Atlanta University CenterDigitalCommons@Robert W. Woodruff Library, AtlantaUniversity Center

ETD Collection for AUC Robert W. Woodruff Library

6-1-1959

The frustration-aggression hypothesis: analysis andcritiqueEugene Richard SlaughterAtlanta University

Follow this and additional works at: http://digitalcommons.auctr.edu/dissertations

Part of the Sociology Commons

This Thesis is brought to you for free and open access by DigitalCommons@Robert W. Woodruff Library, Atlanta University Center. It has beenaccepted for inclusion in ETD Collection for AUC Robert W. Woodruff Library by an authorized administrator of DigitalCommons@Robert W.Woodruff Library, Atlanta University Center. For more information, please contact cwiseman@auctr.edu.

Recommended CitationSlaughter, Eugene Richard, "The frustration-aggression hypothesis: analysis and critique" (1959). ETD Collection for AUC Robert W.Woodruff Library. Paper 2307.

THE FRUSTRATION-AGGRESSION HYPOTHESIS*

ANALYSIS AM) CRITIQUE

A THESIS

SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OP ATLANTA UNIVERSITY

IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OP THE RE&UIHEIffiNTS FOR

THE DEGHEE OF MASTER OF ARTS

BY

EUGENE RICHARD SLAUGHTER

BEPARTffiNT OF SOCIOLOGY

ATLAHTA UNIVERSITY

JUKE, 1959

'5

TABS OF CONTENTS

I. HfHOBtlCTlQl «•••...,•.•••*••«• 1

XI. TM FEUSTtft.TXOIWlGOIBSSX0H HIFOffiBSIS ..... M

III. CmS53PXGI.TIQN ®" NEGflO AQGR8SS1D1B ...... 26

If. COICLUSDIt 4 nSSIGH FCR POTOfB STOUT . • • • • 4$

.................... 64

GHAFXER I

1KR0WCT1DI

Ttm centaral field of aociolosy is the study of social interaction.

The sociologist is interested In. ta»n behavior as it is jaanifoated, is

the social situation* Bo is interested in how people behaire in groups t

how they interact, hot? tliey arrange thesiaelves in society, hm they cor*-

pete with each other, and hm they cooperate with each other. Technically

the sociologist likes to study the interaction between as few as too

individuals, whether their interaction is rjornent^ry or permanent* He

concentrates, however, on ntre nearly permanent groupings of incliviit«2»,

from tte smallest monogajaoua i'aisiily up to the total world coimmnity.

The study of social inan, in the broadest sense, describes tte fi»M

of all the social sciences. For this reason it ±a difficult to draw a

sharp line if division between tte field of sociology and that of ary

of the other social sciences, £1 an effort to orient toivaz'd the proto-

lexa to bo considered in tiiis paper, therefore, social interactioE will

be regarded as the primary focus of sociology*

^Charles Horton Cooley, Robert Cooley Aa%«llf and Lowell MilliardSfadt Sil (lew Xk 193J) 12

2

SooMt inbsraot.ions tend to bse.iaa ^w^3mt^md9 to £«ea Into #»£

Inlts paftfeirnt mMi «w> to te foXlosad in eontaet aitaattoas

or groups* Tb» wcUm through which sods patterns of

is ref*r*«d to a

nd «rtlfacte If wis&h * gi*^ ^^«p Uwm

tes n» ffieaniflgfiO. ttdstenoo of its c?im| it is tm2,tmm oi%" <

It is terai in tte KtuLi.-j @C ti» IniiirMttalfi v-iio A»0 it* It laatu

fellas my wsdbm of fl» srotipj, biases It is trossioittod

t» p«p«ob «nd Iroe ^nurattiM to ^a %

of social intmemUm* SooiA isitu^ract Uxi aMd a»t tie

2

Infant tarn into tt» groap finds a Xmrbs part of Ma total noodii

and ftmWmm solved bsfars bS% *^ aa to i>gmm «n4 partie^patss Satto

©upstart csT Ms gfoap te Is gt»«xl cto^y 6y teMtudl «ay» «C

thlnea #i4A haw b«t telMliig up slns« tha #w^i»s. fl»

Ihs Infant ocsm into tto vsrU with aaiftil «^ssci%l«s aid noadiif tte

cultnrs sIwms him taw to utilise sis ea^»citl»» to satisfy Itis

ths ciatww giws Ma aMitteail n^3«f«3^» 4a the fan at

»f specific satiws, iraii^a, »or»^i# mmmimm9

* Sis baste owrtt - oueh as far fosd9 drlnk4 smt ote» • «c*

insof;a- as tlit f«s of satlsfmtijM S

3

ihft euXtm*»# It is through ealtuw that society nates the social

fres the aaijaal nan, arid it is ttextgh eultar« that social sail is enabled

to function msmsminll^r in his group sad tfee natursl ejOTirwoaeat, and t®

wat his nettis, b«rie and acquired, la mis papa* tfes astis and Gbptee*

with which the Imman being is ©quJppei innately will be referred to as

his aeqatrt* uweig,3- ¥itli«it purooiqt tfas wttsr^ it .AottM to® «a^«-

atood that acquired needs are fiilly as real to tte social aan as basic

needat and th«gr msgr imve an insistence amch greater than th© basic needa.

If ;?oup life is t® efi'cctivtily meet hwm needa, it is necessary tt*t

men haw ac»aa means % ndiieh their aar^y contacts wi'it each otlser can to

made siaooth. As haa bosn said, culture perl'orjas this function, Thua,

»vhen too Bion in American aociety met# thoy shake haiids^ speak a certain

te'bitual set ef greetings in tte English language^ "pasa the tin ef day",

conduct their business, &p dm wliatever tte occasion caHa £'orf all ia a

set pattern* For tte great majority of contacta tte culture jatmMm

& pattern of conduct, #sabling the individuals to function in tlis

active process vsith a tinin ef doubt and uncertainty. Because of' those

patting, tiie ntratl individual £ia.y predict vitfa a high decree of accuraej

vdiat the reuponse of another individual will be v^hen the wo interact,

'He sociologist, In studying social gr«p% does iiot regard a social

group as an organic entity distinguishable froa its Hates* He finds,

however, that each group is differentiated frm, each other group, that

its mmbera behave so a«tog of' their own group rather than m

1936),

4

«f their mm group ratfcsjp thaa as neober« eS another gr#«p# Xhay hav©

a feeling «f «qrit ie e8a*p»# ef talengicg tegettar* B»y teal to s»»

gsjpd tfesratlimf as ara&exw ef the tawgreup aand t# eoasM«r

#lse tut' part «f Him crot«"grou3»«^ Maiy s#ciaul gr@api are coaptsed ©£ a

«£ anttXLsr groups built on ifflaateabJ* criteria^ fmHym elms.*

r®ligim# politic«# 4at«?eats# «ad tite lito* lho» Sa aj^f larg®

of this wart tfe«e» are & sefto« ©f ^?©up Ixitaa*«otion9 vhich

tain betvreen it mA ottier (jroups.

iiltiwagh it is plate that the group ita»2f caunet infc«raet

«B9tiwp ff*9V^$ tie »a® «ffect is obtai^id when a aertrar ®f oto

i»t««ct3 with a asAer «C MMtbov greap* E»h, in arach • eas®# teais

t@.a?«ps«se^ hia «nt3z« gemp im tia» othor* a® JWiTMualg rrngm^Bm

«f inAividoftX.difffMnmoes ©p ch««ct«r3atie% is- idtentifis^ b©#i by

and by th® laiivMaiL with vhm h» is iutwactii^ij irtth liis'

fe this prawn it is «utef«l ta nm the tern lt«t»©«%|»'1^ -

the ascription of qualities, often unreal ani oversJi^lifled, to a

thing (in oar pp@ib3bs» a social group) wi»n 'te'n© towlrtge la lacking er

%a««i. Steret^ped esspeetatioBf ©f behavior fora a large part of tli©

a»chaniaas tfareugh whitti social lnt«r«ctit3tMi are pattsraed,,. even though

aiy fee based on 3«t«al igawanca*

lheth«p the pr6O»as ©f usir^ etereeigrpes to Mentify •«at©aatical2|(1

%ilXiaa Ck-aham Suamr, Foltoifays (Boston, 1940), p» 12*

%alter Lippmann, Public Opinion (Aw York, 1922), pp#

5

a msmber of another group, even when the sfcereot^es am based upon

fall® conceptions, is "right11 er '•wrong® to terw ©£ ethical considera*

tion, the preeess has va]U» for the soclftleglst. It gives, 3s effect,

a farm aff group interaction, ani 3a a large factor in determining nhat

group relations really are. For example, two members of such groups as

the B»gr© and the white cto not interact as f©a Jones ani Sam Brown, but

as Kegro and white. It can be seen that in almost ary jbnteraction be-

tiroa ambars ®f different groups thera ia an «3#iii8j* ef Mantifying -Sit

indi-vMiial wife hto group and the use ®f stweotypoa.

This proc»a« ha» bees elaborated t® em^ilmc ppflp^ctiona by s©c±aty

3a aaqy casea, Iat@raetions between meabera «f d3fferent castes in

Mil f®r eMaBpl®, ®r« gewrned al«®st e^^lateS^r fe^r pattarm based en

the proems ef Idenfclfisation as «• uae it her©, ."to tte eaate aisrarcligr

that has developed* riiejBbsa»i ef one cast® way ©i»n pollute aertwrs ®f ao-

ottef eaate bj appreachiMg within a certain distance. Social clasa©3

in the United States haws elements ef stereotyping, althoiigji tfa®

bility of class nobility allswt sons indiirMuals to ncw» frem class t©

class and somewhat wealssn the -B««fulness @f st®re®%p»s# It is. elear,

hiwevw, that tids is fee usual aeans bj which grwap interaction is

perf©rwd through the IMivMual mvbw ef the group imrelwd.

The United States^ if looted «fe ss a wh#l®,^ appears a* a

iiriiegral of a vast lumber af groups ®£ different s©r1^« fhus there

the M§gr% the white, the Jew, the Japaaes«-A»rieanf the atpoblican

&dashiv Ohur^, Cast® and Bace in 'India (&w fork, 1932),

6

the Democrat, that Protestant, the Catholic, the Mason, the Mew Yorker,

the Georgian, and so on ad infinitm. ill of these groups exist to

gether in symbiotic relationships to form a huge state which is loosely

knit In some respects, bat is strongly nationalistic and closely knit

In' others* The Iferth msk the 3ouOi may wangle and struggle in do*

meatie cornpetition, bat each is at the sans tiise part of the ease large

in-group in interaction with a forsi^n nation. Hie relations between

the groups which compose the United States are legally unified - con

tinued conflict of a violent nature is manifestly impossible as long as

the larger group exists as such - and each has adjusted to the others

in some degree and fashion, Die patterns of interaction between aiy

two of the groups differ in respects frourbhose between any other two.

!Ihe main interest in this paper is tte system of interaction be

tween whites and Ifegroes in a specific part of the American South,

There are two of the largest and laost important groups in the nation,

and exenplify types of interaction and adjustment that are of great

interest to the sociologist. It is necessary that a more careful ob

servation be made of the total American picture, however, before Negro-

white interactions per se can be considered, the problem has little

waning except insofar as it ia considered in the total social context.

Hie American Meal is a fundamental part of the whole value system

©f Aiwicaa eultwe.1 Using lite "etnas'12 «£ a culture as the pawail-

itig system of values and attitudes which sttto» that culture unique ami

14'/rdal, An Anarican Dilemma (ifew xork, 1944>9 ft*

7

distinct from any other culture, the American Meal ray be regarded ait

the ethos of Aaeriean culture* It penaeates the entire culture* It ia

exsiaplified and adhered to in ths idea structure of all the major insti

tutions: familial, governmental, religious, and economic,

"The horae of the brave and the land of the free", "John Q. Publie",

"the four freedoms", "the American way of life", and similar well-known

statements and phrases characterise the American Heal. Theoretically,

each individual born in the United States Bay becomo President if he so

aapirea, Americana have to a large degree denied the existence or tht

possibility of class structure or any sort of restriction upon social

mobility in ourethoa. The American form of government is revered as the

ultimate in guranteeing freedom for the individual to realise his fullest

potentialities. Hie typical American is characterized as being the sost

impendent, selfroliant individual in the vrorld.

This American Heal is, 3m terras ef Linton's classification of cul

tural elements, a universal trait in ^nerican culture*1 It is shared

by aliaost every individual* It is taught in American ahcoola and fcrmal

system of education; it is constantly reiterated in media of coixuinica-

tion • newspapers, !>©©k», aragazines, movies, speeches, etc. - and it is

safe to say that belief in the Meal is transmitted, formality or informally

as an integral part e£ the American culture t© every partks3|>ant in ttie

culture*

Every American has & potential chance to make a fortune by his own

Linton, o£, c±t,, p* 272.

8

skill 02* business ability* His 'Chief purpose 2b life Is to strive to-

wsrd the goal of material wealth in terns of soney and conveniences,

and toward the power awl prestige brought, in the nintls of sx»st ibaer3cara

mainly hy "wealth* The individual in American society, in short, can

look forward to wealth, power, political prestige, freedom ef religion,

or almost ansytfeirg that lie desires, if lie is willing to work for it and

if he ha® the ability to attain it in free competition, according to the

American Beal*

An Meal is, ©f course, a condition that exists only theoretical3y«

Xt is what the people adhering to it would liJtee to see, and toward which

they work, even though it may be virtually in^oaaible to attain. Every

Aiiericart realizes, for exanple, that the chances of his becoming Resi

dent are alseat infinitesImal, ant the vast majority of Americana d©

not set the White House up as their ultimate goal, The Constitution,

however, states the qualifications for President in saich a tray that the

only persons actually excluded are th©#e ■waMmc & certain age and. those

■who we net born in this country. 2xi practise there are majny groups of

people, theoretically qualifies, who lmmr tJiat it is impossible for

them to becoE» President: ligroes, woi?»n, Jews, Catholics, etc* The

specific goal, howexrer, is not insoortant for the propose of thaa paper.

