage 6). In re-turn, Eteokles declines his proposal (cognitive stage 7), which makes Iokaste respond with a long speech addressing each in turn, aiming at detering and dissuading her sons.

Within l. 696, Eteokles announces the arrival of Creon (locutor 2 [didaska-lia] addressee 2. 1), who is informed about his nephew’s decision to go off into battle 9 (cognitive stage 8 ; locutor 2 [dialogue] addressee 2. 3).

1 L. 68 : dw`ma tovde ; 79 : ejpÆ aujta; eJptavpula teivch tavde.2 L. 5-6 : gh`n/thvndÆ ; 51 : th`sde gh`~ ; v. 52 : th`sde cqonov~ ; v. 72 : th`sde qovna ; v. 75 : th`sde cqonov~.3 L. 88-201. 4 L. 239-246 ; 249-255. 5> L. 280-282. 6 L. 288-290.7 L. 443-444. 8 L. 482-485. 9 L. 748-755.


After Teiresias has appeared on stage he engages Creon in a dialogue. The king of Thebes announces Eteokles’ decision and his desire to learn from the seer by what action he would be most likely to save the city. Creon and Teiresias are at the same cognitive level. In return, Teiresias reveals that the land of Thebes has been troubled since Laios had issue against the gods’ will and fathered Oedipus, who was the husband to his mother (cognitive stage 9 ; locutor 2 [dialogue] addressee 2. 3). He also foretells the imminent death of both Oedipus’ sons 1 (cognitive stage 10 ; locutor 2 [dialogue] addressee 2. 3).

In the end of his speech, Teiresias addresses the land of Thebes and fore-sees its impending destruction, 2 if Creon does not pay attention to his words (cognitive stage 11 ; locutor 2 [monologue with address] addressee 2. 5.)

Finally, Teiresias discloses to Creon by what action he would save the city of Thebes : the king must kill his son, Menoikeus 3 (cognitive stage 12 ; locutor 2 [dialogue] addressee 2. 3).

Creon engages Menoikeus in a conversation in which the latter accepts to die for the sake of his country 4 (cognitive stage 13 ; locutor 2 [dialogue] ad-dressee 2. 3).

This dialogue is followed by another in which the messenger declares to Iokaste that the cadmean army won over that of Mykenaea 5 and that Poly-neikes and Eteokles are still alive. 6 He also describes Menoikeus’ suicide and the battle between the two armies. 7 The description of the battle includes speeches addressed by the combatants of both battlefi elds in order to encour-age their comrades. The structure of the utterance of these speeches can be represented as follows :

2e : designates Tydaeus and Eteocles [monologue with address] 2f desig-nates (Danaens) (l. 1145-1147) ;

2g : designates Eteocles [monologue with address] 2h designates the Dan-aens (l. 1225-1235) ;

2i : designates the friends of Polyneikes [monologue with address] 2j desig-nates Polyneikes (l. 1250-1251) ;

2k : designates the friends of Eteokles [monologue with address] 2 l desig-nates Eteokles (l. 1252-1253).

The messenger also announces the imminent struggle of both Oedipus’ sons 8 Therefore, his speech is subdivided into two informationally distinct and complementary stages : cognitive stage 14 which refers to past events and cognitive stage 15 which is related to future events (locutor 2 [dialogue] ad-dressee 2. 3.)

1 L. 865-883. 2 L. 884-885. 3 L. 912, 947-948. 4 L. 1013-1014. 5 L. 1081-1082. 6 L. 1085. 7 L. 1090-1263. 8 L. 1219-1222.


The scene ends with the appearance of Antigone who is informed by Iokaste of the single battle of Polyneikes and Eteokles 1 (locutor 2 [dialogue] addressee 2. 3.). Iokaste and Antigone are at the same cognitive level.

Within l. 1307-1308, the chorus announces the entrance of Creon (locutor 3 [didaskalia] addressee 3. 1).

In the following scene, Creon engages the chorus in a dialogue in which the Phoenician women learn Menoekeus’ suicide 2 (cognitive stage 16 ; locutor 2 [dialogue] addressee 2. 4). In return, the chorus leader announces the depar-ture of Iokaste and Antigone for the battlefi eld 3 (cognitive stage 17 ; locutor 3 [dialogue] addressee 3. 2).

