the experiment chapter 7. doing experiments in everyday life experiments in psychology use the same...
TRANSCRIPT
The Experiment
Chapter 7
Doing Experiments In Everyday Life
• Experiments in psychology use the same logic that guides experiments in biology or engineering.
• Experimental research is strongest for testing causal relationships.
• Experiments most clearly satisfy the three conditions needed to demonstrate causality—temporal order, association, and no alternative explanations.
Doing Experiments In Everyday Life
• You can do two types of comparisons:1. Before-and-after comparison
2. Side-by-side comparison
• You do three things in an experiment: 1. Start with a cause-effect hypothesis,
2. Modify a situation or introduce a change,
3. Compare outcomes with and without the modification.
What Questions Can You Answer With the Experimental
Method?• Research questions most appropriate for
an experiment fit its strengths and limitations. These include:– a clear and simple logic,– the ability to isolate a causal mechanism, – targeted on two or three variables and narrow
in scope, – limited by practical and ethical aspects of the
situations you can impose on humans.
Why Assign People Randomly?
• The purpose of random assignment is to create equivalent groups. – Random Assignment = Sort research
participants into two or more groups in a mathematically random process.
• Matching versus Random Assignment – True matching on more than one or two
characteristics is nearly impossible.
Do You Speak The Language Of Experimental Design?
• A true experiment includes:1. Independent variable 2. Dependent variable3. Pretest
• Pretest = A measure of the dependent variable prior to introducing the independent variable in an experiment.
4. Posttest• Posttest = A measure of the dependent
variable after the independent variable has been introduced in an experiment.
Do You Speak The Language Of Experimental Design?
• A true experiment includes (cont):5. Experimental group
• Experimental group = In an experiment with multiple groups, a group of participants that receives the independent variable or a high level of it.
6. Control group• Control Group = In an experiment with multiple
groups, a group of participants that does not receive the independent variable or a very low level of it.
7. Random assignment
• Types of Experimental Design– Independent group design = Experimental
designs in which you use two or more groups and each gets a different level of the independent variable.
– Repeated Measures Design = An experimental design with a single participant group but that receives different levels of the independent variable.
Do You Speak The Language Of Experimental Design?
• Steps in Conducting an Experiment1.Begin with a straightforward hypothesis
appropriate for experimental research.
2.Decide on an experimental design to test the hypothesis within practical limitations.
3.Decide how to introduce the independent variable.
4.Develop a valid and reliable measure of the dependent variable.
5.Set up an experimental setting and conduct a pilot test of the variables.
6.Locate appropriate participants.
Do You Speak The Language Of Experimental Design?
• Steps in Conducting an Experiment (cont.)7. Randomly assign participants to groups and give
careful instructions.8. Gather data for the pretest measure of the dependent
variable.9. Introduce the independent variable to the experimental
group only and monitor all groups.10.Gather data for posttest measure of the dependent
variable.11.Debrief the participants. 12.Examine data collected and make comparisons
between different groups using statistics to determine whether the data support the hypothesis.
Do You Speak The Language Of Experimental Design?
Do You Speak The Language Of Experimental Design?
• Managing Experiments– Isolation of effects of independent variable– Elimination of alternative explanations– Confederates = people who work for an
experimenter and mislead participants by pretending to be another participant or an uninvolved bystander.
Do You Speak The Language Of Experimental Design?
• Types of Experimental Design– Experimental design = How parts of an
experiment are arranged, often in one of the standard configurations.
– True Experimental Designs– Classical experimental design = An
experimental design that has all key elements that strengthen its internal validity: random assignment, control and experimental groups, and pretest and protest
Do You Speak The Language Of Experimental Design?
• Types of Experimental Design– True Experimental Designs
– Factorial Design = An experimental design in which you examine the impact of combinations of two or more independent variable conditions.
– Main Effects = The effect of a single independent variable on a dependent variable.
– Interaction Effects = The effect of two or more independent variables in combination on a dependent variable that is beyond or different from the effect that each has alone.
Do You Speak The Language Of Experimental Design?
• Pre-experimental designs = Experimental designs that lack one or more parts of the classical experimental design. – One-Shot Case Study Design. (one-group
posttest-only design) – One-Group Pretest-Posttest Design. – Static Group Comparison. (posttest-only
nonequivalent group design).
Do You Speak The Language Of Experimental Design?
• Quasi-experimental Designs = Experimental Designs that approximate the strengths of the classical experimental design but do not contain all its parts. – Interrupted Time Series. – Equivalent Time Series.
Do You Speak The Language Of Experimental Design?
• Design notation = A symbol system to express the parts of an experimental design with X, O and R. – O = observation of dependent variable– X = independent variable– R = random assignment.
Experimental Validity Inside And Out
• Looking at an Experiment’s Internal Validity– Internal Validity = The ability to state that the
independent variable was the one sure cause that produced a change in the dependent variable.
Experimental Validity Inside And Out
• Threats to Internal Validity1. Selection Bias
2. History
3. Maturation
4. Testing5. Experimental Mortality (humanity / death etc.)
6. Contamination or Diffusion of Treatment
Experimental Validity Inside And Out
• Threats to Internal Validity7. Experimenter Expectancy
• Double blind experiment = An experimental design to control experimenter expectancy in which the researcher does not have direct contact with participants. All contact is through assistants from whom some details are withheld.
• Placebo = A false or non-effective independent variable given to mislead participants.
Experimental Validity Inside And Out
• External Validity and Field Experiments– External validity = An ability to generalize
experimental findings to events and settings beyond the experimental setting itself.
– Threats to external validity:• Participants are not representative • Artificial setting • Artificial treatment
Experimental Validity Inside And Out
• External Validity and Field Experiments– Threats to external validity (cont)
• Reactivity = participants modifying their behavior because they are aware that they are in a study.
– Hawthorne effect = a type of experimental reactivity in which participants change due to their awareness of being in a study and the attention they receive from researchers.
Experimental Validity Inside And Out
• External Validity and Field Experiments– Field experiment = An experiment that takes
place in a natural setting and over which experimenters have limited control.
• Less internal validity• More external validity
Experimental Validity Inside And Out
Seven Threats to INTERNAL VALIDITY
Four Threats to EXTERNAL VALIDITY
1. Selection1. Participants not representative
2. History 2. Artifical setting
3. Maturation 3. Artifical treatment
4. Testing 4. Reactivity
5. Experimental Morality
6. Contamination
7. Experimenter Expectancy
Experimental Validity Inside And Out
• Natural experiments = Events that were not initially planned to be experiments but permitted measures and comparisons that allowed the use of an experimental logic.
• Also called ex post facto—after the fact
Experimental Validity Inside And Out
• Practical techniques to carry out effective experiments 1. Planning and Pilot Tests2. Instructions to Participants 3. Post-experiment Interview
• Debrief = An interview or talk with participants after an experiment ends in which you remove deception if used and try to learn how they understood the experimental situation
How To Be Ethical In Experiments
• Experimenters must carefully consult with research boards/bodies
• Deception (trick etc.) is acceptable BUT dishonesty is NOT!– Debriefing is a MUST.