Tim main interest is in investigation effects, if ciny, upon groups 'who,

in practice, are automatical^ restricted in workiiig toward the attain

ment of the American Ideal, Even though the individual may not attempt

directly to reach such a goal ma President or Billionaire status, know

ing that it is such a difficult task, there is atill the possibility

that he raay feel that he is being restricted if he is told, explicitly

or implicit^, that he cannot hppe to attain the goal because of color,

9

sex, rate© or the 3dJc@, when according to the Aaerlean Ideal, tiijych he

s»ppoied3y shares, he cottLI. B» Constitution of the United States*

expressing the Aaeriean Steal* would permit a iroaan to become BreaMeatj

a women* however, Ishows that in actual practice her ses prevents her

from attaining the g#®3L# Time, even though she aay have little or no

political ambitions* ahe say perhaps resent the situation wnieh* na**»

withstanding the Constitution and the AtBricaa etho3 la which she is

tatight to believe* denies her the participation which she night othes—

vise b.ave#

M«e pertinent for present purpose* ia the position of tl« %gr© la

the United States* B» Isgr® 3m a gro^* separate from ©thsr racial

e-IJinic ^o^>® in the fatten* set off from these ©ther ^oups togr

©f colsr* apaecfe* mam«riaTO* arai the- lUto.» The eltsrage

the I'fefTo p"ot^s and the white grotsp is sha^p enough, to mmwit

t© a systea «£ caste* particBlseply in the JtoBBrtean Sotiife, l^ner^*

conceives of the Ifegro-ishit© gro«p differentiation as a system ®f tw©

castes* each of -Hhieh is stratified into classes; the vhite caste is

dominant &mp the Negr®. Hb jastifies "Kbe use ©f the concept of caste

ia this situation by setting forth GtAegmp and barriers preventing

the social mobility between the ts© groups as the two essential features

©f east©* poii&irg to the fact that teter-gpot^'iiarriag® and social

nobility is possible ia a class society tut net in a cast®* %as

%gre«<fthite interasftrl^ge is mft, sanctioned in th© ^mvloan ^omth ■«•

w« Llofd ®arnsr* "-^rasrican Caste and class,w %ierican Journal oflr> 3XKxn (September* 1996)* 234-237.

actuality it 3a disapproved in almost all the United States. "Social

©quality11, UJoswlsa* is not permitted, ani asabers of th® white caste

h&v© sufficient solidarity to aatatain that even an upper class i©^o

Is W3ocial3y» inferior to lay class unit®, Thar* ar© iaHeations- that

the caste lira© i» being wakened at spots - way ppmelmmly prohibited

ferns «f social interaction batmen Isgroet sad unites ar® new aUjwti

to practice «• tat it s©ei» that far purposes ©£ argoaeab tb§ caate dis

tinction a^- be used lsgitifflfttely*-

fhe caate ^rate% as aenticaed &foove0 ia an ©xtr#H§

ferentiat&ag two groves idiioh are to frequent contact. Bollard gives

a good diacwssion ef tt» ^thods <tf sacking off one caste from th@

in his study of Southsrntown* Oharlti S# Jotoson lias provided excellent

description® of th« patterns ©f caste differentiation and segregation

in several works* ffc® .%gr® is an itorieanf the white is an Jtew?iean|

thej aw part of the s«® Jto-gr©^ or "we-grosqa" ia intertiBtion wi-Hi a

f©r«%n nattonf bat in relation® between the®© two p?oupt any Negpo is

a aftaibea? ©f the outgrotqp t© any wnit©# aM Tice -wsrsa* The

of segregation ani raelsl etiquette is based upon this two-

division and serves t@ dS££©renti&te Htm tvo greaps. fher© is

littl® need to dssoarSte ihe> patter» of segregation • they differ in

detail in different part® of th» oovoaAxy'g- ar« stroi^r to so» ^htan la

others^ ani are s© «e21 treated to nMBm»ou» mrtes ^Biat it wofald b@ a

"'"John D©ll«d, Caste aM Clasa in a Southern Stora (K@w Xork, 19482nd Edition), "* ' '

11

uaste of tise to consider them here*

Aqy Aaflriean southerner is -well n-wsed in the many details of racial

etiquette for hia local®. The average white resident of the South* for

«aspl% is tan into a culture containing patterns of rae# relations

which lead him to feel that a Sfegr© ts Inferior t© hi% that Hegroes ape

aot to go to school with unites* that Hegrces are not t© eat with whites,

that pt^rsieal contact with Negroes miat b© avoided ±a lost situations*

that he is »t t© address a Ifegj?© as Mlrl or Btt?s.H, etc. The Isgr©

to the South* toe, has knowledge ©f th®se ©we details ©f etiq,uett®# aJc

2bait froa a different point of view.

the bread pictare @f the interactive positions of ttoe *gro and the

^ilte ia the United States* vaA partfcBOarly in tint South* is pplaarUy

one of ^*oup aceo»aai«tioii« Ib^y have seen slavarj as the asystem by T/tich

tl» two races "B»r® origii»3Jly aeconwodated,. with ife© ahar© crop aid tenant

practices, segregation, ajad the iftiele n»t»a?k of race relations

3substittrfctag for slmerj ^ien it waa abolished* Acccciaodation iavoltes

aiperord&atioa (the vhite) &rA su.bOTdteaM.on (tbe fegro), md smms t»

be characteristic of a caate steuctare such aa ie ascribed to the South,

Before sewing further along* parttaps it shouM be reiterated that

Charles S. Johnson, Patterns ofBagro Segregation (*w fork,, 1943f

3rd ^ition)s Ber^aa lilbar D^rla, ^E^aftM^SJSSt^^^S-Sthe South (Chicago, 1937)f Ctanar ikffSSTTSnSSSSSSZTnjSSS^

2Bertroa Wilbur Boyle, The Etiquette of %oe Relations in the SoaMt(Chteago, 1937).

"3T. %m anlttts Tt» Sogiology of _ R>gal Idfe (lew Yearly 1947)f pp» SOS-SI?.

32

grewp interactions* such as are «OTpM£led Igr Ifegroes sad vhites*

not oonfim& to -these two groups. Situations that share aany -ccraaoB

©feisssts ar® in existence in all parts of the nation* . Jews aaS Qentil®sf

similar1j,j, art foritsS tat® two gyouijs the interactions tte.ticesn nhichharot

s©s» features in coaaoa with Kegr©^rf.t© Intar^tjbas,'*' Attention hare

is focused upon ffegrQ«tthlte intsracticna* bat it sbouM net bs 3i€erred

tbat tiies» are TiifcUy d3ff«*,ent cap more inpertant Ifaan a^y ©tfeersg, la

teams «f aooiol©gieal p-lneipl©s#

A nearer-apj^oaeirBay » be aate to the problem <tf thij: papert

are- soae of the effeets upon %® l^^wier ©f Hfegroes-of 1i»

process between Ifeem and the i&ite group in tb« li^it of

Awrieaa e'&os? S» Atsericmi Be^L denies the pe#»

of an inferior caste or gpm$z9 jet the caste pattern of' Inter*

action s«©ias to refute the ethos in pt?act£o©« It toiM se«m that ta^m

is a good possibility that the ifegro,- haM in toe saboMlnate poaitio%

is •&« scene «f clashes between these conflicting eieiasnts of the eaL-

tare* It is tfa® Ifep1© irtio it fearrsi from aotuA participation a®

"Meal provides* a® that tter© are ®os» g^ounia fm assuadng timt fee

2aha* a tendency to react against the barriers that res-trist

W&±%bssT sociology ner eliier sciences^ o«a <^aw i!®eifiiabjtB conoln*

■slons fcy aw* randea obsenration co? tfee@rii&ing. It nust# if It la to

1iMteqn© (faster and Sttiart Henderson Britt, few to A Gentile l

1942), "" *~~ '

13

bs claseif'tod ■ among the sciences* use the scientific sattsoi ©f

atieally observing fit® phemoaena that bear xxpon 13b problem, under cou-

siileratio% fy©m which it say f«% by a process ©f logic* a hypothesis

that fits the facts# fte. ijfp©ttests 'Mist be tested aai retested ty

experiment aad ob»r^ation before, it ean to® of value fa? prediction to

aeientist. & #jia .paper9 at indicated abme0, the p*obl«B «f

iep-o tehaTiw &i Hie cast® gpitett of JDterae1deii.-ffill'be #

£«H ee«r»i» of the scjteatifte nethod»te a defiaaiti-^ te»tirf of an

m wHJ. not b® f©llowsi* %wml thixt^ ©f mlm to a

use of -Qm aoimnttfte ae-Bied wiH be donef. hcm&n&t a fcppetfcesla

fee statei, a preUtoiaa^y ftppUoatioB ef this typottosls n331 be md»

to test the «£itlf ®f it to the ©&si«*roi Xaetsit. aM suggestions far

further testing of a warm ©peratio-nsa mature w2H be mdm*

©p«"atioial ps?©eedOT@ii wy the de-wlepssnfe csf a lair «P fyua^ation

agp^sssiou «• 1330 h^petSiesls to be tused here • be «dh30vedv

Hie ^pothesis ©f frtuntratien asi aggr«ssioa .!■ ne-t a mm one* It

is ti» result ®f the effart® ©f a grcrap ef soeial scientist© t©

®f la»®n behavior .and motivation. In tfee eljaptw -srtiicli

hypothesis,, ma it hag been stated aid. oritieia^ed b

awi .sooiol&giats,, wiU. be tewstigatei# together wilfc a

of tests, made of it in actual sitaatisms of groi^p iatsracticm*

01aa»t The .Rpeper Stady 'Of ftaMiaA (Hsw X^'k,, 1948)#

tbs wms&saxnm • agqssssioi hsfoihesiis

fti® hypothesis to to considered for ua© in iwestigating llegco be

havior in the Southern "casto" situation is that based on frustration

and ag@p©ssl©s# Only recently have tteai bean systematic attempts to

derive angr sort of an i^pothesis of human motivation ant behavior from

the concept o£ frustration, and even the foremost workers in the area

»wM agree that the work done so far la of tentative nature, A com

plete hypothesis has as yet not been formulated, although there has

been aoras very good work done both in laboratory experimentation and

in theoretical consideration of various aspects of frustration. Much

T®m,1mi to be done In forraulation of a more nearJiy eeaspXet© hypothetical

fraaawork and testing this by aKperamant aixi observation.

In this paper pcimry en^hasis lies in extracting aorae of th» prin

ciples if frustration theory that are most applicable to the group sit

uation so ■feat they may be examined in the light of obsenmd data.

The task la somewhat siaplifi«d by the fact &at one of the most active

groups working la the field of frustration and reactions to frustration,

that at the l@lm University institute of Human Helations, has published

a fairly comprehensiv® hypothesis, which, although It hag been oriticisd

am being teidequate dm aoae respacts, represents the broadest ifcoretieal

attempt to date, Thxa book, jtoagteatigR aal ...A^ygsalea* t;ill constitute

John Bollard, and others, Frustration and iiggroasioa (Kew Haven,

tit 1939)

25

a groundwork upon which say be critically reviewed ©iter ?otIs§ tliat dial

•wift phases of the east concept, fhe most suitable plan woaM seem to

be to consider ©yst®iaatical3y the 'hypothesis as presented 5a Wm boalc 5js-

an attenpt to shew how it way be applied to the Negro-white aitoatioa,

Ijrisiglag In OTiticasas, ffioiification% sad furiter tIsws by @«i^ social

scientists at the appropriate places* It wm&A be fe?»assib2a in an e&Sset

of the scope provided by Ifala pap« to raniptilat© a3©qaaf,03^ all of the

raatfieations of €i« fraatration^gg»»gion fegrpothMds* tat at least

rafareace will b® j^e t© eritSeianiy refineaeat% and eaafiicUng hy*

p@1i»ses tfcrogqgh. a liberal tiss of footr»tat#

ft© authors preface -teeir iiypoiteais fegr defliiSng aeveral. basic taw

specifically for use in 13tm dowelopiaont of the bypothesie^ anil «O&angh

■feese s^ differ slightly from sIMXar definitloas by other scholars,

thay will be used in order to be consistent,

She first factor to bs considered 3n st«dyii^ a gituatioa of fru»»

tratioa is that of Binstigation", "In instigator 4s some antecedent

condition of which the predictai re^sponse is the consequence.11^ An

instigation caa be a directly observable object which causes the 2a-

divM«al to desire t© j*«acli a specific goal, or it way b© an internal

condition which is inferred by the bateier ef the i»rfivMuA, Since

in sany oasss several inaMgaters to a eartaia r«gponse aey

, Instigation mast be c«isMersd as a. quantitative

should b®

, and ethers^ «£, e||», p, 3,

IB

instigator sets in motion, if It lias Hie requisite strength*

a behavior sequence ithich is terminated by a "goal-response11. "Hie

goal-response may be deftoed as that reaction which, reduces the strength

of instigation to a degree at which It no longer bas as much of a tei*»

denqy to produce the predicted behavior sefHeace*1^ ttAn interference

with the occurrence of an instigated goal*»r«aponse at its proper time

in the "behavior sequence is called a ''frustration111, Tiro conditions

oast exist in aafcfer to produce a situation of j^rustrationt (1) the

organism couM have t»«a e^ectrf to yo^fOi'n cortain acts# arf (2) theee

acts have been pyewnted from occurring,*^

Bier© aref therefore, iiree factors as the basis for the hypothesis;

the instigation, the goalx-response, aad the frasfeaticn* The aonaal

co^letioa of Urn tohavior seqi»nc« and the ^hSeveEBnt of the goaL-

response are not <rf interest fca? present purposes* attention is cen

tered on what wiH happen wfoen the behavior sequence is int«r^tei be-

it is iwoinated ttj goaL-reaposase,

Sie a»-aiors begin with the basic postulate that n. • • • the occta?-

of aggpcssiim behwi» always presupposes the existence of fru»»

tration always leada to soeb form of ag^essive behav3flr#tt * tiro years

1XbMff p. 6,

% p» 7.