L. 1332-1334 refer to the second appearance of the messenger which is an-nounced by Creon (locutor 2 [didaskalia] addressee 2. 1). The fi rst part of the messenger’s account outlines the brothers’ duel and death 4 (cognitive stage 18 ; locutor 2 [dialogue] addressee 2. 3). This cognitive stage is followed by the announcement of Iokaste’s death 5 (cognitive stage 19 ; locutor 2 [dialogue] ad-dressee 2. 3). In the light of the messenger speech, we single out the following structure of utterance :

2m : designates Polyneikes [monologue with address] 2n designates Hera (l. 1365-1369)

2o : designates Etéocle [monologue with address] 2p designates Athena (l. 1373-1376)

2q : designates Jocaste [monologue with address] 2r designates Polyneikes et Eteokles) (l. 1432-1433)

2s : designates Antigone [monologue with address] 2t designates Polyneikes and Eteokles (l. 1436-1437)

2u : designates Polyneikes [monologue with address] 2v designates Iokaste (l. 1443-1453)

The exit of the messenger is followed by the announcement of the arrival of the casualties from the battlefi eld 6 (locutor 3 [didaskalia] addressee 3. 1). Antigone sings a lament for her family and calls on Oedipus to emerge. Oedi-pus appears and hears the dread news of the three deaths. 7 Antigone and his father are at the same cognitive level. The play ends with a dialogue in which Creon sentences Oedipus to exile 8 (cognitive stage 20 ; locutor 2 [dialogue] addressee 2. 3).

Conclusion

In the light of the various structures of the utterance in Euripides’ Phoeni-cian Women, we observe that cognitive stages 1, 2, 3, 4 serve to locate the ac-tion and give information about the identity of certain characters. Cognitive

1 L. 1273. 2 L. 1313. 3 L. 1325-1326. 4 L. 1339. 5 L. 1349. 6 L. 1480-1484. 7 L. 1546-1550. 8 L. 1589.


stage 5 introduces cognitive stage 6, to which responds cognitive stage 7. This introduces cognitive stage 8. Cognitive stage 9 explains the current situation and justifi es cognitive stage 20. Cognitive stages 10, 11, 12 foretell disastrous events. Cognitive stage 10 begins to be fulfi lled in cognitive stage 15, which justifi es cognitive stage 17. Cognitive stage 10 is entirely realized in cognitive stage 18. Cognitive stage 11 is fulfi lled in cognitive stage 14. Cognitive stage 12 introduces cognitive stage 13, both fulfi lled in cognitive stage 16. Cognitive stage 18 justifi es cognitive stage 19.

In conclusion, this description enables us to observe that the structure of the utterance is based on the description of the present situation and events. The future, although less frequent, is the motor of the action. Indeed, by the use of the future, the locutor foretells events which are fulfi lled within the unfolding of the plot. In the following episodes, their realization is announced by the locutor in the means of a description referring to the past.

Seneca’s Phoenician Women

a) Locutor 2 [dialogue] addressee 2 (a person) [dialogue] (2. 1. spectators) [a three-way conversation] (2. 2. a person)

The unity of Seneca’s Phoenician Women is contested by several scholars. In-deed, the play is constituted by two fragments. In the fi rst fragment, Oedipus acts a part and in the second Jocasta is the leading character. Therefore, it is diffi cult to assert whether Phoenician Women is an incomplete or mutilated play. Moreover, there is not any chorus.

In the fi rst fragment, Oedipus appears with his daughter Antigone (locutor [dialogue] addressee 2. 2). He expresses his desire to commit suicide 1 (cogni-tive stage 1). In return, Antigone discloses her fi rm decision to die before him 2 (cognitive stage 2). Then, Oedipus describes the current situation in Thebes (cognitive stage 3). In the end of the scene, Oedipus changes his mind due to the insistent supplications of Antigone and prefers life to death (cognitive stage 4).

The following scene is a dialogue between the messenger and Oedipus in the presence of Antigone’s silence (locutor [dialogue] addressee 2. 2).The mes-senger informs Oedipus that Thebes implores him to stop disaster and war in his homeland 3 (cognitive stage 5). Oedipus remains, in turn, insensitive to the invocation of the Thebaens and the supplications of the messenger (cognitive stage 6). Oedipus’ speech ends with his decision to take refuge in the forest and to refuse to return to Thebes 4 (cognitive stage 7).

The action of the second fragment is set in Thebes. The messenger engages Iocasta in a dialogue (locutor [dialogue] addressee 2. 2), in which she bemoans

1 L. 27-40. 2 L. 76. 3 L. 320-327. 4 L. 358-362.


the misfortune of Thebes. In the following three-way conversation Antigona or Ismene beseeches Iokaste to intervene in order to stop the war. 1 Iocaste, in turn, decides to fetch her sons in the battlefi eld 2 (cognitive stage 8 ; locutor [a three-way conversation] addressee 2. 2).

During the encounter with her two sons, Iocaste does her best to reconcile Eteokles and Polyneikes (locutor [a three-way conversation] addressee 2. 2). The latter concedes the royal power to unyielding Eteokles 3 (cognitive stage 9), who exiles his brother 4 (cognitive stage 10).

Conclusion

Phoenician Women is based on decisions and information referring to present events and situations.