., »• 7.

17

after the publication of the original ihypothesis, however, this

urns retracted arid revised to "Frustration produces instigations to a

ntmiber of different Igrpos of ra»p®ns«# one of irfaieh Is an instigation to

sent fonft of aggression."1 Acccafding to this statement, there is thus

a hierarchy of! instigations to responses to frustration, with the posi

tion of th© instigation to aggression varying wi13i a nuraber of factors,

such as individual experisnoe, tftrangth of frustration, cultural pat

terning, et&» S&« TOri©iis ls»t%atiDiii aagr be to a jsatfbsr ©f <fi£iirent

structive atteinpts to remove, avoM, or coiipensate for the frustrating

objectato severe psychological and social ETaladjustfi-®nts, 'Bi&ve have

hem xmmv&aa elassifSfiationt ©f s«acti©a I® frustpation®, elassifyiag

both the types of behavioral response asd tlie EBchanisias through which

these responses Jimy be ©scpresssd, Rosomweig, fdr instance, has dons

sons of Hi®: most definitive work in the field# Is. categorises six main

types of frustration situations and advances a concept of frustration

tolerance based on certain factors in the life experience of the indivi

dual. He describes £&w categories of reaction to frustrations (1) Ad

equate and inadequate, (2) direct and indirect, (3) defensive and per-

sesvarative, and (4) specific and non«-specific| those are based, of

course, on different framas of reference for looking at frustaratioii res*

aponaes. The third category Is also called ©go-defensii/B &A need

E, WSH»9-tiaA ©thers, n>Xh@ gpiaL Si,, IKXflil (^Oy, 1941),. 337-342.

IB

porsiativsj the former can be expreased through extrapunitive, intro-

punitive, or impunitive raechanisias, while the latter, particularly in

direct perseverative, cover many types of substitute responses*

Ellsworth Parla lists and describes sixteen results of frustration,

based on case studies of college student® t (1) daydreaming£(2) delusion^

(3) substitutioni (4) sublimation; (5) devaluation; (6) projection!

(7) suppressions (S) regression} (9) abandonment* (20) obsession^ (U)

resignation! (22) despairj (23) suleMej (14) rage, ftayj (15) h^teriai

and (16) aggression* The authors largely Ignore the raany possible re

sponses to frustration by concentrating on agp-ession in its several

forros of expression, Saxiilai'ly, here only aggressive responses to frus

tration will be considered, but it should be stated that this Is not

want to attribute exclusive importance or prevalence to aggressive be-

haviox' aa a frustration response*

S* StansfeM Sargent^ sees the frustration sequence as frustrated

motive-ojaotion-Kiochanisia-overt behavior* He fails to classify any

general types of response t© frustration, but rather sees these as

variables according to the previous stages in the sequence, assuming

a large number ©f different forms*

Saul Rosenzweig, "A General outline of Frustrating1 Character andPersonality, VII (Septeiaber, 1938)} 151-16O*

2B21sw®rth Faris, •'Stms Bssults ©f Frustoation,fl S®ci®logy andSocial Hesearoh, XXXI (November, 1946), 37-92*

^S. Stansfeld Sargent, "Heaction t© Frustration - A Critique and%pothesis,M ^ycholfgieal Beview, W (larch, 1948), 208-114.

19

I@bert S, Sears carries the work sat forth in Frustration and

Iggreaaisn farther fcgf sayjbognthat instigation tm aggression is only @m

response to frustration and that the individual has three other major

ways to behave: (1) ho aay continue the satw instrumental acts toward

the saw goal«responsej (2) he may perform different instrumental acts

toward the sans goal-response; or (3) he may perform different instru

mental acts toward a different goal-response, this latter behavicr

would include regression, subltoiation, and substitute responses.

Aggression is defined in two ways in Frustration anil Aggression

according to its relation to frustrations dependently and independent

ly. The dependent definition of aggression is "that response which

follows frustration, reduces oaty the secondary, frustration-produced

instigation, and leaves the strength of the original instigation un

affected," It is independently defined as "an act whose goal-response

is injury t« ©n organism (<w ©rgani®»-0urr®gate)% It sh©«ld be ea-

phasized that by definition, an aggressive response, whether or not

expressed, has no effect on the strength of the original, frustrated

instigation; it is assumed, moreover, that the instigation t® aggression

will build up again if the original frustration persists*

In studying aggressive behavior resulting from frustration, the

ftobert fi. Sears, "Non-aggressive fleactions to Frustration,*1

Psycholo,^ical Hevlew (July, 19a), XWIII, 343-346,

John Dollard, and ethers, O£. cit., p, 11,

3lbM., p. 50.

20

ultimate problem woitld sees to be the predictien ©f when and under what

condition® agfpreasion will ©ccwr* A amber of facters Mist be taken in

to account* and it is to an attach ®n this problem that the authors of

F^tration and Aggression sake their broadest systematic contribution.

With "warnings that the data used ar® net adequate for "proof" ®r vaX«w

M&tion ©f the hypothesis ■•• th&t th®y are aereSy suggestiv® — ths at*-

th«s proeeed to derive neven p©st«latea, atat«d te as near a qumiti-

tciive fashion as possible* The problem here can best be attacked by

considering these postulates, together with their Implications for

s#ei©logieal application, Dhe data to be used in this paper are not

adequate t® confirai ©r den^ €ha valMlty ©f all the p®»tnlates# but it

is h@pe«t that the^r iaay serve to threw soine fttrtter light 'upon them. -

Before proceeding ftirthe.r,, it sew appr®priat@ t® specify swe

cloarly the definition .©£ aggression, Ihe authors' independent defi

nition, that of "an act Tafaose goal-response Is injury to an organism

(or organiaB-^«rr®gate)a will be tused* It is felt that behavior which

does have ..as its end result in^prj (in wuqr farsis* ©f course) to an

organisn or organisra^surrogate is actual^- dependent upon the existence

of frustration. Accidental actions which aaj seam to be aggressive

will be excluded from the concept* except for those which may be shown

to result from an instigation to injure. The distinction between in

direct aggression and substitute behavior* although operational]^

specified by the authors, becoroes obaeure in many farms ©f behavior*

loid., p. 9.

21

particularly in subliaations ani displaced forms ©f aggressions an

atteapt will be Made to adhere elesely t© the authors * distinction by

applying the defijaition ©f aggression as rigorously as possible with

out losing its qualities of generality.

The mwmn basie postulates presented ia Frustration^aal Aggression

may n©w be eonsMeredt at this point littl® more wiH be don® than t©

ttat© them and disetiss them v©ry bri«f3j, since the wiia discussion aai

us® of them will foll©w as. the z^-terials are presented in a late? chap

ter.

HUhe starangth ef iaatigation t® aggression variea ^irectl^ witla

th© aoDunt ©f frustration, fariatien in &» aiwiHfc ®f frusteatioH Is

a fonctioa ©f three faeteraj (1) steeagth ©f isastigatisn to the frvn*

trated respsase, (2) degree of interference with the frustrated raspna%

ani (3) the number of response sequences frttsteateiU11 Each of the

three faetors influencing the aaottflfe ©f frustration, it swat be noted,

is a co^»lex cluster of Tariable factors, and each ©f the three appears

to be interrelated witti the others^ Thuai, ia iinrestigatJi^ ary frustra

tion it will be necessary t© pr©b@ as deeply as pessibla into the ante*

cedent conditions disorder to havo some idea ef hcrtv &e quantification

of aggression is achieved.

"The inhibition of any act ©f aggression varies directly with th©

strength of the punishrasnt anticipated for the exprassi.cn of that act.

includes injury to loved objects and failure to carry out an

37.

22

Instigated act as well as Urn usual situations which produce pain,11

Thvmf the aec&ak variable ia the expression of ag|p»si©n betiavisr is

amount ©f inhibition} thuif according to the postulate, is positively

correlated with the aiiount of •puniabmtA anticipated, The ainomrt of

puniab»nt anticipated, however, ±g itself (an in the case of frustration)

dependent npmx a n-uaber of factors* It is felt thai here, too, howe-trer,

sain® degree of quantification can bo achieved#

l!Jh geiwrti. it may be aaM tiiat, with the strength of frustration

held constant, the greater the anticipation of punistasxt for a gives

act of aggression^ tha less apt that act is to occur$ aad secoad^

with anticipation of punistaeot told constant^ the greater the sti'ongth

2of tt"ie frustration, the aiore apt aggression is to occur." Xiiis, then,

ia the stated functional relationship betwaen the strengi^ of instiga

tion to aggression, amount of puiiisiiaeiit-anticipation, and iiKiotait of

frustration. The expression of aggression varies dli-eetly with the

amount of frustration, and inversely with the amount of punishment*

anticipation*

The next four of the postulates deal Tilth the direction of aggress

ion. It ia basic to the hypottiesis that frustration iaay produce insti

gation to aggression, but since the expression of this instigated ag

gression is frequently inhibited, it oust be decided in Miat substituts

manner or toward what substitute object the aggression will be

2Ibid., p. 33*

23

"The strongest instigation aroused by a frustration is to acts of

aggression directed against the agent perceived t© be the sources «f

the frustration, and progressively msalro instigations a?© aroused t©

proff?B8®±ml& less direct acts of aggression.'1 This postulate, al«

thoagh siopfy stated, point® ap the definitian ef aggressions hew

direct mat an act b© against an organism or organism-surrogate before •

it can be shown to be aggression! ffiis question is brought f©rth. even

joore specifically in the next postulates

»fiie Inhibition ef acts of direct aggression is an .additional frus

tration vhich instigates mggmssion agaiaat the agent perceived to to

responsible for this inhibition ani increases the instigation to otter

forjia of aggression* Ihero is, eonsecpsnt^, a s^cong teatlency ler in-

liibited aggreasioa to be displaced to diffwent objects and

in iaodii'ied i'onos. Socially approved modii'ioatlons are called

2tions*fl It ean bo psreelvei that this postulate ladings out the tm»

eessitj ®f applying the definition specifioal3y enough s© that, in the

case of aggression, it may be shown that there is n injury t© an organ-*

ism (or organisa^irroga-te)1* inteMei,. Tee strict an application aay

neglect certain types ef behavior which, in tfa© fuller applications ©f

the hypothesis:, are actaaUgr aggressions, tout the scope mist be limited.

in ©rd«r t© be somewhat operational and "scientific11.

Sine® self"•puniahaent is necessarily iwrolYed, aggrasaion turned

53

24

agalast the self mast overcena a certain amount of inhibition and there

fore 'toads net to occur tmless other forms of expression are even more

strongly Inhibited, If the amount of inhibition of various acts of ag-

l^#ssi©n is held relatively constant, the tendency to self-aggression is

stronger both when the iMtwMml believes himself, ratter than an ex

ternal agent, t© be responsible for the original frustration and when

direct aggression is restrained by the self ratter than by an external

agent." Clearly aggression directed against the self •sill be diffi

cult to analyze in sos» situations without notm type of depth testing

techniques$ self-aggression and self—inhibition cannot be readily ob

served as can nany sggressions toward external objects* Probably raore

progress has been made in studying s©lf-ag^*ession objectively by

laseiwwig*^ Bis concept of nintrepuiiitiveM aggression aa a mechanism

which the individual afty .use in frustrating situation* is applicable t©

this connection* Tfarenga his picture-Frustration techniquej it can ba

seen that soub iniividuala tend rather consistently to blane ihsms&Lvea

fa? frustrating situations, and it would seem logical to assune that

ihem individtta3s wouM. resort to self-aggpeision wore often than 'those

idle d© net 8© frequently react istr«paalti¥«2y# in addition, the Picture

Frustration •teeta'lQ'ue ©ffera sons promise in deterraining -what types ©f

situations ia^f call forth seK*»aggre«sion raffimr than aggression against

JfettU» >• 55.

2^, "The Picture-Association Isthod and its Application

in a Study o£ haactions to Frustration," Journal of 11 Personalitya XN

(Septeaber, 1945), 3-23,

25

external ebj«etg.

B'ae ©sspressien of any act of aggression Is a catharsis that rednea*

the instigation to all other acts of aggression. Proa this aal from the

principle ©f diapJaceaaafc it £©Hews that, with the levtsl of original

frustration lisM. constant, there shouH be an ioverse relatioaship be

tween the egression of various farms of aggression,11 Shore 3s much

evidence to support the contention Mvancad to thia postulate, bat

aany persona apparently f@3l that ifc lias ©i% Halted- --utility to the

unoontroUad ©oeial situationa. George 1 lorlan sees a conflict

the theory of catharsis and that ©f the circular, interaction @ffectt

in which eacpresgian of aggreseion, ratfa&r than relasviag tenaicai^

furttor aggr#ssioa find liat®» A possible solution to this apparent

flict a^r be found by considering the anticipation a£ punishment,

in tte f«rm of sup«*-ego oonfUcb. Possib2y «aany fonts of

Aether expnsmi, or inhibited,, are in conflict wife the individual1©

"Conscience", and can land to furtber aggression rather ttiffli catharsis*^

Hany of the ^lieationa of the. cathartic effect will be

wlier© they seeia to be of ir^ortaaee, but tb© aoepe of this paper

not all«3» a fall traataent.

A. classificatoxy aystam of agge©ssiv« behavior, M fceepiag with

aathora* definition of aggression, s@ that mm basis can be established

far app3y.iug' laore eiXieiontly and spwatisaslJy the fe»geiag pestalates

t© observed ferae @£

, ani

2George K. Morlan, "A Mote on the Frustration-Aggression ©leor-iee of

Dedlard and his Associates,® Pgrchelogical fle-viiew^ USTI (January, 1949),X8

HI

CLASSIFICATION OF MECHD AGGiSSSIONS

Hie plications ©£ fi© frus1wa$ietHBkg0NMslBn hyj@thesis la a

study of group interactions ay© raaaerous • It la a purpose of Mils

paper t® classify a nucfcer of forma of Ifegro behavior ^ich, by def

inition, seem to be aggress&ee, aoi wliich seem t© ®ectir conjunctively

with certain frustrations imposed by the caste system in a specific

area of the South, The data are not adequate to shar a definite

causal relationship, and 130 attempt will he made to shew that specific

£®em «f aggression are related t® specific frustratiiag sitaattosg.

Certain techniques will be suggested, in a later chapter, h@mmra

that might be used to prob© more deeply intt> the problem so that son

prediction might be possible.

T© date there are available only two reports of investigations

TNftich specifically utilise Itm concept of aggression in a study of

American Jfegro-ahite interactions. Isither study was designed pri

marily $m Uvm of the hypothesis, with the result that the classi

fications thtia derived are not satisfactory operationally, Bothj

hcrv;evor, have laid a pattern which can be the baste of a more system

atic study, mi have atteiopted to explain many forms of Bfegro behavior

is a lucid fashion.

27

John Bollard, In his study of Southerntown,-'" devoted several chap

ters of his book to describing Negro arai whit© aggressions, . Bis R»the&

incompletely validates bis contentions, but he did a highly valuable

■rork In identifying asny forms of group aggression. His classification

of aggressions covers a broader range of frustration responses than can

be here considered primarily because his extensive use of psycho-analy

tic life history interviews enabled him to investigate more subtl© forms,

such as dreams and sublimations.

Dollard found that many Efegroes recognisa© the caste system a& frus

trating, and he lists five broad types of response that they siake:

they cans

(1) Become ©verfely aggressive against the «h±te ©astej this theyhaw clone, though infrequently and unsuccessfully in the past*

(2) Suppress their aggression in the face of thij gaina andsupplant it with passive accommodative attitudes* This was the

slavery solution and still exists w$sr the cast© system*

(3) Turn aggression from the white east® to individuals within their own gooup. Ihis has been done to some extent and isa feature of present-day JNisgro life.

(4) Give up the coiapetition for ■«shits caste values anl acceptother forms of gratification than those secured by the whites.This the l«B@r class Negroes have done*

(5) G©spete for Mm wfixms ©f ishite s©ei«ty, raise theirposition within the Hegr® caste and manage aggression partly

by expressing dominanc© within their own group and partly by

sheer suppression of the impulse as individuals* fhis is the

solution characteristic of the Wegro mMdl® class*2

J©ha D@31ara, Caste and Cla3s in a Southern Tovm (Ifew York, 1948)*

&M., m* 252-253.

20

Bollard proceeds fp©m the fer@al picture' of aeeesffiodatieji t®

treatments ©f aggression*! aggressions within the. Ifegr®

aggressions agaiast whltesf and white aggressions against ffegr©®s.^

In Chapter XIII, Aggression Within the legr© GNmg,2 B®31ai?i Usta

the £®H«-ing »ia situ»ti®ns in toleh aggressions are teflwneed

(1) Soxual jealou^r (b®twe®a irenm as «®21 as between(2) Aggression arising from gambling,(3) H&gical practices expressing injwzy aisd death(4) itasting areS banter amnng irsen*(5) Mealiaation of personal violenc®.(6) 3ii1a?a-fai!iily aggression arising thr©ia# the neatoess ©Efamily units.

(7) Gossip*(S) MMdl© ani uppeap-elass eaqiloitation of Immr class.(9) A 8F»nti®r P^chQlagf1 ®£ lawlessness «rad laele if faithin the legal institution.

Bollard also lists nineteen types of aggression by Negroesagstost- tfee white cast© ©r against iMivMnal whites in Ghap-ter Xlf, »«egr» AggiwsaAsn Against lhite®»s(1) terder ©f *it©s ff©a a*ttsh«(2) Fightfef and tteect Ti©lei»e#(3) la.p@' of white wsraen*(4) Iraproveiaenfe of socio-economic condition.(5) Wlthdrsnal «f tpai« fr#m white feusinessfflsa,(6) High later turnover ©a plantations.(7) Leading ©ther j*s on slight prervtoatiim.(f) Witbiirinwl ef deference forms and prestige aekncnrtodge -raeats t© Aites,

(9) General lack of humble attitude.(10) Slrnmas, mkmr&mias moA lnieeisi©n ('l^wsr(11) Telling tales te nhite ^i^a«iisera.(12) Displaceaenfe of aggressioii tcwarl othir(13) Gossiping about whites.(14) Blaatag east© system £©r personal failure,(15) Attitudes ©f diatriist ttwari

Sti16

17[18

(19

Saeretiireness*Jokes with aggressive eleinants.

Dreams and phantasies*

Aggressieu against whites

267-323,

29

Dollard has accumulated a large number of significant data to il

lustrate and support his thesis, but the classification used lacks

operational clarity. Using the frustration-aggression hypothesis, it

seems quite profitable to undertake a classification that fits more

closely the postulates stated in that hypothesis.

H©rtense P#wde«aak©r, after nuking an axttbrepelogiotil study^ of

tha sa» town studied by Dsllard, produced a classificati®n2 ©f Ifegr®

affix*®ssions which differd s©n»wbatf hat net greatly, from BsHaM'©

classification* Her prlaary emphasis is up®a the slave Ifegr® aM the

seek, wunaggr®ssiv@" Ifegr© wh© was quit® common after the Civil War,

and uh® is still tm be ©feserved frequently to the South,^ fe hep

classification, Hegroes may: (X) express direct acgression against

Suites, (2) substitute a fflsgr® object fa* a *ite one, (3) retreat

into an "irary tower", (4) identify themselves v/itli whites, ant

(5) assumes the humble Munaggre©siv©B role* Hiis latter, sh& believes

involves a feeling ®f guilt arising froa. a conflict bwtween Christian

ethics of live and feelings of hostility tov/ard whites* The unagores-

e±vm Ifegr®, however, coipensates f@r his behavior by such things as

feeling spiritually superior t®whites, anticipate future reward;

phantasy, j©kes witfo aggressive eleaents, etc. fhis type is declin

ing in number because of the lesser material reward it brings, the mi

gration @f Segrees t® urban industrial areas, the decline in religions

intensity, and the like*

Ttertense Powdermaker, After Freedom (New York, 1939).

2Hortense Powdermaker, "Channeling of Negro Aggression by the

Cultural Pr®c®ssfB American Journal of Sociology (lay, 19^|.XXZXfIZZ«yp. 750-758. ; ~

30

Although the classification which she uses is of great value for illumi

nating souse of the less direct forms of aggression, it jet fails to

further the search for an hypothesis which has predictive value.

The data ufaich are available far constructing a classification

along the lines ef the formal postulates of the frustration-aggress

ion hypothesis are fewer in number and raore restricted in scope than

these eellectsd by Bollard @r f%wieraak»r# Tbsj are deemed adequate

£®r ©or purposes, hewever, and it is heped that they nay be useful Is

stimulating mere effectively operational study in the future* The

a»th@i #£ cellection was largely participant observation.

A tepic «f discussion frequently breached by the informants "Baa

race relations* fhis made possible the recording of nany verbalisa

tions ©f attitudes and ferns ©f behawtor whieh c@uM to eonpaarod wi^i

s»re ©wrtly perfo-rrasd behavior. 2a imj^t casea, jtof@«»nts recegnisseil

that they were bshavitg h@st31ely msA shewed saw understanding ef Urn

reasons for this behavior. Many, when the proper rapport was gained,

readily described their perception ef the frustrating nature «f easte

restrictions, although the ffluAer ^h® e«uld (©r w©ald) p©5nt ®ut the

compensatory nature of irruch ©f their behavior was not s® large* In

aearly every ease the indiYMual ife® admitted that he was perfcowing

an aggression was one '^ho exhibited the i»@t direct feras and vftio fee1-*

eeived the easte system as being nest odious, 'Shmm vrtio were most re

ligious, @n the ©ther hand, rarely expressed ©vert aggression towaixi

whites c? Ifegroes, and verbalized the irksome character of the caste

system less frequently.

Hie frustration that is an ever present facter in the Negr©*a

life is the caste system and its patterns of segregation, discriain-

31

ation, a-abca-diiiation, and tiie like* Since attention is this thesis is

directed toward a classification ol" aggressions, little tins will be

devoted to a discussion of th® nature of this frustration* Asstiraed

justification £er this neglect is tih@ fact that Negroes do recognise

the ays-tea as restricting ani as an interference with their pursuit

«f a full life as defined by Aneriean culture.

Ass might be expected £ro» tee importance of eeonoiirie raaterialism

in American culture, one of the moat emsn frustrations recognised by

the Ifegro is iii making a living* He is restricted to the less skilled

occupations, in gemrai^and to th® lower i»ge brackets* B» has, h«w-

ever, acquired many of the same secondary drives or motives as the whites

for material conveniences, mny of \vhich he is not able to possosa be

cause of his inferior economic position.

Education has bocaao a highly desired value to raany Ifegroes, par*

ticularly these of Hie nrMdl© class, whf perceive it as one of the

best way® t© ©veresra© ethor frustrati©iss* Educational ^3p®?tuniti»s

and facilities far the %gre you'th, however, are not deestad equal to

those for ^iit©3, a fact which is resented by many Ifegroea,

Hestrictiona on social intercourse - the etiquette of race re

lations - war® ree®gnized ^r !fegr®©s ®f all classes as frustratiug*

A3 the economic and the educational position of the ifeoro rise, he

becomes more critical of his position ma an inferior social being.

It was observed that young «s? Hegroes ware mere fRtiMcal ®f the social

position which they heM under the caste system than older ones,

fhetbex* this is due to their youth er whether thens is a trend away from

submissive acceptance cannot be said*

32

The c«nsideratien of east® fwtstration is beyeadi the seeps «f

this iawstigatitii. It sust be recojpiSsed, however^ that Hi® nature

■ of tfies* frustrations will have to be thoroughly tuatergteai he£#r@

!fagr» behavler can be explained "by the frustratioa-aggressisn hypothe

sis. f# this eni certain filings about frustration will b® augg@»tel

la a later chapter TiiSch ^y be of aM in ftrtero stusiy.

It nsist be stated again Urn t Uw classification t© be ^esentei

tor® is not preswaed to be broad enough to ixtelttdft all £«ras «f Isgr®

aggrassieay a©r is it presented as being definitive* Tim ©bs@rvatfea%

altheu^ sag^sti^^ are subject to personal bias ard error, awi ar®

net sufficient in nwaber «r braadth to test'folly the hyp®thesia»

method «£ gathering the material deviated froa the ©perational

which is 00 mcessary in social sci»ac«» It is believed^

p fiiat great ts3m« caa accrue from -using ftis naterial

that ssia© classifieatien be set tip' that is rasra amenable t©

and definitive testing of the frastrati0t>«aggreBsi«i ^pofe©si«» "M

an iff@rt to conpensate for tJie ir^eqaaoy ©f this field study ani

other previews studies^ a scotioa wiH be included in this diapter

which wiH suggest estptriaental designs aM netfaodelegy fcr further

study,

locking at the infflpmation and tesping in aind fb» fruatrati©i3»"

aggre®si©n b&§®i$M8iM'9 it appears that aggressions Bffiy be ®icee®sfm2

classified according to tv« criteriai (5.) directionof escprestdon ani

(2) Made «f ©xpressi®n# Using those criteria aggreasiona would tM»

be classified as direct ®r substitute, according t® the direction #f

33

®3Epr»,«»aia% and overt ©r ceveri, according to the nod® ef expression,

* jjjjftfft aggreoalon^ which ot be iittigf ggggt gr coyert., 4a » act

fo * ftygrg yhtoh hag as .its joajggagppnea fajmy to a iftlfrp

Boraon or B»raons« .alnca it is assuagd ths..1 whites are_ .identified mg|h

fygg.tration ty thft *S!2» A substitute aggrastdon. nhich again

^S eithw @^»rt ®r coyerta 1* jgg act ^Bres.aai.^.%- a Megr®

as it£ ggajgyoapenso tojury to an organiam otter ten a white

An actJ_tg_btt|an oyert ag^easi«na mist be accoaganjad by tito eas-

ia djjy«cted..iiriilX aweoenlag it as jiitgfl&iqg 3m$w?j. Cqyerfc

S2 MB ^ffffff M»i* jjgt be aecQapaniei fay the fxpeotati« (by

JigggP ^prg,s0in.gt it) that tjte. erganisa tgtsard #i@m It is dirootod

not rocogntoe it ag

It mist b® i»mtoi©si that sens ferns of behavior which my seem to

the obserror t© be aggressive nay in reality be unintentional aa aggress-

isn or accidental, a© eriterion mast be establislAi that th#re is s®»

font ^ ±n$iry ccnsciousljjr iatetdai before the act cats be claa-sed aa

aggwssiirt. EvMmntXj thovo will be many instances in which it is dif

ficult to iiatioguiA between intentional and «ntet@ntional acts whieli

produce injory -rtLthout Iho aid ©f special tools ©f m&mxrmmnt* Th«

pr«s«nt approach is from the social ratter than the individual stand

point, hewww, and 3at@r#8t is 3a diseovering culturally patterned

f©raa ©f behavior rather than exceptional instances.