Conclusion

i) In all the plays that we have studied above, cognitive stages are more fre-quent in Euripides than in Seneca. Indeed, in Euripides’s Phoenician Women, there are twice as many cognitive stages than in Seneca’s version of the play (Euripides : 20 cognitive stages ; Seneca : 10 cognitive stages). Moreover, in Euripides’s Hercules Furens cognitive stages are more frequent than those ap-pearing in Seneca’s homonymous play (Euripides : 10 cognitive stages ; Seneca : 6 cognitive stages). Furthermore, the quantity of cognitive stages found in the Hippolytus and Medea of both authors is almost equal (Euripides, Hip. 11 ; Seneca : Phae. 10 ; Eur. Med. 8 ; Seneca, Med. 6). Finally, the Trojan Women of Seneca is the only play where the number of cognitive stages is more higher (Seneca : 13 ; Euripides : 10).

ii) The description of various structures of utterance will be based, on the one hand, on the type of speech addressed, and, on the other hand, on the nature of the locutor and that of the addressee.

In both authors, the monologue is most often pronounced by a person, who addresses the spectators (Euripides : 5 uses ; Seneca : 4 uses) or deities, which is rare (Euripides : 1 use). The monologue is also used by a person addressing the city where the play is unfolding.This type of utterance structure appears only in one passage in Euripides. The author also uses three other types of utterance structure in which a God and Goddess address the spectators, the Chorus or the city-biotopus in a form of a monologue. Moreover, underworld beings are recipients of a monologue delivered by a Goddess. This type of utterance stucture appears once in Seneca. Finally, the author puts on stage either shadows who address a person, or alternatively a person who addresses terrestrial elements and shadows.

1 L. 403-405. 2 L. 407-408. 3 L. 653. 4 L. 662.


A dialogue between two characters is the most frequent type of the struc-ture of utterance (Euripides : 5 uses ; Seneca : 5 uses). Dialogues also take place between a person and the Chorus. This type of the structure of utterance is more frequent in Euripides than in Seneca (Euripides : 4 uses ; Seneca : 2 uses).

The structures of utterance in which the speaker, i. e. the Chorus, addresses a person appears three times in Euripides. The author also uses a dialogue between two deities (2 uses).

The frequency of a three-way conversation between characters is almost identical in Euripides and Seneca (Euripides : 3 uses ; Seneca : 2 uses). The struc-tures of utterance in which the speaker, i. e. a person or a goddess engages the Chorus and/or a person in a three-way conversation are used only in Euripides (2 uses).

Only the Chorus, a person or a goddess make an utterance which consists of a didaskalia. The recipient is the audience. The fi rst type constantly appears in Euripide (5 uses). In contrast, its use is very limited in Seneca (2 uses). On the other hand, the frequency of use of the second type is equal in both au-thors (3 uses). Finally, the didaskalia made by a deity appears in two passages in Euripides and in one sole passage in Seneca.

These observations lead us to affi rm that in Euripides and Seneca, a person addresses other characters using all kinds of speech (monologues, dialogues, three-way conversations and didaskalia). The addressees are generally a per-son, a deity and the Chorus. The invocation of supernatural beings, such as terrestrial elements or shadows, is used only in Seneca. Finally, a monologue that addresses the city-biotopus appears in both authors.

Moreover, Euripides constantly uses the Chorus and makes its members pronounce a didaskalia or engage a dialogue with a person. A monologue with address to the spectators appears only once. On the other hand, the role of the Chorus is limited in Seneca. Indeed, the chorus is absent altogether in Phoenician Women.and Medea. Didaskalia appears in all plays except in the Tro-jan Women where the chorus converse with a person. Finally, the appearance of deities in the role of the speaker is more frequent in Euripides. They ad-dress gods, persons, the Chorus and, lastly, the city-biotopus using all kinds of speech. Moreover, we single out one play in which Seneca puts a goddess on stage who uses a didaskalia or a monologue to address underworld beings.

iii) The transmission and the realization of cognitive stages are made by either speech (lovgow) or by sight (o[yi~).

The oral transmission of cognitive stages regards events which are about to take place on or off stage at the very moment of the utterance, such as the entrance or the exit of characters etc. The oral transmission of cognitive stages also refers to the announcement of decisions made off stage or realized in successive steps within the play. Oral transmission also concerns wishes


that a dead person reveals to a person with whom he has aff ective bonds or decisions that are made by the characters within the unfolding of the play and that will be realized before its end. Finally, the locutor reveals disastrous events which will take place after the act has unfolded or he discloses the truth, which contributate to the unfodling of the play.

The o[yi~ highlights the factual aspect of cognitive stages. In Seneca, the act that the locutor is about to perform on stage represents the realization of his decision at the moment of the utterance and, at the same time, the transmission of a cognitive stage. The o[yi~ then stresses the hic and nunc of the utterance, which functions as an act of speech and as the realization of an act. Moreover, in Euripides, the locutor deals with a fait accompli which did not take place on stage and consequently the locutor is not the eyewitness. Cognitive stages are not then endowed with a factual aspect.

the structure of utterance in euripides' and seneca's plays

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