34

Is the illustrations ara presented under the classification

posed* two tepics will eoffiaani primary attentions (1) the 5splieati®ns

®f the seven postulates, of the frustration-aggression hypottiesis for

predicting;., tb» occurrence of a particular fora of aggression in certain

sitnationsj and (2) ths influence of aicial class in determining thm

expression of aggression* It has been stated before that tfes scope «f

this inirewtigation wiH aUs* no iefinitiT© treata»nt of Ifegro

±em9 and, for the sans r«aro% it will be impossible to de-wl©p

a consideration of the above two factors* Hhe preliainary work has

iaiteated class to be probably a determining facter in ths direction

and mod© cf expression of aggpesaiots^ but a® defense of this h5>p©the»»

sia ean be imdeytakeji^ Itellard# t©t# loand th.-Lt certain forms of ag»

grtssion ape typical #£ certain classes? that fee indiWctaal learns

£©«Bg ©f i^gpo®sion *,ich are culturally apprenroi im: his class status*'*

A direct ©vert aggrearsion^ as it is used h«re# is an act expressed

by an iMtridti^L which has its goal-response injury to a white person,

od v^iich th© Itogr© expects to be recognized by the person toward vhom

it is directed as being aggressive# Aec©rding to the l^ypo^iesis^ direct

evert aggression, bacause ©f tte greater anticipation cf pmisl^nt uiiiefa

necessarily acc®^»nies! ita e^wssisn, tends t© ocfiur less frequently

than ether f«rms ©f aggrassien if the atrengtli of fruatratien is belt

constant! thia the data IMteate t» b© trt»#

Direct ©vert ag©»ssl©n nay invelv® either pl^-aieal cr verbal ao-

tiea* Mb case of direct overt aggrsasion xirwolvuiig pl^sical action

John Bollard, 0£« Ctb*» 19* 99 and 286-013.

35

observed «r reported during the period of the field stady, altteogh a

few lien boasted ©f having fought white men upon previous occasions*

These men tier* an lower el&s§« It la net known definitely whether

their boast® were t.rufch or not, but several informants found other*

wise reliable teM of infrequent cases of Negroes assaulting whites

In past years*

A milder fora ©f aggression which should be classes as direct

overt aggression involying physical action Is that of a ffegr©

ing recklessly, blowing autonobilB bom, or ©therwise pa?p®a®3y

a©yir^ * white driver, Thl* is perceived «s aggression bj both «hit»

and Hegroes,. s© that avea if it is accidental the ithite vill tisually

attribute ag^r«ss±w intent t© the ffegp©, fcny Ifegro youths of the

l©wsr class were observed expressing this behavior, aai son® of Umm

readily adM.tted to the observer;- that "they got a k3Mc out ©f soaring

white folks*11 Xhere docs not se«m to b© an unusuaUj high punishi»rf5

aatiiBipatioa far this fora of aggression, since in woat cases the

ligr© ±s either not recognized ©r aay raasve himself fraa tho scene

to escape rnmishment.

Direct ©-wrt ag^tssiai inwlving "wrbal action is soiMwhat aore

frequent, particalar3j in aiMer f©ras, iiian that Involving physical

action* %ro oaaples are presented frora field notes her®} the l±rst

becaast it wag of a rather hostile nature and yet it dM not produce

punishment and th@ second' because it seem to be growing more frequent,

nith the growth of the Dfegp© midBls class,

Mac A. (lover middle class), a cook at one of the local restaurants,reported an incident In which a white wan who was a frequent customer

at the restaurant Insulted him upon numerous occasions by shouting for

36

late t© cook hiza a st»ak In a special \noy, using the tens "nigger11 isfaen

he shouted. Mae said that h© submitted to this for a time, bat finally

he htsoam angry enougi to tell the white aaa that h% was tired of socb

treatment; and would hit hia with a piece ©f sieve wood i£ he persisted.

According t© lac, the white a&n was ss surprleed at this tawpecteihostility that he lauded the threat ©fft made as move toward retaliation, and from thai time on called lac by his first name, fhis storywas cheeked ana found t© be correct «seept far a alight exaggerateon the threat.

Jaek B, (tipper raMile class), ©psratir of a Ifegr© beer tavern and aveteran ®f l©rM War II, was unusually successful at getting alongwith white salesmen without losing his feeling of self-respect* toone occasion, a new salesaaa aetei rather hau§itily to Jack ami usedthe terms wbt3yw ami Hn3.gger» several tiaes in a,Mmss* Jack told hMeaMly that he wouH refuse t# tf^ anything former from the salesmanunless the latter were more polite. B» salesman became cngzy at thisejqsresaien ®£ "uppitlness11 bat left befere mare serious trouble©pad. Th-9 next week -when ha a-me Ms behavior was Each moreand it was learned subsequently that h®9 up®» reporting the Ino&aent© the sales manager ©f faia coiapany,. had been warned t® eoa|% withJack's request ©r be dismissed from his job, since Jack was @ae ©£the cos$>aHQrfs best customers.

Direct ©-TCPt aggression involving wrbal action can to expressed

in ailder forass which do not iiwolse as high a degree af punlsh&ianto

antlcipation to the Negro express;Lng it nor as aaich injury to the white

toward whom it is directed. An exaa^ple of this sort rioted frequently

waa the refusal of legrees t© extend the customary deforences to whites*

Expression of aggreasion in this fona may range from open Insult t© al

most unnoticaable withdrawal of deference. The Ife^o aay cast hostile

looks toi«rd whites, h© m^ onit w-.irw ©r "laa'aa11 in address, ho aay

assuae a general air ©f arrogance in contact with whites, h» my in

fuse to speak to certain white acquaintances upon seating them ©n the

streets, and the like. 2h cas«s of this nature, faewsver, the lagr© knows

that some type ©f punishment say possibly result, sines he is angering

whites by deviation from the customary patterns of interaction.

A direst cevert aggression, as it is used here, is an act expressed

by a Kegr© which has aa its goal-response injury to a white person er

3?

ear pws©n% but which the Ifegr® <t©«s not expect will fee

the parson toward wtos It is directed as being &ggr#ssiva* Direct co

vert ag^»sslo% becattst «£ the lew anticipate©!! ©f pnnisfaQBnt isrolwd,

sheali occur rather froqtaatlyp according t© th» feypdttBsig* Sine© a

relatively Isrg© number of instances of this type of behavior were efe»

»wed? the hypothesis seems to held trps*

A frequently observed example ©f direct covert aggression is that

ef pwtst^esl Sgnsranee by lfegr©as (tisaally lener class) wh«a they are

ask«A q»est3.©ns by tifeites. lhe ©bssrvar was the object ©f this f©rm

©f agg4"ession np&n ?©ver«l ©cessions at tte beginning of this liwcs-

ti^tien, vrhenf upe& atking anettter iegr© wh®r® aoiotber 3Ared# l» w©aM

b® told by itoe qaestionetf Isgr© tfeat the latter bM twmr heard ©f tt»

ether* Subsequently it was learned that in magy cas®s *S» twe Ifegrow

we» «©ig|ib©rs arf fead knmm each otter for years* Mai^r infoiwsat® r

readily admitted that they pretended ign©ran©e t© qmestiw® a^ted by

strangers^ because they dM not feel they eeulfl trust strangers*

An©tl»r f©r» of direct covert aggression is lastoes® and general

©hiftlessness while vrertclog* this teg been s© cdwen that it has

grewn t© be a stereotyped featore ©f the S#-a%ern "home class iegr%

in 1he idxids of whites* Several legroes admitted that thsy deliberately

perf©n»d slowJy on west j©bn,. giving various reasona for sach behavlsr*

Most said that they Mgave Sa iriiite b©ss what he gav« them"* alace

whites usually paM Negroes less and bulis-rod most e£ •&©n to be

ally lazy, the legr© woricer seed not p@rf®ra any better Oh&n he was

peetsd to. This tohavl®1 has become firaly ingpatosd int© the life-

ways of sobs l»wer elas® Megem& s© that ©wn #i@a working

^'Oj** Inn of **»

^ ef *htei t^

•'*** *h

of

in <i-'

of

re

of

1*» ceerantty sfct

do**- were etridentf fwsw c-^re*; of frfs -i;q» e? VJs

rNGt V- .:?:*wn, Ibi an "cS tf* tM* "tart, ^lv^ fchwn &?

ho k» awptMM* rar rf* Mfe*

rt;^ snci €« 1?J»» It

i ft* ?

til

raw

^ 3jpk

Sa

1*. tif**t wrt

*int to e

f cnjT^n la

ttakt

*f? hmm

was »o

had

<£ 4J» eaaamiif becotwt of Ills toenwxfc

ta a

39

Elements of religious behavior mould seem to be direct covert

aggression, particularly those dealing with contrasts between the fu

ture life said this one. Middle class Jfegroea, who were found (by the

family schedule) to have the highest rate of church attendance, ware

heard many times in and out of church to coiranent upon the rewards that

would be regarded as equal to or even superior to whites* A more thor

ough investigation of religious behavior In connection with casts frus

tration would probably reveal that much of it could be classed as sub

stitute behavior, but these elements which express wishes to see the

relative positions of the white and. Negro in a future life reversed

seem logically to be direct covert aggressions. Many informants, al

most all regular churchgoers of middle class status, told the inves

tigator that they did net like to be treated harshly by whites, but

that they did not resent it greatly because they knew they (the Ifegroes)

would be rewarded in heaven.

Another form of direct covert aggression is Joking about whites*

This is a quite common form among lower class Negroes. Hie investiga

tor heard only occasional jokes which had elements of hostility to

ward whites, but it was reported that these jokes were toM with fre

quency aid enjoyment in several of the coumtnity beer halls by lower

class Negroes. One rather aansing instance of this form of aggression

noted by the investigate© was that of an emaciated white mongrel which

had been naraei "white boy" by its ©wners.

So far the r»re »c©nstructiveH £mm ©f behavior (except £®r re

ligious behavior with elements ®f aggression) which may be classed as

dlJpect aggression have been neglected. Since the autfaurs ®£ Frustra

tion and A&gresai&n m& the term "subldtaatian11 t@ refer t@ socially

4©

approved farms of aggression which are displaced to objects other than

those perceived as frustrations,"^ there oust bo posited a distinetiea

between sublimations (-which in this classification will fall under sub

stitute cov«rt aggression) and socially approved forms of direct ewert

aggression. There were several types of behavior carrying gsneral

social approval which were fauni in itie study to have injury to whites

as at least a partial goal-response.

Several middle and upper classslaformants who were wsrldng to

keep children in boarding schools, trade schools, and colleges confi

ded to the investigator that they would n8hm the white folks that ife-

groes couMn*t be kept dawn peraanently" or that "to help your kids get

along in iiie white man'a world you have to help them get a good educa -

tion so they can take care of themselves." Clearly the instigation t6

this type of behavior has as its goal-response injury to whites and tt

the caste system which they represent.

A few middle class Negro skilled laborers in industry admitted to

the tovestigatto that they liked t© work as skillfully as possible be

cause, among other reasons, they knew they were proving their abilities

to tiie superior to those of many white skilled laborers. They felt

that in this manner they could "get back at" whites t© some extent.

Several upper middle class persons who owned prized land, for

which they had little use, refused to sell it ot white buyers simply

John Bollard, and other©, Frustration ami Aggression (Ismf Haven:

1939), p. 53.

a

because thej did n®t want te give -whites the satisfaction •£ wining the

land. Tliere viere, of c«a*se, otlior reasons iw most cases, but the e&§-

sents of hostility te whites ^mittedly had some tearing on the behav

ior.

Direct covert aggressions £#» a eentisaum «f intensity nfcieh stales

®£f int*> teliaviir €Kat is «R±r*a09gr difficult t© define as aggr»ssiv»«

%fr«ae!iirsg maw thes® une«rtain f»nm «f beh«9lar aj^ various ptab-

tasiss and dreans which have aggressiw ®l®B6nts, Slac# no intemticm

was ©btaiMd ©n ■^»s# f&rsm «f tehaviw in the stotoijt it wiH b© only

saggesttt here ttiat thej aesm t» b© fmrms «f direct covert aggi«ssi@a

a® tht tera is h«r© uaet, fhe 3nju^jr which is int@M@i in phantasy,

although it does net actually injure th® jmrsan tewaxd vhem it is ii-

rect«i» has soae aubatanct t© the persen expressing th® 'behavior.

The sxample of direct affgrsssion is not premised to have been ex

hausted here* Only some of the s»re common have been used for illus

trative purposes. An adequate field investigation would ba aide to de

scribe Egressions far sere extensively*

Aggreasiw* act» ■which are net directed teward the ©bject p®re«t«I

te be frastratiB© are substitute forma of aggression* In general, they

ate directei "toward ©ther Negrees^ particularly sine© tbere are frus-

trations from within the Negro group which arouse instigation 9 to aggres

sions and supplement these aroused by- the caste system. Other Negroes,

being perceived as the causes for some of -tie frustrations ■which any

Negro experiences, nay thus also bo the objects of some of the inhibi

ted aggrossions vfhich wouM otherwise be directed toward whites*

42

John Bollard suggests that in any group there are innumerable frustra

tions iriposed upon the individual |y the irs-(<vroup .la the normal process

•f socialization, The aggressions which are instigated from these fru

strations are in aany cases channeled tar/ard an oxt■fa-group, tot It is

evident that the cast© system inhibits soae of the aggressions 30 cliari-

n§l@d, particular% these which are direct evert* Thus it w®«M seem

possible, in the light «fi the frustratiai-aggressien h|p©®©ais# that

welt aggre©si®n would tend t» b© ®xpr#»sed toward »ab®rs ©f th© Negro

Substitute Aggresale^ sSMlarljf t© direct aggrossien^ can b©

either evert «? c®vert acctrding te th« aed« rf ®xpr®asi©n# Several

types ®f substitate ©vert acgreasien involving physical acti« were

observed dttritig the field study, test of these involved between Ici*-

®r clasa yeutais #f ab©u.t twenty ye^ars of age. It was alat© re^rtei

that there had been fights among dd\ilt lower class nn upon previous

occasions, but none of these fights occurred during the investigation.

Although little fighting among adults was observed during the collect

ion of the data used in this investigation, it would seem logical Uvt

this should te an important form of substitute aggression. It is be

lieved feat stady ©f the commity ever a l@nger p@ri«d ©f tin®, e©M«

junctive witli checking police reports, tronld confirm this conclusion.

.Substitute overt aggression say alsc take verbal form, The ij>-

John Dollard, "Hostility and fear in social life.13 Social Forces3

TO (October, 1^8), 15-25. .

43

fvaxA •werj littl® if this in his personal observations* bat

it was stated that it did occur in the bear aid fence halls occasional^

in the f©rm ef cursing, insult, an& q,t»rreling# Bmvj ease ®f this re—

ported was fora! to have occurred among lener class pars#» of both

The materials upon which this elasssifieation is basei are

inadequate f®r the illustration ef substitute evsrt aggression*- This

de«s 'i»t mcesaarHy iaplgr, hirwror, feat this f«na «f aggression is

rtlatiroly uni^©rt^it» D®Hard evUscted a largs «aaimt ©f infers**

ti®n ©n it in his stttij «C S®athtrnt€wnt and the Investigator has

fwaasel the subjective iapr®ssi©n that in ®the3? Ifegr© c#Bsuniti@8 it ie

a frequent fora among lawer class Negroes* A discussion wiH be uoier-

taken in the last chapter ef this thesis nfeieh sh«iM cSjodfy the sub

ject scKiewhat *

Substitute eo-rort a^ressions wem ©bservici frequently ia th®

stu^y# k substitute c«v«rt aggressii>nis hare defined as an act wfaieh

hat aa its goal-response injury to an organism other than a -white person

isfaieh is not @xp®et®i by th© pers®n expressing it t» be recognised by

the person toward wham it is direetei as Snteniiag injwy#

■G®ssip is a usual fera ©f substitmte e©-rort aggression. Ttm ia-

Testigatera after he hat established go®d rappert •wi'Si his iafw^aantSi,

heari aany gossipy tales about vari©us Jfegroes in the c©aamit^# H»

th@u#i there were s©rm indiviteals wh® w»r« greater gsssipers teaa ©-Swc®,

the najeritsr #f persons with iwh«a the investigate® caaa into contact

<Jbhn Dollard, op. cit.t pp. 267-285.

44

e©uld be relifld up©n fer ©eeaeiortal g#ssip#

WiHiaa F, (lamer middle class), «wn©r of a snail grocery stem, wasknown as the worst gossiper of the comnuiiity. He gossiped about both

white® (direct cevert aggression) and I®gr©es (.substitute eerort ag

gression)* Even a stranger could enter his store, strike up a con

versation, ani s©©n hear tales of "dirt* about various Negroes to

the community, Mr. P. showed almost no evert aggression, but few

persons* white ©r Negro, were safe fmm. his tongue*

A. general fora ef substitute cewrt aggressi#n ithieh nas ©bserrod

particularly a»@ng middle class Ifegroes wag the emphasis placed upon

class status by th@a« ©f the ndddle and ppp®r classes. MMUJb eliss

*gr®es, Sn eon^»rsation wife whites, frequently a&® der©^tory re-

narks about lever class !fegr©«s« 3a discussions ©f rae® relation8t f«r

toatame, wwy midlla ctess Isgrees ware quick t© blao® Immv claas De

grees far the ©ppresstons ©f Urn cast® system aal w©uM ^ten specify

certain individuals In the e®Bjmunity wh®m ^iey consMered ©ffeMers*

lace relations and general living coniitiena in ilie area were suoh ih&t

tlm aMdle class Ifegr© ceuld lead a relatively confartabls life if he

exerted hinsalf sufficiently. "Bet showed sam tendemy, therefore, to

substitute l«w@r class Kegr©@s for whites as the objects perceived to

be respensibl© f©r frustratfcn, ani wouM seM©» admit that the diffi

culties he experienced "were due selsly t® whites. The caste systea

was recognized as frustratingt t® b« sure, but up#n lewsr class Segr«es

. wai frequently placed seae ef #» blaas f«r its contimed existease ani

its unpleasantness,

fery siailar t© this arm the cases ef some few fegroes of feottt law-

«r ani middle classes v/ho identify themseltes with particular whites to

to secure benefits at the expense ef members of their ©wn race, lhare

are, ©f course, peeple ©f this type t© be found in any group, but among

45

fegrees it represents a %pe ef aggression to substitute for that which

cannot be expressed ttwarf the primary source of frustration, Tk<sm were

several Ifegrews ©bsenwl in the study who had alssest aaswmi a marginal.

p©siti«a by their? ingratiati®rai t® influential whites in the c

They mre toewa as pallet, Merchants, and the lite aa Ifegeoes

b# relied upen t© p>ovMe in£•naation atoat o&er &gi?©«s whteh c«iM

n@t be p?»cyr©d ©therwis«« One i»% #i® Mentifiad hiaseM with hia

whit® friends consiat®at3y, was amE^smsay warned with threatening

n@t8s by ©thar tfegrae® in th« c«uminity that it was ka«m that h® was

acting as an inferaer and that he wouM b® punished if be 4M aet c@as«*

The autl»ra ®f Frustration ant^lggregaipia i^s® th® t©ra subUaati«n

t© refer t® @«ijO.3^r app»vei auditieatio»s ©f aggression which are

reetel tewwi substitute ®bj«ets aui expressed in mtiified ferns*1 Ao»

cerilng t® this ums®$ it w»uld probably be piac«d trader substitute c#-

vart aggression in 1to§ preaant olasslfication. A mxblteation my ©ac-

psress b#th direct ani gubstitute aggression, in b»th wrert aM c®v@rt

fora, in the same act. Usually, a sublimation is; sutostitats ce^ert,

but it is iipossa&Le t© separate the direct and &mrt e3ewtnts fr©«

tfa# nMmra* Consider, f®r exaaple, a coaraunity i^pxwwmnt «r^nisati@®

which had be#n f#ra»d in ths eeammity studi«i» fhe purpase© @f this

©rgan3aati#n «» t« i#v«l»p tht eiric life, th« recreational facilities,

axA &e beauty ef th@ cewsanity wliieh it served, Ihreu^i these purposes,

John Bollard, ahd others, #!,« cit,, p, 53*

46

it is eoneeiTObl© that a aodifiei form of aggression might be expressed

toward whites because ©f the general function of iapreiminftnt in the face-

of the caste system, Tim organisation had als© * s©c3al functions it

■was eoaipiseel ©f entirely middle elass Jfegw asn who regarded arotin^

as a fora ®f social ©ajoymnt. Lower class sen,, although net excluded,

were not weloojasd to participate in the social part of the organisation.

leeatise ©f this function, a wiifiad form of ag^essim rai^xt b© expmm-

ad toward Iswer elasa Iagre®s# Ba addition to these two forms of aggres

sions, the real sablimtion natur© of Uie ©rgajization was ag a release

of tension ca«se<i by irfiibited ag^ession through sseislly apprOT©cl#

!8®dified ferns toward substitute ©bjects.

The inadequacy ©f the present data metes it iapessibSe t® consider

8ublla»tions to any apprsciabla extent. They weuld nest properly bo

placed tinder substitute e©v»rt aggresaion, heweirer, with U» rtsdf^^-

tion that they are c©apl«x and do include other forms of aggression,

fc^ ©f the socially approved feras af eo^tition • ec«a©aic,

recreational, educational, etc, «> aay be arablioationa traceable in

final analysis to frustration. Seiraral such exaapleg of this type of

behavior h&vm teen included under direct covert aggression in this class

ification because of the evMent hostility toward whites involved*

Even these, however, had alesents of aublSsation as the term is used

tor®. 0n» of the n©st fruitful fi©Ma for future investigation of ag-

gressioa is the subliaatien of inhibited aggression*

The illustrations of forms ©I aggression used in this elaasifif

cation sm at best sparse. It must again be stated that the types of

47

aggression used t® illustrate each ferm are primarily for purposes of

illustration arid clarification father than an inventory of Ifegro ag

gressions. References have been made several tisaes to Bollard'3 study

of Negre aggyessionsj his Is probably the most complete imrestigation

yet made. The classification advanced in this thesis, however, is in

tended to be a more nearly operational means of studying hetoavior, and

particularly Negro behavior, to test the frustration-argression hypo

thesis. It is hoped that this effort will provide a ground work for

fruitful study. The concluding chapter will be devoted priaarily to

summarisation ant to recommendations for using the classification in

connection with the frustration-aggression hypothesis in future study.

ci&pter iv

a msiqm for fotuue stubt

A classification of Negro aggressions into f©m* categories -

direct overt, direct covert, substitute overt, and substitute covert -

las been posited in the preceding chapter. . & the presentation of 12*

lustrative acts of aggression in each category, occasional reference

was made to the influence of social class, to the nfit" of postulates

of the frustration-aggresaiMi hypothecs, and the nature of the frus

trations freswfci to cause certain forwr of aggression* "

It hat been indicated that individuals tend, to express certain

forms of aggression that seen cones to the social class to which the

individual belongs. Is there justification for assessing that social

class Is a determining factor in the expression of aggression? It

was observed in the study that there were general types of aggression

that seemd characteristic of each social class, bat no attempt can

be made at present to state that this is lame* To le rn what the re*

lation ia between the expression of aggression and class membership,

the first stop would be an analysis of class structure* Statistical

correlations must be fount between selected indices before a class

can structure can be assumed t® exist*

F* Stuart Chapin, one of the leaders in the field of soeiojnetry,

has constructed and standardized a scale to measure sociorneeonosie

status. Hi gives an excellent discussion of the use ©f this seal© and

©thers in his Sngegiaental tteaign..in Sociological Research.*** Staisitrd-*

Ized scales have great value in sociological investigation because of

their operational qualities*

a© OTiiene® etf clas® atratification used in this paper was basei

on a non-standardized rsieasurenant. For the specific area studied,

however, the in&iees usei. were pertinent and did furnish a rough neans

of class analysis. Sines no statistical calculations have as jet bom

laatfe to detect correlation ®f ia#ie®% it is iapossibla to attribute

more than suggestive weight to the indicated class influences ®n expres

sion of ag^ession. T© investigate properly the iaflaftnce e£ elags,

th« group studied mist first be sfamm t® be iivMei inte classes (e.

t'.pper, niicidl©, and lov/ea?) by an analysis based on statistically reliable

correlations between selected indices. For oonparison of one group with

another, standardised measurements of class sinictare mat be used#

As a laore specific illustration of the mad for operational investi

gation of aggression, a sample design will be set up here which will pre

sent a method for class analysis, investigation of association between

class and form of aggression, and possibilities f<r testing the frastra-

tion-acr^«asion hypotheslj3# fhia design will follow tfie overall design

provided in this chapter calling fort (1) analysing class structure,

(2) determining the relation between these too, and (4) testing the frus

tration-aggression hypothesis with the findings. The sample situation

will be comparable to the one in -which the observations used as a basis

for this paper were mades

rm Stuart Chapin, Experimental Designs in Sociological Research

(Heir York, 1947) pp. 152-156.

first st©p is the analysis of class' atraeture in the eoammitj*

1fi« total population sast be known so that a sigrsfificasfe gaspl© eau toe

aeasureaU Certain traits nuat be s&lac-bod which ar© valid as indices

of class* fte best aetfeed for tills selection ia to question 3 iwber

(a sfcitiatically reliable aariple at random, ..'or coavoa:l©nce) ©f indi-

viduals in t!ie cornsiuaitiy for tlieii1 rating of persons to the Goajiiunity

^r social level* Doing -fcliis, pex'aoag rated, at the top, at fch© aiddle,

and at the bottom should be investigated, t© deterainov^iat -b^aita tiioy

possess (or do not possess) which are associated mth -Hieir contDBiniliy

rating* Siss© trai-ts which are found to ba statistically -valid can

tten bs «aed Icr claas analysis* la tiie prea©nt study, trait© trfiich

significiiat v/ere family iiicoae, church attendance, aduoatioaal

of hsad of fataily, mater In fajai3y, ni^er- of persons p©r rooa,

bens wmership, age of faarily head, ao^wdhip is civic organisatioas,

and the- possession ol several naterisl ecnveixlences, such as ©lecfede

refrigerator, alsotrie stove, «ti the liic@# ilieae traits aaemed to

sum s -bri-modcl distribation# Statistical calculation3 must las made

to deterKline if each trait is valM for IMicationg social class* It

should be noted titat these traita differ ?/ith culture, nalclng the use

of a staiitiardiaed seals difficult or impossible far w> in cospaidfig

ii-wr^at greaps*

It is agsrased tliat the cornraunity has teen I'ouM to bo stratified

into tint® classes - upper, saddle, a; & Ism** The nruijer of people

51

in each of the classes vast be'' known or calculated from the ©amplej it

la iaprotant to toow the relative sis® of each class, Si® nesrb step is

the ebservation of the P*oup t# record acts ef sggreasioft, la s&ufylxg

as'entire e«sunit$"f. controlled observation* as in the laboratory; is

iapraetieaKis* For this reason* it is telieTOd #iat direct fleM.

servation is to® most satisfactory aofhod that is ppe&ently

the ©tossrv^p should" be »uffifii«mt3gr acquainted 'Wilii eipressions

gp«ssion to r®c©r»i #*?«7 act tMfilt stows aay indication of teing ag-

gressime, together with as. nearly a ceop&ete rtcori ©f tte sitsatisa ia

wliieh the act ©oeurred as possible, Eaoh set should be Mentii';k5d with

the iMivMual who expfessea it s® tb»t it' can l»t®a? be taSlted against

the iadivlAuAl1* elass# Hie ebserver' @b@«M attenpt t© aoqu«int hSa-

self with as ifaiy persons in the comimmity as posaibl©j ami ahoaM ob

serve them iii asi mai^1 different situations as posaibi^* Only tlu'ougla

l©:ng aai car«fttl observation ca» he fecorf a useful au^«p &£ aotcr of

is attest can be ekkIg o.f the. ausbar of acts reeded to be useful

for testing the hypethesiff* K»er« is ae w^1 to €tete2*ais© the t@tal

aots TShiefa actwtHy oceux1 »« that a aigniflcattfi aa^le caa be faaswa

and obtained. It raist be aamo»4y tliereforG, tliat tbs investigator' is

©bs®r?±tig the aetivittot ©£ ihe c@aa»nitgr feUy eaotigh so that 1&e aots

which he recortls aftor a loaig period of observation are signaXicax.it*

Ke oust basa his conclusions on the rroj^er ox aots which te records,

F* pwposei ef stoplieity, th# reo'Qtrded acts nay be elass5fled toy

the fourfold classification set tip la this paper. Each act, m atated

52

before, raost have been identii'tei with the iiidi^Mual expresstoe it, ant

Hie olai® to nhieh this toiiirMttal belongs mast have b@«n <iet©s?iii&®#. A

seattergram should be set up witfe the three social classes on mm axis

ftat the fora forms of aggression ©n the other* Each of the recorded aets

feaai, % usteg the definition of aggression, ani by analysing-the situa**-

ties fa which each act mammd^ to be aggresslxm steals ^en be

©a the seattergraui. Rife Is d©a® by placing a marfe,.. for each aott ©n tbe

f&m ©f aggpessiois r«w tmier the appropriate seciai class eo2a»m (whieb

the iniividQiBl eaqpressing it is f©wiril t© be a asffibw ©f)^

1© attesipt wUl be awte t© suggest the actual statistical preeedur*

jte^olirei ±b s»nipilatiHg the acatt@i»graffi aai dpa^jig eoaeitisiajs from

it« Stos« it is ianlife®1y tliat the^ tip®© social <o]»ssm are

the momb&p oi «wsts of aggression .mast be "wtighed for each class* la

seefciqg a ooserelation betwien social ©lass aai fora ©£ aggressio% a

ailtipl© cap em^PJj»ar coxreXation teclmiqiae woiaM hm® to be iitH

tesusd^;. "feat tta» i« a pesitiT® aas@cisti©-ii ©f soieal class

the expression of cer-tein f&ma ©f 'aggression^ a waster of

eaa b® readily »e©»# W^* should a pwgoa. of the lowsr clas% for In

stance, ©xpr^ts nor© evert- aggression ttiaB a person of the mMd» elasst

peraons la the ai^le class eiworiaristieaUy express noa?e

aggp®#sioa? Itaoimtion of the infoPEatiai availsbl® from H&»

iarostigator's stvAy points t© the fact "Siat vali^a for each class aa?#

dltferentj becaase «C &3a,# pisdsliiwnfe f» aggre-ssiwa a^y harc a 4Sf-

fereat ^saniag f<r a person €# ooe das« than far one of an©^»r#

l^mm elass Ife©?c»%' it it tfae torts-tigater's S^r®ssimr fear

lass thaa ffliMle class Negroes* Should it be sham that -this is

53

It woaM aem. te indicate that Urn Iflsgr© Immr e3a,©s paces gone

linen playsieal violence and the boliavior 0OM»n%- associated wife i%

while f&hma «f education* Idfltef standard of Hiring, religion* and th$

13Js» are aat sufficient to counteract: the raltse® of violence*

A-hypothetical conclusion J»y be dr^m from the scatfergr» tfeat

will seaw® to illustrate th« SapHcationa of a slgnificai* positii»

correlatiois betneea aocial olaas aM foanu of aggras-slaii Suppose it

is 'found th&t^ ef the four fora®, of aggpe®sio%: direct evsrt &gg&Bsi&&

is «pi«SBe# b^r th« lewer elasa ft3^ ©f -fee time* % taws sMdla class Z0

e£ the tii»# and not at all %■ the upper c2aaa« This tliotiM indicate

that either the lower class is frustrated ia greater amount that the

other ^o cl&amBt that it fsars the puaiabs»nb iliicli it eajsects to r@-

eeive leas tbsn the o"tt»r clasae®, or Uiat diwct crort aggressfca is

an acqmi?©d waj ©f life for the lose? etass# Hiis wotiM give a basis

feu? further study to stetensise fee relative ralldity of these three

elusioaa* foey poaeihly each €^£ the taa?e« has ecsats •?aliii%'»

this be £ow&.g it weald la n® sense aegate the

f^petft#siig# but ahoold feafead serve to elarafy ftff12ia> the way t&at

frustratioa iapaets oa the- indivMaal throu^Ei hit cla0% tbe valats

of ea* c3a®s wfifeh effect the. anticipatioa of different

©f pEmlshiaenty and the values mihlch' affect *&» fonus of ©

% each claps*

Sach an illustration is not presented as an hypothesis?, it it

for the pwpose of si^^gtfeg t^at sort of pro&laa troaM be

pliei, Isy a p^sitiro assoolatJoa between claas ®ai exppesslsii ©f aggr©#»

aimn* TOm ideals of each class would h«e to bo detenalnad so that

there would be a basis far examining the amount of anticipation of

punishnsift and the strength of frustration* 4 person "who had little

fear of punlshneiifc nouM be Iite3y t© express isore ©"ra?i aggression

than ew wh© feaxwd panlshseat gr®at3y, and ■ a person wh© felt caste

frustrati©n (as n®H as ©titer frustrations) nost s1a?ongly would ttni

to ®s|ress m©» d-Jrect aggre»sii©jaa other factops rwaalaiog constant.

This leais logically to a diecuflslon ef the us© c£ the se^en

pcNBtnlates of the fn^-tratiea-^ggyefsioa hsrpothesis f epp pr«siietij|g

the farm ©£ aggression* It is believed that socML class iaSlwmm

are iaextricab^ related to the fell ua» of these pestulatos'* M

asi^g tl» hypothisilsjr tbe ssciel^ist «r tht seeial pych©l©gist asist

f5ai. hsw -tt» p?©up iaaueace® tihe egression of aggression; tM% it

see;w, will probably be found te act through class.# 5he task is

iwiiatelj sSaaplifieif because gewraliaatiofis say b® Mie if fee

structure has b@ea <ietermin»i»

As a further step in this saaple deaig'% snother iagpottetieal

elusion magr ba feara f©r illustration of tto «» <^ lie des%a ia test*

ing the ft"astratfeii-ag^eaeion hypothesis* Suppe3e# for exa^l% that

it wsf® £g&M that <tf %e total acts of aggression a»c©rf©it iireet e&-

•wer% m&mv&d &Q$ @f the total,, sabstitute owert ©cellared 2Q$ ©f tbe

total, substitute &vev 33J{# ani iiwet evert 7#* Shis wouM

support the seeeni p©st«2ati of the hypothesis* that expression csf

gressJdn varies liwr«rs®3^ with the anticipation ef punishrasnt* Siaee,

of the total aeta recorded, e©wrt aggression (iamiwixig little &c a®

55

anticipation ©f punishment) was expressed 30% of the tjbae, and overt ag

gression (involving anticipation of punishment) was expressed ©a3^ 20^

of the tiffl©, tie postulate would @#ea1#M* & addifeion, the postulate

would seem to be supported by the fact that substitute overt aggression,

•which involves lesser punishinant-anticipation than direct overt, wag ex

pressed mere often than the latter. It would have to beassused, however,

that castefruatration ma of at least equal amount to in-group frustration

la order that this last conclusion be valid.

The evidence would also seem to support the fourth postulate, which

holds that Hie strongest iasti^atioii arousad bgr a frustratja® la %& acts

of aggression directed against the agent perceived t@ be the source of

the frustration, if it ia assumed that caste frustration is responsible

far the recorded aggreslon. This agsumption cannot be nade legitimately,

of course, until the relative strengths of Hie three sources of frujstratlon

03B.be measured to determine if caste frustration $j$ the atronges1!;* Pre

sent information suggests that this is true, but it should not be

u^iil reliable study demonstrates it to bo true.

Without listing Hit postulates again, certain brief suggestions on

the use or plications of each can now b® made. CoKsasnts have teen

ter^eeted occasionaHj in the body of the thesis, and these will be susa-

mariaed aal ait5>lified here.

The first postulate states that the strength of instigation to ag

gression varies direct^ wife th@ amount of frustration. For iiweati-

1John Dollard, and others, Frustration and A^yeesfeg (Mm Haven, Con

necticut, 1939), p. 37.

56

gating aggression, then, thav® must be tome mean of detecting th®

titgr ©f fimatyattea vhieh ti» ix^ridual «j}@^i®a©e8* §n -fee i»§5# of

the existence of t»th bssic and acquired chives, one could safely mm

that there are both basic and acquii'ed ins-fcigations to responses which

euro be frustrated* 3b» strengths of isustSgatiao t© fie g®a3s-respaases

to the ease of baste drives, - ginee Hiese drives are inherited, are

2^r tJs© ®ane« Th© degree of interference with -files, however, is certaia-

3$r irifluenced in sonie mmmr % culture, class, and group. Rius, It seems

safe to my that fca? baaie di'i-ves tvvo things hold truoi (1) th© str@r(gth

of instigation to this frustrated response is roughly tte smm for the

majc^ity of individuals in oach culture, arid (2) the amount of frustration

(or mm- degye® ©£ 'ix&wiv&tm* witt tfes fSfHsteatei yeapoas©) is

cultural values, etc, - and say be different fop each social claea In m

class-stratified t©ei@%«

Acquired drives are dependent upon cmltee* Tho SMivMual acqait'ss

ttieM because they are provided bj the cultureas iMi of striving toward

cultural values* L@gica2Jj, itont tfei stretsgtit ®f inst%ati©a to &©

frustrated reaponse in its© case of an acquired drive is dependeirfe xipon

soeial iiaflu»nc@s« Is in basic irirosj, again, soeial iaflwenees

the degree of interference with the frustrated response^

Ht© first postulate of the frusti'ation-aggfossion hjpoUiesis

th© muter of response saquances frustrated to be % £aetar in determning

#, fp. 55-90.

5?

tl» asoraft of frustration*, Tb,# authors Sadkat© tlmi this may fe© dto

to fiae cwnLiti'TO effeet of fesMoid. Swt^^tiotis to agp»inglg« from

©* sliKitawous firotratfciia, ^vnlltfbXo data aw vwsy 3» •

lap einaitarfng «iisf -ctcr^ bat It stoaM be aotod •Br-t it

lawestlgatei isi eon»ctic-a «l#i awii ott»r faetoi fits

of testlgctfca to tlMt Irus^ated »^»n»| «2©^ee of

of wtetltote

ett, Fcr socjbc^oefcal «tet th» iiater ©f frustrated

eas 1m topsstfe&tad t^uwi^iiAo broaa©i» social sdttsaiisn tl» asst^ of

an Jufiiiddiisa, «q«ri»ac«s «re related to ix&htoxxa&s c€

# ocoipsMoa,- *ia oolifflp, p|a« c# wsMoks©, Md tb»

a, of cawwij, a r«f«rfil to tt» <ii»uw3i» rf €w irf2a««e of

elasitt 3f soelA c3aw Js ccawelatsa with ^& «^e»w3ftB et

fi tl»m p»l»W%f* It «oaiM have ac»» rslatioa to tl» ocooxt«no«

aai ^psetome «f fruatratiuBb Ifat otcoiaa: poBfedUvte/^ positSi^ a

rect wlatic© betewa asttelpatisa o£ pmitimiaA and jbtiaitiaa of

tos baea r©f«e»a t© «ca©iai«sllgr in -feia p^we-. la

tti# si^^sti« adwKwt h&min -that social «^aa® My Iw *

faster in tft» e^r«»«ao« <rf «egr©aslm# Sit

7y

5~38t»

^JWbB XMUmrAj «nft tftfaMM fikftil pp.

58

Class wl^es. are eeneeiim&Ly of great 3sipia?tais» for «teiers&nlng Itenr

punishaest .is autteipatei and tria*th«r anticipated f€OT8§ ©f ganiatasiife

ar« feared or scorned*

U» third postulate* which .states that -Qm egression of aggnwsioa

varies direetfy wit& awant c£ fratfecatien aid infi»sely

tion <a£ pmtxUftaas»t# has b»e® discassadtorj^3y# sakiag it

it h@r®« Suggtatlasa lwvo b«®n wie f©r stetyfeg the asromt

«k! th® aatidpaticm cf panirfte»iiife in the pre©e#3ng

ftmcttcra @f %© ^htoi p0S'%Q»to la to express to* rel&tioa-

b®tw@ea tS»» tw© factors .4a Use egression of

ft® remaining postulates «f #1® frtt8tratioo^ggra«si«m

d«aX irith tj© €lir©cti@a ©f a@^r98sl«Hi* It «HL be efficient, t©

'Sider the fourth m& flfHi tegetliery stoee tfeey art

fh» feur^i postald'te holds 1Siat "the stroagsst. iastiga.tiexi aroused

a frustration is to acts #£ aggressies diracfted agaiiet th© agent

to ton tl» scares ef -te frustrati^. ant progressisaly

are airouaai to pr©gie>«ss,±TO2jf less diarect aets «f.

2In *gK> aggressimg tte%. this would sms that the

t© ag^Bssion wmild be t© those aets directed tcrnard

(as.ffl3atog that cast®, frustration 'i® 1fce strongest frustration)* Ag-

p»ession iSp©et®€ tewarl whitos involves a strong antieipatioB of

from, whites in the case of direct overt agjgression. Direct covert

f

5f

# * no :wt5jci|»>/JL-.n of purV

i to not ex?«e<'«c! i-:» ** Kiec^-a'sxl aw cij';jpoprA« *v -K'.'i •/

*;:*»: i It it» dlwctad* •fttf.-r, ««»% tiO.M lufOy Wifct Ateci

fc3i wy:3d Ijq a ooa»i% 3f • wft 13» r» t c«f»% fawn «f 4

u&ori I« t"« .''"-r. t pan of t?

iS to 1» «,*s;»nsl*;afi for

fa*;Jar f»J?klc to ^lso .Vet d'^o:i;;i.a t

:j^.*Ai o£

*Ui* «^<M ho

:A.4i of a z'.xmam

to centre itc* &"tliort!c va2to> * ii -jossm la^lx>nl '-a :'^,:%x,^9 <xik-,; t#»

•xf^Mili ^O' tuln.ta#2 t«i ■(, 'ho c ..4»«i.-,i:li»ii of ,l?jx;o^ cavort a:.^;nlr/i Itos

an fcporfci --t pajiartli milt»# It la oujjcsjtffcxl ;o»|, ii«o# t&*

say Mve ar.1 5afXwa» Jr. dBtortf & d t

fi of fi;c»OTfc.n# 3»Mf a

% ^ tcud ta m®M. ay

forrs or smki^ gi^mtlWs mnpm'.XMg to

60

The lesser class ffegro, having less distaste for violence, vouM then be

more apt to exp»ss overt aggression than the mM&iM elass Iegro#

Class say ba fapartaat in d©t®wdrfi^ the direction of aggression,,

Hhe fflMdla or upper eiaaa Iegr% inhibited. 3a -tbe expression of aggres

sion toward the white caste,, should teal to direct some aggression toward

lower class legroea ©r tcwsri ot»rs 3a his class lir©ugh coi^>etition of

Ysri&m acrts, B» ■ HBter'ials ma»i in this thesis de aot IMicate niSiat

the inf3s»ac© ©f class night be upon the iirectton of a^»ssi<m| there-

f©ra# a© statement can be aaie suggesting it* A thorough

should consider 1fse point by searching for some relation between

reotien of aggpession and class S'truetaro.

Aggression turned teward the self^ vas not ob»rved during -fee £iei3A

stuij* Fes* this reason* n® suggestions eaa be made c-ommning it* TMs

is not meant to iiBp3j$ hurever^ that it does not oeetir among Ife^oes,

■feat it nay be insignificant*

Before a swam^ <£ tite fos»e^>tog discussion can be attempted, it

be app*©priate t# direct attention briefly tara?i the frustrations

by fegroea* The eTMem« telicates that -Biere are iftree

categories of frroteatioa ■rtiicli are eaq»rienc«d by the Ifegros

tration from the Ifegro group 3n ft© process of socialisation* (2) frus-

fcratim from the class syst«a within the leg?® gr©upr and (3) frustration

from the overall cast© «ystea« All ttjr^ are, ©f course*, related^ bat it

is convenient to categorise them far purposes of discussion*

#, pp* 46-50*

a.

Three problems present themselves In the study of the frustrations

experienced by •&© Sbgres (1) the possibility of demonstrating that

the three situations presented above ar® to reality frustrating, (2)

th® problem of distinguishing each ©f these three from the ©thers,

ani (3) the problem ©f d©Bi©nstratiag that these frustrations result ia

aggressions. Biis payer has indicated that Memoes do recognise toe

system as frustrating, and it has been suggested that aggressions @c*

c«a« ©©^relatively with caste frustration* Since the other frustrations

were not studied, no assumption can bo mad© of a direct causal relation

ship between aggression and caste frustration.

fheiher it is possible, to sociological study, to distinguish be

tween the three types oil frustration is not shenm by ^ ebservationg

aiad© in the present study. $£ a correlation ia found between expres

sion ©f aggression and social class, there is a basis for predicting

the occurrence of aggression in a given situation. The dynamics of

motivation, however, cannot be fully understood until it is known what

the true relationship between the frustration and the form of aggression

is. It would be impossible to say, for instance, to vmat extent aggres

sion within til® iegr© group is the result ©f frustration by th® Isgr©

group «r is a 4@fl®eti@n of aggression fr@itt ifaites t© other Isgroes*

Conceivably a portion of substitute aggressions (consMering the cast®

system as the frustration) are in reality direct aggrassious (resulting

from in-group fruaia-atlon). IMs paper is an attempt to design an oper

ational plan to study ani predict aggressions it is recognised as only

a first step, however, in the larger study of frustration and aggression*

62

la this chapter suggestion* for Bare ttoarlj operational staiy have

been snde* and cga®stione and possibilities have been IniieateiU It can

toe seen that ihea*® is a great mad for stwij ©f many aspects of frustra

tion ant aggression* the contribution of tikis paper is intended t© to

a des%B fear stii%feg 'Ifegpo affijpesfien* An «utliao gmaaxy shouM

to atate tlie design siore succinct^:

(1) A statistical sttt^* ©f sel«etei inifces sliouM be nada to

aia© if th«?e is a class structaa?© la tha greup studied. SliouM a class

structitre be found, class divisions nay be made on iA& basis oi" tliu dis

tribution of th® indicas usedi a tpi^oial dlstributisa ©f traits would

indicate' a ttoae-clasa growp*

(2) A field sttsfy should be made of fawas ©f aggression in tha' group.

Hentifieatlsa (^ t3» act ©f aggression with tfas iMivMnal expressing

it is necessary s© that th® act eaa bo compared uith the social class of

the individual ejq>reaaiiig it.

(3) i seattorgraia aiheuld be eonrtaaeted to deteiwitoe the

bet»«n social class and £era ©f aggreaalen. !Iha asaua^tion is that

social class is of i^@rtaae»j therefore* a positiva correlation

be tmmkm !Qui amount ©f cer»lati©n faras a basis for the reliabiliti

es? predicti©B ©f Urn occumussa of aggmgsioa,

(4) la aa ©ffort to understand tshs dyaaatos af agg»ssi©n, tha postu

late* ©f th« finistratioi>«ggrw(^im Jbypothesis shmM b© tasted} assuming

ihat thes^ is a positive carrel&tton of class and form ©f aggressioin* Htm

class factor should be used fcr a gymtma&iiG testing ©f the postulates*

(5) fejrend the scopt of this design, but of 3jsf>©rtame for adequate

63

study, la the atsMj of frustration. Jrturtratlon ahouM be investigated

to determine $£ it results from socialization of the Negrc^ c3asa status

of tlie Ifegro, or lie caste system* The postulates of ths frustration-

aggression hyp©thesi» are again of isportaace to ataijlag the re3ation

betseen each of the categories of frustration (ahouM it be possible to

dijttingujbsh between them operatijonally) arji fiw forms of aggression

It Is hoped that 1fai» design^ together with the f©urfoM claasifica-

tion of &££»ssAdii positei herein, will lie of value in future study* It

is suggested that sodifieatiDns of the design nay possibly "be of aM to

studying aggression in ©fefcer ^oups* An attenpt was naie throttghout the

thesis t© be specific for studying only Hegro aggression in a particular

ar©a# hoover,- ®x& no further claims can be or ali©mM be made ooi»«rning

other usm «f the design. Designs of this typet adapted to the area aai

situation t© be studied* provide a useful wmm tee approaching opera

tional stady#

BXBLXDGRAH1X

BOOKS

Chase, Stuart, The ..ftf^eg.Study .@£.. MaurafcljE^.» Mnr Yorkt Harper &Brothers, i$$$"r' '

Cooley, Charles Herton, Robert Cooley Angall, and Lowell Juilllard

Carr, Ihtgafetfry Seciel®gy» New Y®rks Charts Scribnsr1® Sons.

1933.

Bsllard, John, Caste and Class in a fk>utiiern Town, 2M Mitloaj Hew

YA Harper'&'Brothers, 3$48# ' " '""' '"'

otters, irttatratljBn and Jkggcesslon^ Hew Havsn, C©a-

Tale fi£^'"lS" I93^T1" '''""'"""

, ^rtram Wilbur, She Etiquette @f flace delations in ih@ South>Chiestg©: B» Universi^ «f iSbibag* #resat, 1937,

Gallagher, BueH Gordon, American ^ Caste »M_ the Negra CoUage,

Yetvkt CsluMbia UniversityTres%" Ib^V "" '

Ghurye, Qovind Sadashiv, Caate and fiaee to Ihiia, Msw York: Alfred

Griftin, J©hn, ThB.Wa^-a ef Msn> tor lorks Applst©n--G©Rtar^-CroftsfInc., 1943,

, Isacque, and Stewart Henierson acitt, Jews in a Gentile World,Ifew Yorkt The loMHan Ce^any, 19^2. -—-—-—-—-—-—-----—---

Johnson, Charles Spurgeon, ^gffing^^.in the Black Belt« Washington,

D, C# i Awerican Council on Education,' 1941'

"• Patterns ®f Ifegre Segrejation. 3rd Editionilew York* Harper & Brathers, 1943.

Kroeber, A, I»»a' jtethrepelegy. Mew Edition^ Ifeir York: Hareaiarfe, BBrace

ani Coa^any," Il9^S»

Mnton, Ralffc, The Study of Man, Ifew Yorks D. Ap|>leton«C©ntttry1936.

Idppmann- Walter, Public Op±ni©n, New Yorki Hareourt. Brace and

'1922.

%rdal, Gonnar, An American Bilamna. New York* Harper & Brothers, 1944,

65

Bartons** After Fswetiouw Bav forks 3» tfilciog

g9 Saul* "An Qntl&ie «f Prostration theney** to 4« Ite¥« itoafet

editor* f^apitalite jgjtjjlg ,^|»^gmgago«i«eg« 2 tols»f ifew lark*

vm

5§tilhf f« Ifaig ^» jSggjUgLojgt;, <&J^SLmM|,f« *T-I^ai edition} Jfe»

torkt lteiJril¥llKW7''^^lllul'l"i'"1"1''1""'

f«y '

K13K5BICILS

ZSTZZX <Atlgr# 3.94%

Stovart: Ke.ol^.rooM, and Sidney Q» ^teuo# "Criteria at

% fJagg* MIMifi£3tt0n of g p

teat to stmly hestUa lofc«r»i«eiB3. attitafiest11 :JciuyiiaI of«» ( 1) 2^2 ~™-i..,LJ_

j! inlng io»& mbA Jo»pb Qrosflligbt. "^feet of -%bstitete Activity

as tepaniing upon the iatve at the Slailarit^f stefe^aoa aibsti'cnts ai

226-^9. " *—*"■"""—""—

Coopsrf Jtobort Z% ••frusteations rf1 Iteln® a ie*@r of a ^ ^

does it tt® to the feiiirldttal ;twi -to hi« ffelatioa*iS# with Other

Hoi ^rn Caut^ !?cfeo0l ©f %

J©tab "HoatUlly m imr Id ^oial fctf©/ gpeialCOtote 193S) 1535Mil {r-tljmr, 193S)t 15-35*

S«i jitowlts ef

m

iwlaai# Csrl lmv9 and :a.«rt ft* Seaxs* ••liner Studios e£ Aggressions

J tefckh.a t£ ignofeia«s tlth Bi X&toV1 jjHBfe <jffa S£ (October, 1940)

Sosaao Ifeyiaoal Fredcuuch* "Soil* of Frustrotl n to ffeeJtelC 38) *4

(July* 1941),

and

KU3«rf llsal S.f «md ittdmM itoi^iafci, "Miner StaUM rf Aggrmalont% iriflustice ©f FraotratioBS loosed ^ ^e &»&«ap @a Attltutis*

g wl Hot* ©a

aal his Isaociate*,* Paycfwtofifita flmi,mm WI

S

, iiortoust# "Oaawlliig rf lisgr© &g#«ssifla Iqr tta

9m tmaAcm Jwynai, «C SajejalB^fa ZWill C* 3f4758.

to lf«e*»Perfi«tiw a«^ Eg©-.»f«a»iw Awotlcaw to

of Sxpeyt^gtal rs:,t;;;olo y^ XXXXX (Jam«yf 1943)§

«t F«8trat£o%# Cltaigctgy ani

1938) $ l$b£

iiomWmmlg9 Saul* P1^ PietttWwtoaociatiea lettiod ami itsa Staiy of Heftetioi«i to FiWBtaeatton**1 *^ ^f

t <tJ 1945)* >33

of te&ctlcn to Frtwtntisn^*1 Joui-iial -of

B (Oetobw, 1934)» 298«3t»».

S. ?3teitf#M, ".^aetloa to Fanutsruilim - AS.

9 Itefesirfe S»-t. GnA Iwr 8ovI&ai* «nd Isal E» lOiJUtr* "ttSaov StuUsoof %g»»stoat Z» Ht«»tre»nnit of /i Bil1* J^lS, XX

m

Stars* Setart 8»t «ad P»oliai Santeea Sears, "Ittaear Studies of Aggressions

¥» Stnmgth of fraiftratiott fraction sa a Function «f Strength of

1 JeaagnaX of PycMtog, IX {.%pt»ritep» )

XXffXXX CJaly, If41),

j| Chaeo*

I, C^ptemfcer, 1943)• 505-513.

ghjUUMj^teal Sog;tet%^Gm®&kiggp ttHIV (April, 1942),

lf« Xlxqfd* *A»ricaa Cast* ani CM«i#l* Ag»'rfje.an J'cwmwJL «f.

ZLXI ( # 2 " " " '

^ A, f# *Is ael%l»c# Bthavinr Itep«dent %©n Affect or

tl©n?tw jroqroal of. MhrnrmX ¥s$cik@l®ff» ZXJX (Julj, 2.947)»

I. Srik* 8CoastiiictIv«n©s» of Plajr as Affected by Greap gl« and fntatimtton,11 Charactor aad Pgr8@BalltrB II (Septoobor.

if42), 40-49. ""^ ' '

® «f Frustration Opoa Hio facial fl8.lstioas

( )of Ibung aSMwn," (aaractoir.and Bargenality, ¥ (SootoadMKr. 1943)*111122 " : ' ' ' n